Globalization has occurred in multiple phases throughout history. Some scholars trace early forms of globalization to trade links between ancient civilizations like Sumer and the Indus Valley in the 3rd millennium BC. During the Hellenistic Age, an early form of economic and cultural globalization existed centered around Greek culture from India to Spain. The advent of major empires like the Mongol Empire and the establishment of trade routes like the Silk Road further connected the Old World. Modern globalization began with European colonialism and expansion in the 16th-17th centuries. It accelerated in the 19th century due to industrialization, population growth, and European imperialism. The post-World War 2 era saw a resurgence of
Globalization has occurred in multiple phases throughout history. Some scholars trace early forms of globalization to trade links between ancient civilizations like Sumer and the Indus Valley in the 3rd millennium BC. During the Hellenistic Age, an early form of economic and cultural globalization existed centered around Greek culture from India to Spain. The advent of major empires like the Mongol Empire and the establishment of trade routes like the Silk Road further connected the Old World. Modern globalization began with European colonialism and expansion in the 16th-17th centuries. It accelerated in the 19th century due to industrialization, population growth, and European imperialism. The post-World War 2 era saw a resurgence of
Globalization has occurred in multiple phases throughout history. Some scholars trace early forms of globalization to trade links between ancient civilizations like Sumer and the Indus Valley in the 3rd millennium BC. During the Hellenistic Age, an early form of economic and cultural globalization existed centered around Greek culture from India to Spain. The advent of major empires like the Mongol Empire and the establishment of trade routes like the Silk Road further connected the Old World. Modern globalization began with European colonialism and expansion in the 16th-17th centuries. It accelerated in the 19th century due to industrialization, population growth, and European imperialism. The post-World War 2 era saw a resurgence of
subject of on-going debate. Though several scholars situate the origins of globalization in the modern era, others regard it as a phenomenon with a long history.[14] Perhaps the most extreme proponent of a deep historical origin for globalization was Andre Gunder Frank, an economist associated with dependency theory. Frank argued that a form of globalization has been in existence since the rise of trade links between Sumer and the Indus Valley Civilization in the third millennium B.C.[15] Critics of this idea contend that it rests upon an over-broad definition of globalization. An early form of globalized economics and culture, known as archaic globalization, existed during the Hellenistic Age, when commercialized urban centers were focused around the axis of Greek culture over a wide range that stretched from India to Spain, with such cities as Alexandria, Athens, and Antioch at its center. Others have perceived an early form of globalization in the trade links between the Roman Empire, the Parthian Empire, and the Han Dynasty. The increasing articulation of commercial links between these powers inspired the development of the Silk Road, which started in western China, reached the boundaries of the Parthian empire, and continued onwards towards Rome.[16] With 300 Greek ships a year sailing between the Greco-Roman world and India, the annual trade may have reached 300,000 tons.[17] The Islamic Golden Age was also an important early stage of globalization, when Jewish and Muslim traders and explorers established a sustained economy across the Old World resulting in a globalization of crops, trade, knowledge and technology. Globally significant crops such as sugar and cotton became widely cultivated across the Muslim world in this period, while the necessity of learning Arabic and completing the Hajj created a cosmopolitan culture.[18] Portuguese carrack in Nagasaki, 17th century Japanese Nanban art Native New World crops exchanged globally: Maize, tomato, potato, vanilla,rubber, cacao, tobacco The advent of the Mongol Empire, though destabilizing to the commercial centers of the
Middle East and China, greatly facilitated travel
along the Silk Road. The Pax Mongolica of the thirteenth century had several other notable globalizing effects. It witnessed the creation of the first international postal service, as well as the rapid transmission of epidemic diseases such as bubonic plague across the newly unified regions of Central Asia.[19] These premodern phases of global or hemispheric exchange are sometimes known as archaic globalization. Up to the sixteenth century, however, even the largest systems of international exchange were limited to the Old World. The next phase, known as proto-globalization, was characterized by the rise of maritime European empires, in the 16th and 17th centuries, first the Portuguese and Spanish Empires, and later the Dutch and British Empires. In the 17th century, globalization became also a private business phenomenon when chartered companies like British East India Company (founded in 1600), often described as the first multinational corporation, as well as the Dutch East India Company (founded in 1602) were established. The Age of Discovery brought a broad change in globalization, being the first period in which Eurasia and Africa engaged in substantial cultural, material and biologic exchange with the New World.[20] It began in the late 15th century, when the two Kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula Portugal and Castile sent the first exploratory voyages[21] around the Horn of Africa and to the Americas, "discovered" in 1492 by Christopher Columbus. Global integration continued with the European colonization of the Americas initiating the Columbian Exchange,[22] the enormous widespread exchange of plants, animals, foods, human populations (including slaves), communicable diseases, and culture between the Eastern and Western hemispheres. New crops that had come from the Americas via the European seafarers in the 16th century significantly contributed to the world's population growth.[23] Animated map showing Colonial empires evolution from 1492 to present 19th century Great Britain become the first global economic superpower, because of superior manufacturing technology and
improved global communications such as
steamships and railroads. The 19th century witnessed the advent of globalization approaching its modern form. Industrialization allowed cheap production of household items using economies of scale, [citation needed] while rapid population growth created sustained demand for commodities. Globalization in this period was decisively shaped by nineteenth-century imperialism. After the First and Second Opium Wars and the completion of British conquest of India, vast populations of these regions became ready consumers of European exports. It was in this period that areas of sub-Saharan Africa and the Pacific islands were incorporated into the world system. Meanwhile, the conquest of new parts of the globe, notably sub-Saharan Africa, by Europeans yielded valuable natural resources such as rubber, diamonds and coal and helped fuel trade and investment between the European imperial powers, their colonies, and the United States.[24] The first phase of "modern globalization" began to break down at the beginning of the 20th century, with World War I, but resurfaced after World War II. This resurgence was partly the result of planning by politicians to break down borders hampering trade. Their work led to the Bretton Woods conference, an agreement by the world's leading politicians to lay down the framework for international commerce and finance, and the founding of several international institutions intended to oversee the processes of globalization. Globalization was also driven by the global expansion of multinational corporations based in the United States and Europe, and worldwide exchange of new developments in science, technology and products, with most significant inventions of this time having their origins in the Western world according to Encyclopedia Britannica.[25] Worldwide export of western culture went through the new mass media: film, radio and television and recorded music. Development and growth of international transport and telecommunication played a decisive role in modern globalization. These institutions include the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank), and the International Monetary Fund. Globalization has been facilitated by advances in technology which have reduced
the costs of trade, and trade negotiation
rounds, originally under the auspices of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which led to a series of agreements to remove restrictions on free trade. Since World War II, barriers to international trade have been considerably lowered through international agreements GATT and its successor, the World Trade Organization (WTO). World exports rose from 8.5% in 1970, to 16.2% of total gross world product in 2001.[26] In the 1990s, the growth of low cost communication networks allowed work done using a computer to be moved to low wage locations for many job types. This included accounting, software development, and engineering design. In late 2000s, much of the industrialized world entered into a deep recession.[27] Some analysts say the world is going through a period of deglobalization after years of increasing economic integration.[28] [29] China has recently[when?] become the world's largest exporter surpassing Germany Globalization has various aspects which affect the world in several different ways Industrial Emergence of worldwide production markets and broader access to a range of foreign products for consumers and companies, particularly movement of material and goods between and within national boundaries. International trade in manufactured goods has increased more than 100 times (from $95 billion to $12 trillion) since 1955.[38] China's trade with Africa rose sevenfold during 2000 07 alone Financial Emergence of worldwide financial markets and better access to external financing for borrowers. By the early part of the 21st century more than $1.5 trillion in national currencies were traded daily to support the expanded levels of trade and investment.[41] Economic Realization of a global common market, based on the freedom of exchange of goods and capital.[42] Survival in the new global business market calls for improved productivity and increased competition. Due to the market becoming worldwide, companies in various industries have to upgrade their products and use
technology skilfully in order to face increased
competition. Political The United Nations Headquarters in New York City. The development of globalization has wideranging impacts on political developments, which particularly go along with the decrease of the importance of the state. Through the creation of sub-state and supra-state institutions such as the EU, the WTO, the G8 or the International Criminal Court, the state loses power of policy making and thus sovereignty. [44] However, many see the relative decline in US power as being based in globalization, particularly due to its high trade imbalance. The consequence of this is a global power shift towards Asian states, particularly China, that has seen tremendous growth rates. In fact, current estimates claim that China's economy will overtake that of the United States by 2025 Informational Increase in information flows between geographically remote locations. Arguably this is a technological change with the advent of fibre optic communications, satellites, and increased availability of telephone and Internet. Language The most spoken first language is Mandarin (845 million speakers) followed by Spanish (329 million speakers) and English (328 million speakers).[46] However the most popular second language is undoubtedly English, the "lingua franca" of globalization: About 35% of the world's mail, telexes, and cables are in English.Approximately 40% of the world's radio programs are in English.English is the dominant language on the Internet.[47] EcologicalThe advent of global environmental challenges that might be solved with international cooperation, such as climate change, cross-boundary water and air pollution, over-fishing of the ocean, and the spread of invasive species. Since many factories are built in developing countries with less environmental regulation, globalism and free trade may increase pollution and impact on precious fresh water resources(Hoekstra and Chapagain 2008).[48] On the other hand, economic development historically required a "dirty" industrial stage, and it is argued that developing countries should not, via regulation,
be prohibited from increasing their standard of
living. Cultural Globalization has influenced the use of language across the world. This street in Hong Kong, a former British colony, shows various signs, a few of which incorporate both Chinese and British English. Growth of cross-cultural contacts; advent of new categories of consciousness and identities which embodies cultural diffusion, the desire to increase one's standard of living and enjoy foreign products and ideas, adopt new technology and practices, and participate in a "world culture".[49] Some bemoan the resulting consumerism and loss of languages. Also see Transformation of culture. This might also affect the spreading of multiculturalism, and better individual access to cultural diversity (e.g. through the export of Hollywood) [50]. Some consider such "imported" culture a danger, since it may supplant the local culture, causing reduction in diversity or even assimilation. Others consider multiculturalism to promote peace and understanding between people. A third position that gained popularity is the notion of multiculturalism forming a new monoculture, that in which no distinctions exist and everyone shifts between various lifestyles in terms of music, cloth and other aspects once more firmly attached to a single culture. Thus not mere cultural assimilation as mentioned above but the obliteration of culture as we know it today.[51][52] Greater international travel and tourism. WHO estimates that up to 500,000 people are on planes at any one time. [citation needed][53] In 2008, there were over 922 million international tourist arrivals, with a growth of 1.9% as compared to 2007.[54] Greater immigration,[55] including illegal immigration.[56] The IOM estimates there are more than 200 million migrants around the world today.[57] Newly available data show that remittance flows to developing countries reached $328 billion in 2008.[58] Spread of local consumer products (e.g., food) to other countries (often adapted to their culture). Worldwide fads and pop culture such as Pokmon, Sudoku, Numa Numa, Origami, Idol series, YouTube, Orkut, Facebook, and Myspace; accessible only to those who have Internet or
Television, leaving out a substantial portion of
the Earth's population. The construction of continental hotels is a major consequence of globalization process in affiliation with tourism and travel industry, Dariush Grand Hotel, Kish, Iran worldwide sporting events such as FIFA World Cup and the Olympic Games. Incorporation of multinational corporations into new media. As the sponsors of the All-Blacks rugby team, Adidas had created a parallel website with a downloadable interactive rugby game for its fans to play and compete.[59] Social development of the system of nongovernmental organizations as main agents of global public policy, including humanitarian aid and developmental efforts.[60] Technical Central aspect of globalisation has been the development of a Global Information System, and greater transborder data flow, using such technologies as the Internet, communication satellites, submarine fiber optic cable, and wireless telephones, which increased the number of standards applied globally (e.g., copyright laws, patents and world trade agreements) but also affects Legal/Ethical norms such as the creation of the international criminal court and international justice movements, crime importation and raising awareness of global crime-fighting efforts and cooperation, the emergence of Global administrative law. Religious The spread and increased interrelations of various religious groups, ideas, and practices and their ideas of the meanings and values of particular spaces.[61] Cultural effects Japanese McDonald's fast food as evidence of corporate globalization and the integration of the same into different cultures. "Culture" is defined as patterns of human activity and the symbols that give these activities significance. According to prevailing notions, globalization has 'joined' different cultures and turned them into something different.[62] The dominant view stresses that globalization should be distinguished from Americanization. This approach has been used since the late 1980s to conceal the unidirectional, top-down character of US-led globalization as it was being relentlessly
imposed on the rest of the world. Recently, this
view has been challenged by highlighting globalization's irradiating pattern as largely derived from decisions originally taken in Washington, D.C., particularly in the economic and cultural fields. Culinary culture has become extensively globalized. For example, Japanese noodles, Swedish meatballs, Indian curry and French cheese have become popular outside their countries of origin. Two American companies, McDonald's and Starbucks, are often cited as examples of globalization, with over 31,000 and 18,000 locations operating worldwide, respectively. Another common practice brought about by globalization is the usage of Chinese characters in tattoos. These tattoos are popular with today's youth despite the lack of social acceptance of tattoos in China.[64] Also, there is a lack of comprehension in the meaning of Chinese characters that people get,[65] making this an example of cultural appropriation. The internet breaks down cultural boundaries across the world by enabling easy, nearinstantaneous communication between people anywhere in a variety of digital forms and media. The Internet is associated with the process of cultural globalization because it allows interaction and communication between people with very different lifestyles and from very different cultures. Photo sharing websites allow interaction even where language would otherwise be a barrier. Democratizing effect of communications Exchange of information via the internet is playing a major role in the democratization of many countries Virtualization of industries since the dawn of ecommerce has transferred the power to the buyer, and the same effect has transitioned into voting systems by the grouping effect of social media. Economic liberalization Further information: Neoliberalism According to Jagdish Bhagwati, a former adviser to the U.N. on globalization, although there are obvious problems with overly rapid development, globalization is a very positive force that lifts countries out of poverty. According to him, it causes a virtual economic cycle associated with faster economic growth. [67]
Workers in developing countries now have
more occupational choices than ever before. Educated workers in developing countries are able to compete on the global job market for high paying jobs. Production workers in developing countries are not only able to compete, they have a strong advantage over their counterparts in the industrialized world. [68] This translates into increased opportunity. Workers have the choice of emigrating and taking jobs in industrial countries or staying at home to work in outsourced industries. In addition, the global economy provides a market for the products of cottage industry, providing more opportunities.[67] Globalization has generated significant international opposition over concerns that it has increased inequality and environmental degradation.[69] In the Midwestern United States, globalization has eaten away at its competitive edge in industry and agriculture, lowering the quality of life. Some also view the effect of globalization on culture as a rising concern. Along with globalization of economies and trade, culture is being imported and exported as well. The concern is that the stronger, bigger countries such as the United States, may overrun the other, smaller countries' cultures, leading to those customs and values fading away. This process is also sometimes referred to as Americanization or McDonaldization. [71] Jobs Income inequalityThe globalization of the job market has had negative consequences in developed countries. Mind workers (engineers, attorneys, scientists, professors, executives, journalists, consultants) are able to compete successfully in the world market and command high wages. Conversely, production workers and service workers in industrialized nations are unable to compete directly with workers in third world countries.[72] Workflow changes so that poor countries gain the lowvalue-added element of work formerly done in rich countries, while higher-value work is retained; for instance, the total number of people employed in manufacturing in the USA declined, but there were great increases in value added per worker.[73] This has resulted in a growing gap between the incomes of the rich and poor. This trend seems to be greater in the United States than other
industrial countries. Income inequality in the
United States started to rise in the late 1970s, however the rate of increase rose sharply in the 21st century; it has now reached a level comparable with that found in developing countries.[74] (Cf. The impact of the information age on the workforce) Brain drains Opportunities in rich countries drive talent away from poor countries, leading to brain drains. Brain drain has cost the African continent over $4.1 billion in the employment of 150,000 expatriate professionals annually. [75] The Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry (Assocham) estimates that the brain drain of India cost India $10 billion per year.[76] A maquila in Mexico Sweatshops In many poorer nations, globalization is the result of foreign businesses utilizing workers in a country to take advantage of the lower wage rates. One example used by anti-globalization protestors is the use of sweatshops by manufacturers. According to Global Exchange these "Sweat Shops" are widely used by sports shoe manufacturers and mentions one company in particular NikeThere are factories set up in the poor countries where employees agree to work for lower wages than would be required in richer countries. Several agencies have been set up worldwide specifically designed to focus on antisweatshop campaigns and education of such. In the USA, the National Labor Committee has proposed a number of bills as part of Decent Working Conditions and Fair Competition Act, which have thus far failed in Congress. The legislation would legally require companies to respect human and worker rights by prohibiting the import, sale, or export of sweatshop goods Specifically, these core standards include no child labor, no forced labor, freedom of association, right to organize and bargain collectively, as well as the right to decent working conditions Business process outsourcing Main article: Business process outsourcing In the rich world, business process outsourcing has, like most other arms of globalisation, been a double-edged sword; it enables cheaper services but displaces some service-sector
jobs. However, in poorer countries to which
service jobs are outsourced, the benefits have been unambiguous; in India, the outsourcing industry is the "primary engine of the countrys development over the next few decades, contributing broadly to GDP growth, employment growth, and poverty alleviation". [80][81] Natural resources Air In 2007, China surpassed the United States as the top emitter of CO2.[82] Only 1 percent of the countrys 560 million city inhabitants (2007) breathe air deemed safe by the European Union. Burning forest in Brazil. The removal of forest to make way for cattle ranching was the leading cause of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon from the mid 1960s. Recently,[when?] soybeans have become one of the most important contributors to deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon.[83] Forests A major source of deforestation is the logging industry, driven spectacularly by China and Japan.[84] China and India are quickly becoming large oil consumers.[85][86] China has seen oil consumption grow by 8% yearly since 2002, doubling from 19962006.[87] State of the World 2006 report said the two countries' high economic growth hid a reality of severe pollution. The report states: The world's ecological capacity is simply insufficient to satisfy the ambitions of China, India, Japan, Europe and the United States as well as the aspirations of the rest of the world in a sustainable way At present rates, tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in 10 years, Papua New Guinea in 13 to 16 years Minerals Without more recycling, zinc could be used up by 2037, both indium and hafnium could run out by 2017, and terbium could be gone before 2012.[90] In a 2006 news story, BBC reported, "...if China and India were to consume as much resources per capita as United States or Japan in 2030 together they would require a full planet Earth to meet their needs.[88] In the longterm these effects can lead to increased conflict over dwindling resources[91] and in the worst case a Malthusian catastrophe.
Effects of population growth on food
supplies The head of the International Food Policy Research Institute, stated in 2008 that the gradual change in diet among newly prosperous populations is the most important factor underpinning the rise in global food prices.[92] From 1950 to 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the world, grain production increased by over 250%.[93] The world population has grown by about 4 billion since the beginning of the Green Revolution and most believe that, without the Revolution, there would be greater famine and malnutrition than the UN presently documents (approximately 850 million people suffering from chronic malnutrition in 2005). It is becoming increasingly difficult to maintain food security in a world beset by a confluence of "peak" phenomena, namely peak oil, peak water, peak phosphorus, peak grain and peak fish. Growing populations, falling energy sources and food shortages will create the "perfect storm" by 2030, according to the UK government chief scientist. He said food reserves are at a 50-year low but the world requires 50% more energy, food and water by 2030.[96][97] The world will have to produce 70% more food by 2050 to feed a projected extra 2.3 billion people and as incomes rise, the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) warned.[98] Social scientists have warned of the possibility that global civilization is due for a period of contraction and economic re-localization, due to the decline in fossil fuels and resulting crisis in transportation and food production.[99][100] [101] One paper even suggested that the future might even bring about a restoration of sustainable local economic activities based on hunting and gathering, shifting horticulture, and pastoralism.[102] In 2003, 29% of open sea fisheries were in a state of collapse.[103] The journal Science published a four-year study in November 2006, which predicted that, at prevailing trends, the world would run out of wild-caught seafood in 2048.[104] Health Further information: Globalization and disease Globalization has also helped to spread some of the deadliest infectious diseases known to humans.[105] Starting in Asia, the Black Death
killed at least one-third of Europe's population
in the 14th century.[106] Even worse devastation was inflicted on the American supercontinent by European arrivals. 90% of the populations of the civilizations of the "New World" such as the Aztec, Maya, and Inca were killed by small pox brought by European colonization. Modern modes of transportation allow more people and products to travel around the world at a faster pace, but they also open the airways to the transcontinental movement of infectious disease vectors.[107] One example of this occurring is AIDS/HIV.[108] Due to immigration, approximately 500,000 people in the United States are believed to be infected with Chagas disease.[109] In 2006, the tuberculosis (TB) rate among foreign-born persons in the United States was 9.5 times that of U.S.-born persons.[110] Global market Expansion A flood of consumer goods such as televisions, radios, bicycles, and textiles into the United States, Europe, and Japan has helped fuel the economic expansion of Asian tiger economies in recent decades.[111] However, Chinese textile and clothing exports have recently[when?] encountered criticism from Europe. This criticism has been settling after Beijing and Brussels reached a compromise. Still in 2004, EU China sold textiles worth about 514 million euros, while the value of Chinese apparel exports to the EU amounted to 16 billion euros and these mighty exports from China results job losses. In France, ceased to exist about 7 thousand. Positions in Spain 70 thousand, about 200 thousand in Italy.[112] the United States and some African countries.[113] [114] As of 26 April 2005 Asia Times article notes that, "In regional giant South Africa, some 300,000 textile workers have lost their jobs in the past two years due to the influx of Chinese goods".[115] The increasing U.S. trade deficit with China has cost 2.4 million American jobs between 2001 and 2008, according to a study by the Economic Policy Institute (EPI). [116] From 2000 to 2007, the United States had lost a total of 3.2 million manufacturing jobs.[117] A report issued in 2007 by PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP predicted that by 2050 the economies of the E7 emerging economies (the BRIC countries: China, India,
Brazil, and Russia, plus Mexico, Indonesia and
Turkey) will be around 50% larger than the current G7 (US, Japan, Germany, UK, France, Italy and Canada). China is expected to overtake the US as the largest economy around 2025, while India will overtake the US in 2050. [118] A more recent report issued by Goldman Sachs that was compiled after China released their GDP growth figures for 2009 predicted that China is about to overtake Japan and may become the world's largest economy by 2020. [119] (See the entry on BRIC for more details) Financial interdependency The world today is so interconnected that the collapse of the subprime mortgage market in the U.S. led to a global financial crisis and recession on a scale not seen since the Great Depression.[120] According to critics, government deregulation and failed regulation of Wall Street's investment banks were important contributors to the subprime mortgage crisis.[121][122] Drug and illicit goods trade The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) issued a report that the global drug trade generates more than $320 billion a year in revenues.[123] Worldwide, the UN estimates there are more than 50 million regular users of heroin, cocaine and synthetic drugs.[124] The international trade of endangered species is second only to drug trafficking.[125] Traditional Chinese medicine often incorporates ingredients from all parts of plants, the leaf, stem, flower, root, and also ingredients from animals and minerals. The use of parts of endangered species (such as seahorses, rhinoceros horns, saiga antelope horns, and tiger bones and claws) has created controversy and resulted in a black market of poachers who hunt restricted animals. "Anti-globalization" can involve the process or actions taken by a state or its people in order to demonstrate its sovereignty and practice democratic decision-making. Anti-globalization may occur in order to maintain barriers to the international transfer of people, goods and beliefs, particularly free market deregulation, encouraged by business organizations and organizations such as the International Monetary Fund or the World Trade Organization. Moreover, as Naomi Klein argues in her book No Logo, anti-globalism can denote either a single social movement or an umbrella
term that encompasses a number of separate
social movements[159] such as nationalists and socialists. Some people who are labeled "anti-globalist" or "sceptics" (Hirst and Thompson)[160] consider the term to be too vague and inaccurate.[161] [162] Podobnik states that "the vast majority of groups that participate in these protests draw on international networks of support, and they generally call for forms of globalization that enhance democratic representation, human rights, and egalitarianism." Joseph Stiglitz and Andrew Charlton write: [163] The anti-globalization movement developed in opposition to the perceived negative aspects of globalization. The term 'anti-globalization' is in many ways a misnomer, since the group represents a wide range of interests and issues and many of the people involved in the anti-globalization movement do support closer ties between the various peoples and cultures of the world through, for example, aid, assistance for refugees, and global environmental issues.
Some members aligned with this viewpoint
prefer instead to describe themselves as the "Global Justice Movement", the "AntiCorporate-Globalization Movement", the "Movement of Movements" (a popular term in Italy), the "Alter-globalization" movement (popular in France), the "Counter-Globalization" movement, and a number of other terms. Critiques of the current wave of economic globalization typically look at both the damage to the planet, in terms of the unsustainable harm done to the biosphere, as well as the human costs, such as poverty, inequality, miscegenation, injustice and the erosion of traditional culture which, the critics contend, all occur as a result of the economic transformations related to globalization. They challenge directly the metrics, such as GDP, used to measure progress promulgated by institutions such as the World Bank, and look to other measures, such as the Happy Planet Index,[164] created by the New Economics Foundation.[165] They point to a "multitude of interconnected fatal consequencessocial disintegration, a breakdown of democracy, more rapid and extensive deterioration of the environment, the spread of new diseases, increasing poverty and alienation"[166] which
they claim are the unintended but very real
consequences of globalization. The terms globalization and anti-globalization are used in various ways. Noam Chomsky believes that[167][168]The term "globalization" has been appropriated by the powerful to refer to a specific form of international economic integration, one based on investor rights, with the interests of people incidental. That is why the business press, in its more honest moments, refers to the "free trade agreements" as "free investment agreements" (Wall St. Journal). Accordingly, advocates of other forms of globalization are described as "anti-globalization"; and some, unfortunately, even accept this term, though it is a term of propaganda that should be dismissed with ridicule. No sane person is opposed to globalization, that is, international integration. Surely not the left and the workers movements, which were founded on the principle of international solidarity that is, globalization in a form that attends to the rights of people, not private power systems.
The dominant propaganda systems
have appropriated the term "globalization" to refer to the specific version of international economic integration that they favor, which privileges the rights of investors and lenders, those of people being incidental. In accord with this usage, those who favor a different form of international integration, which privileges the rights of human beings, become "antiglobalist." This is simply vulgar propaganda, like the term "anti-Soviet" used by the most disgusting commissars to refer to dissidents. It is not only vulgar, but idiotic. Take the World Social Forum, called "anti-globalization" in the propaganda system which happens to include the media, the educated classes, etc., with rare exceptions. The WSF is a paradigm example of globalization. It is a gathering of huge numbers of people from all over the world, from just about every corner of life one can think of, apart from the extremely narrow highly privileged elites who meet at the competing World Economic Forum, and are called "proglobalization" by the propaganda system. An observer watching this farce from Mars would collapse in hysterical laughter at the antics of the educated classes. Critics argue that globalization results in:
Poorer countries suffering disadvantages: While
it is true that globalization encourages free trade among countries, there are also negative consequences because some countries try to save their national markets. The main export of poorer countries is usually agricultural goods. Larger countries often subsidise their farmers (like the EU Common Agricultural Policy), which lowers the market price for the poor farmer's crops compared to what it would be under free trade.[169] (See Agricultural subsidy for more information.) The exploitation of foreign impoverished workers: The deterioration of protections for weaker nations by stronger industrialized powers has resulted in the exploitation of the people in those nations to become cheap labor. Due to the lack of protections, companies from powerful industrialized nations are able to offer workers enough salary to entice them to endure extremely long hours and unsafe working conditions, though economists question if consenting workers in a competitive employers' market can be decried as "exploited". It is true that the workers are free to leave their jobs, but in many poorer countries, this would mean starvation for the worker, and possible even his/her family if their previous jobs were unavailable.[170] The shift to outsourcing: Globalization has allowed corporations to move manufacturing and service jobs from high cost locations to locations with the lowest wages and worker benefits. This results in loss of jobs in the high cost locations while creating great economic opportunities in poorer countries.[80] Weak labor unions: The surplus in cheap labor coupled with an ever growing number of companies in transition has caused a weakening of labor unions in the United States. Unions lose their effectiveness when their membership begins to decline. As a result unions hold less power over corporations that are able to easily replace workers, often for lower wages, and have the option to not offer unionized jobs anymore.[169] An increase in exploitation of child labor: for example, a country that experiencing increases in labor demand because of globalization and an increase the demand for goods produced by children, will experience greater a demand for child labor. This can be "hazardous" or "exploitive", e.g., quarrying, salvage, cash
cropping but also includes the trafficking of
children, children in bondage or forced labor, prostitution, pornography and other illicit activities.[171] In December 2007, World Bank economist Branko Milanovic has called much previous empirical research on global poverty and inequality into question because, according to him, improved estimates of purchasing power parity indicate that developing countries are worse off than previously believed. Milanovic remarks that "literally hundreds of scholarly papers on convergence or divergence of countries incomes have been published in the last decade based on what we know now were faulty numbers." With the new data, possibly economists will revise calculations, and he also believed that there are considerable implications estimates of global inequality and poverty levels. Global inequality was estimated at around 65 Gini points, whereas the new numbers indicate global inequality to be at 70 on the Gini scale.[172] The critics of globalization typically emphasize that globalization is a process that is mediated according to corporate interests, and typically raise the possibility of alternative global institutions and policies, which they believe address the moral claims of poor and working classes throughout the globe, as well as environmental concerns in a more equitable way.[173] The movement includes church groups, national liberation factions, peasant unionists, intellectuals, artists, protectionists, anarchists, those in support of relocalization and others. Some are reformist, (arguing for a more moderate form of capitalism) while others are more revolutionary (arguing for what they believe is a more humane system than capitalism) and others are reactionary, believing globalization destroys national industry and jobs. One of the key points made by critics of recent economic globalization is that income inequality, both between and within nations, is increasing as a result of these processes. One article from 2001 found that significantly, in 7 out of 8 metrics, income inequality has increased in the twenty years ending 2001. Also, "incomes in the lower deciles of world income distribution have probably fallen absolutely since the 1980s". Furthermore, the
World Bank's figures on absolute poverty were
challenged. The article was skeptical of the World Bank's claim that the number of people living on less than $1 a day has held steady at 1.2 billion from 1987 to 1998, because of biased methodology.[174] A chart that gave the inequality a very visible and comprehensible form, the so-called 'champagne glass' effect,[175] was contained in the 1992 United Nations Development Program Report, which showed the distribution of global income to be very uneven, with the richest 20% of the world's population controlling 82.7% of the world's income DEMOCRACY Economists since Milton Friedman have strongly criticized the efficiency of democracy. They base this on their premise of the irrational voter. Their argument is that voters are highly uninformed about many political issues, especially relating to economics, and have a strong bias about the few issues on which they are fairly knowledgeable. Popular rule as a faade The 20th Century Italian thinkers Vilfredo Pareto and Gaetano Mosca (independently) argued that democracy was illusory, and served only to mask the reality of elite rule. Indeed, they argued that elite oligarchy is the unbendable law of human nature, due largely to the apathy and division of the masses (as opposed to the drive, initiative and unity of the elites), and that democratic institutions would do no more than shift the exercise of power from oppression to manipulation.[87] Mob rule Plato's The Republic presents a critical view of democracy through the narration of Socrates: "Democracy, which is a charming form of government, full of variety and disorder, and dispensing a sort of equality to equals and unequaled alike."[88] In his work, Plato lists 5 forms of government from best to worst. Assuming that the Republic was intended to be a serious critique of the political thought in Athens, Plato argues that only Kallipolis, an aristocracy led by the unwilling philosopherkings (the wisest men) is a just form of government.[89] Political instability More recently, democracy is criticised for not offering enough political stability. As governments are frequently elected on and off
there tends to be frequent changes in the
policies of democratic countries both domestically and internationally. Even if a political party maintains power, vociferous, headline grabbing protests and harsh criticism from the mass media are often enough to force sudden, unexpected political change. Frequent policy changes with regard to business and immigration are likely to deter investment and so hinder economic growth. For this reason, many people have put forward the idea that democracy is undesirable for a developing country in which economic growth and the reduction of poverty are top priority. This opportunist alliance not only has the handicap of having to cater to too many ideologically opposing factions, but it is usually short lived since any perceived or actual imbalance in the treatment of coalition partners, or changes to leadership in the coalition partners themselves, can very easily result in the coalition partner withdrawing its support from the government. PATENTS BILL As state-granted monopolies, patents have been criticized as inconsistent with free trade. On that basis, in 1869 the Netherlands abolished patents, and did not reintroduce them until 1912Patents have also been criticized for being granted on already-known inventions, with many complaining in the United States that the USPTO fails "to do a serious job of examining patents, thus allowing bad patents to slip through the system."[16] On the other hand, it has been argued that because of low number of patents going into litigation, increasing quality of patents at patent prosecution stage will increase overall legal costs associated with patents, and that current USPTO policy is a reasonable compromise between full trial on examination stage on one hand, and pure registration without examination, on the other hand. Patent trolls are one of common criticisms against patents [33], though some commentators suggest that patent trolls are not bad for the patent system at all but instead realign market participant incentives, make patents more liquid, and clear the patent market.[34] Pharmaceutical patents prevent generic alternatives to enter the market until the patents expire, and thus maintains high prices
for medication.[35] This can have significant
effects in the developing world, as those who are most in need of basic essential medicines are unable to afford such high priced pharmaceuticals.[36] Critics also question the rationale that exclusive patent rights and the resulting high prices are required for pharmaceutical companies to recoup the large investments needed for research and development.[35] One study concluded that marketing expenditures for new drugs often doubled the amount that was allocated for research and development.[37] Other articles shed light on the problems of today's medical research. It sets wrong priorities in research and pricing, and pushes the state-run healthcare systems even of rich nations to their limits.[38] In one response to these criticisms, one review concluded that less than 5 percent of medicines on the World Health Organization's list of essential drugs are under patent.[39] Also, the pharmaceutical industry has contributed US$2 billion for healthcare in developing countries, providing HIV/AIDS drugs at lower cost or even free of charge in certain countries, and has used differential pricing and parallel imports to provide medication to the poor.[39] Other groups are investigating how social inclusion and equitable distribution of research and development findings can be obtained within the existing intellectual property framework, although these efforts have received less exposure Some public campaigns have expressed a concern for "preventing the over-reach" of IP protection including patent protection, and "to retain a public balance in property rights" of this kind Proposed alternatives to the patent system Alternatives have been discussed to address the issue of financial incentivization to replace patents. Mostly, they are related to some form of direct or indirect government funding. One example is the idea of providing "prize money" (from a "prize fund" sponsored by the government) as a substitute for the lost profits associated with abstaining from the monopoly
given by a patent.[41] Another approach is to
remove the issue of financing development from the private sphere all together, and to cover the costs with direct government funding. Secularism Secularism is the principle of separation between government institutions and the persons mandated to represent the State from religious institutions and religious dignitaries. In one sense, secularism may assert the right to be free from religious rule and teachings, and the right to freedom from governmental imposition of religion upon the people within a state that is neutral on matters of belief. (See also Separation of church and state and Lacit.) In another sense, it refers to the view that human activities and decisions, especially political ones, should be unbiased by religious influence.[1] (See also public reason.) Some scholars are now arguing that the very idea of secularism will change.[2]Part of a series on Secularism draws its intellectual roots from Greek and Roman philosophers such as Marcus Aurelius and Epicurus, medieval Muslim polymaths such as Ibn Rushd, Enlightenment thinkers like Denis Diderot, Voltaire, Benedict Spinoza, John Locke, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and Thomas Paine, and modern freethinkers, agnostics and atheists such as Bertrand Russell and Robert Ingersoll.The purposes and arguments in support of secularism vary widely. In European laicism, it has been argued that secularism is a movement toward modernization, and away from traditional religious values (also known as "secularisation"). This type of secularism, on a social or philosophical level, has often occurred while maintaining an official state church or other state support of religion. In the United States, some argue that state secularism has served to a greater extent to protect religion from governmental interference, while secularism on a social level is less prevalent.[3] [4] Within countries as well, differing political movements support secularism for varying reasons
Extraction of Nicotine (3-(1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinyl) pyridine) from Tobacco Leaves Separated from Gold Live Classic Brand™ Cigarettes by Solvent Extraction Approach and Characterization via IR Analysis