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FMDS0504 PDF
FMDS0504 PDF
5-4
July 2012
Page 1 of 41
TRANSFORMERS
Table of Contents
Page
1.0 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Changes ............................................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 3
2.1 Electrical Loss Prevention ............................................................................................................... 3
2.1.1 Electrical Protection ................................................................................................................ 3
2.1.2 Testing ................................................................................................................................. 10
2.1.3 Transportation of Transformers ............................................................................................. 13
2.1.4 Condition Monitoring ............................................................................................................. 13
2.1.5 Operation ............................................................................................................................... 15
2.2 Fire Protection for Indoor Transformers ........................................................................................ 15
2.2.1 Construction and Location .................................................................................................. 15
2.2.2 Occupancy ............................................................................................................................. 17
2.2.3 Protection .............................................................................................................................. 18
2.2.4 Human Factor ........................................................................................................................ 19
2.3 Fire Protection for Outdoor Transformers ....................................................................................... 19
2.3.1 Location and Construction .................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Active Protection for Outdoor Transformers .......................................................................... 25
2.3.3 Occupancy ............................................................................................................................. 25
2.3.4 Human Factor ........................................................................................................................ 25
2.4 Fire Protection for Transformer Production Test Areas ................................................................... 25
2.5 Transformers Insulated with Liquids Containing Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) ..................... 27
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................. 28
3.1 Transformer Testing ....................................................................................................................... 28
3.1.1 Thermography ....................................................................................................................... 28
3.1.2 Fluid Screen Testing .............................................................................................................. 29
3.1.3 Dissolved Gas Analysis ......................................................................................................... 30
3.1.4 Exciting Current ..................................................................................................................... 31
3.1.5 Turns Ratio for On-Load Tap Changers ................................................................................ 31
3.1.6 Leakage Inductance .............................................................................................................. 32
3.1.7 Power Factor and Capacitance ............................................................................................. 32
3.1.8 Frequency Response Analysis .............................................................................................. 34
3.1.9 Insulation Resistance ............................................................................................................ 34
3.1.10 Winding Resistance ............................................................................................................. 35
3.1.11 Core Insulation Resistance .................................................................................................. 35
3.1.12 Electromagnetic Interference Measurement ....................................................................... 36
3.1.13 Partial Discharge Measurement .......................................................................................... 36
3.1.14 Power Factor Tip-Up ........................................................................................................... 36
3.1.15 Dielectric Frequency Response .......................................................................................... 36
3.2 Condition Monitoring ........................................................................................................................ 36
3.3 FM Approved and Equivalent Transformers ................................................................................... 37
3.4 Transformer Aging ........................................................................................................................... 37
4.0 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 38
4.1 FM Global ...................................................................................................................................... 38
4.2 Other .............................................................................................................................................. 38
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ..................................................................................................... 38
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ..................................................................................... 39
2012 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in whole or in part, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission of Factory Mutual Insurance Company.
5-4
Transformers
Page 2
List of Figures
Fig. 1A. Typical protective scheme for a two-winding, delta-wye connected transformer up to
10,000 kVA in size using fuses on the primary of the transformers ................................................. 4
Fig. 1B. Typical protective scheme for a two-winding, delta-wye connected transformer up to
10,000 kVA in size using a circuit breaker on the primary of the transformers ............................... 5
Fig. 1C. Typical protective scheme for a two-winding, delta-wye connected transformer
greater than 10,000 kVA in size ...................................................................................................... 6
Fig. 1D. Typical protective scheme for transformers greater than 10,000 kVA in size with a
secondary selective system ............................................................................................................ 7
Fig. 1E. Alternative protective devices that achieve the same level of protection as those
shown in Figures 1A, 1B, and 1C ..................................................................................................... 8
Fig. 2a. Locations for transformer buildings and rooms .............................................................................. 16
Fig. 2b. Minimum horizontal separation distance between outdoor liquid-insulated transformers
and exposed walls of main buildings .............................................................................................. 20
Fig. 2c. Use of 2-hour fire barriers and separation distances for protection of exposed main
building walls
............................................................................................................................... 21
Fig. 2d. Determination of exposed roof area
........................................................................................... 22
Fig. 2e. Fire barriers for multiple outdoor transformers ............................................................................ 24
Fig. 2f. Roof level sprinkler option ............................................................................................................. 26
Fig. 2g. Local sprinkler option ....................................................................................................................... 26
List of Tables
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Transformers
5-4
Page 3
1.0 SCOPE
This data sheet contains loss prevention recommendations related to the fire protection of ALL types of
transformers. It also contains loss prevention recommendations related to electrical protection, electrical
testing, maintenance, and operation for large and critical distribution, power, and specialty transformers ONLY.
For loss prevention recommendations related to electrical protection, electrical testing, maintenance, and
operation of smaller and less critical transformers, see DS 5-20, Electrical Testing.
Specialty transformers include network transformers, rectifier transformers, arc furnace transformers,
induction furnace transformers, generator step-up transformers, series reactors, and shunt reactors.
1.1 Changes
July 2012. Major changes include the following:
The electrical testing, electrical protection, maintenance and operation sections of this data sheet have
been substantially revised.
This data sheet no longer refers to DS 5-20 for electrical testing recommendations.
Recommendations related to specialty transformers have been added to this data sheet.
Fire protection recommendations have been re-organized for better clarity.
Total flooding gaseous systems are no longer recommended as alternatives to sprinklers for protection
of indoor transformers.
Sprinkler protection criteria for indoor test areas have been revised.
Emergency drainage is recommended for indoor transformers where sprinkler protection is provided.
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS
2.1 Electrical Loss Prevention
2.1.1 Electrical Protection
2.1.1.1 Perform an engineering analysis to determine the most appropriate protective scheme for each
transformer, taking into account the following factors:
A. The criticality of the transformer
B. The lead time required to replace or repair the transformer
C. The fire exposure presented by the transformer to buildings and equipment
D. The effect of transformer failure on system integrity and reliability
E. The service requirements of the transformer (e.g., is the transformer required to operate in a high fault
environment or is it exposed to high levels of harmonics, overvoltages, and lightning?)
F. The condition of the transformer (e.g., is the transformer approaching the end of its useful life, is it
operated in a harsh environment, has the transformer been compromised from previous faults?)
See Figure 1A for a typical protective scheme for a two-winding, delta-wye connected transformer up to 10,000
kVA in size using fuses on the primary of the transformers.
See Figure 1B for a typical protective scheme for a two-winding, delta-wye connected transformer up to
10,000 kVA in size using a circuit breaker on the primary of the transformers.
See Figure 1C for a typical protective scheme for a two-winding, delta-wye connected transformer greater
than 10,000 kVA in size.
See Figure 1D for a typical protective scheme for transformers greater than 10,000 kVA in size with a
secondary selective system.
See Figure 1E for some alternative protective devices that achieve the same level of protection as the
schemes shown in Figures 1A, 1B, and 1C.
5-4
Transformers
Page 4
Device
No.
26
49
51N1
51TL
63
71
Description
Dry
Liquid thermal
device
Winding thermal
device
Time delay
overcurrent relay.
(Ground fault
protection of
transformer wye
winding and
through faults.)
Time delay
overcurrent relay.
(Transformer
overload protection)
Sudden pressure
relay
Liquid Level Device
Liquid
(MVA)
15 510
I
I
T
I
Notes:
AAlarm, IIndication, TTrip
1. Devices 50G, 50N/51N, 50NY/51NY, 67N and 87TN are
alternatives. (See Fig 1E.)
Fig. 1A.Typical protective scheme for a two-winding, delta-wye connected transformer up to 10,000 kVA in size using fuses
on the primary of the transformers
Transformers
5-4
Device
No.
26
49
50ND2
50TF
51N1
51ND2
51TF
51TL
63
71
Description
Dry
Liquid thermal
device.
Winding thermal
device.
Instantaneous
ground overcurrent
relay. (High
magnitude ground
fault protection of
transformer delta
winding and leads.)
Instantaneous
overcurrent relay.
(High magnitude
transformer internal
phase fault
protection.)
Time delay
overcurrent relay.
(Ground fault
protection of
transformer wye
winding and
through faults.)
Time delay ground
overcurrent relay.
(Ground fault
protection of
transformer delta
winding and leads.)
Time delay
overcurrent relay.
(Phase through
fault protection.)
Time delay
overcurrent relay.
(Transformer
overload protection)
Sudden pressure
relay
Liquid level device
Page 5
Liquid
(MVA)
15 510
I
I
T
I
Notes:
AAlarm, IIndication, TTrip
1. Devices 50G, 50N/51N, 50NY/51NY, 67N and 87TN are alternatives. (See Fig 1E.)
2. Device 50GD is an alternative to 50ND/51ND. (See Fig 1E.)
Fig. 1B. Typical protective scheme for a two-winding, delta-wye connected transformer up to 10,000 kVA in size using a
circuit breaker on the primary of the transformers
5-4
Transformers
Page 6
Device
No.
24
26
49
50ND2
50TF
51N1
51ND2
51TF
51TL
63
71
87T
87TN3
Description
Action
T
A
A
T
T
I
T
Notes:
AAlarm, IIndication, TTrip
1. Devices 50G, 50N/51N, and 50NY/51NY are alternatives. (See Fig 1E.)
2. Device 50GD is an alternative to 50ND/51ND. (See Fig 1E.)
3. Device 67N is an alternative to 87TN. (See Fig 1E.)
Fig. 1C. Typical protective scheme for a two-winding, delta-wye connected transformer greater than 10,000 kVA in size
Transformers
5-4
Page 7
Note:
Electrical protection shown for 10-MVA and larger transformers.
Protection should be chosen per Fig. 1A, 1B, or 1C depending
upon transformer size.
Fig. 1D. Typical protective scheme for transformers greater than 10,000 kVA in size with a secondary selective system
5-4
Transformers
Page 8
Device
No.
24
26
49
50G1
50GD2
50N
50ND
50NY
50TF
51N
51ND
51NY
51TF
51TL
63
67N3
71
87T
87TN
Description
Volts/hertz relay (For unit connected
transformers only)
Liquid thermal device
Winding thermal device
Zero sequence instantaneous ground
overcurrent relay. (Ground fault
protection of wye winding and through
faults)
Zero sequence instantaneous ground
overcurrent relay. (Ground fault
protection of transformer delta winding.)
Instantaneous ground overcurrent relay.
(High magnitude ground fault protection
of wye winding and through faults.)
Instantaneous ground overcurrent relay.
(High magnitude ground fault protection
of transformer delta winding and leads.)
Instantaneous ground overcurrent relay.
(High magnitude ground fault protection
of wye winding and through faults.)
Instantaneous overcurrent relay. (High
magnitude transformer internal phase
fault protection)
Time delay overcurrent relay. (Ground
fault protection of transformer wye
winding and through faults.)
Time delay ground overcurrent relay.
(Ground fault protection of transformer
delta winding and leads.)
Time delay overcurrent relay. (Ground
fault protection of transformer wye
winding and through faults.)
Time delay overcurrent relay. (Phase
through fault protection.)
Time delay overcurrent relay.
(Transformer overload protection)
Sudden pressure relay
AC Directional neutral overcurrent relay.
(Ground fault protection of transformer
wye winding internal faults)
Liquid Level Device
Transformer differential relay (Fault
protection for transformer internal faults)
Transformer ground differential relay
(Ground fault protection of transformer
wye winding internal faults)
Notes:
1. Devices 50G, 50N/51N, 50NY/51NY are alternatives.
2. Device 50GD is an alternative to 50ND/51ND.
3. Device 67N is an alternative to 87TN.
Fig. 1E. Alternative protective devices that achieve the same level of protection as those shown in Figures 1A, 1B, and
1C
Transformers
5-4
Page 9
2.1.1.2 Provide overvoltage protection for all transformers in accordance with Data Sheet 5-11, Lightning
and Surge Protection for Electrical Systems.
2.1.1.3 Improve the overvoltage protection for transformers that are approaching the end of their useful life.
Consult a qualified installation or repair company for upgrade options.
2.1.1.4 Provide differential protection to cover all the windings on multiple winding power transformers,
including specialty transformers such as rectifier, induction, and arc furnace transformers. Where the high
magnetic fields of specialty transformers prohibit the use of conventional iron core current transformers, use
Rogowski Coil current sensors to implement differential protection.
2.1.1.5 Provide overcurrent and ground fault protection for the tertiary winding of three-winding transformers
and autotransformers.
2.1.1.6 Do not reenergize transformers after the operation of protective devices until it has been determined
that the transformer has not suffered internal damage and any external faults have been removed. At a
minimum, perform a dissolved gas analysis test (DGA) to determine if the transformer has suffered internal
damage. Additional testing may be needed depending on the results of the DGA test (see Section 2.1.2).
Exercise care when taking a DGA sample immediately following a fault. It may be prudent to wait several hours
after the fault since fault gases may not have enough time to migrate through the bulk of the oil. Taking a
DGA sample too early can produce misleading results.
2.1.1.7 Provide an arc-monitoring system (e.g., ABB Arc Guard System) or FM Approved equivalent to detect
arcing faults in transformer vaults with exposed energized components. Provide this additional protection
when the ground fault relay cannot be set low enough to detect ground fault current due to neutral imbalance
current flow.
Table 1 contains a list of specialty transformers and the additional protection recommended for them.
5-4
Transformers
Page 10
Special Features
The high impedance exciting winding (or shunt
winding) makes it difficult to detect faults in this
winding with a high level of sensitivity.
Phaseshifting,
quadrature
booster
transformer
Load tap
changing
transformer
Grounding
transformer
Arc furnace
transformer
Rectifier
transformer
Additional Protection
Primary protection should consist of sudden
pressure relays in the main tanks as well as the
tap changer compartment. Differential protection for
the exciting winding is also needed.1
Primary protection should consist of sudden
pressure relays in the main tanks (quadrature
booster transformers usually have at least two sets
of tanks to house the shunt and series
transformers) as well as the tap changer
compartment. Differential protection for the
exciting, series, and shunt winding is also needed.2
Separate Bucholz relays should be provided if the
load tap changer compartment is supplied from a
separate conservator tank or from a separate
compartment of the conservator tank. Sudden
pressure relays are also needed for the load tap
changer compartment. Overload, short circuit, and
ground fault protection should be provided for the
load tap changer motor.
The CTs for the exciting winding differential protection may need to be installed internally.
The CTs to implement differential protection for these transformers are typically located internally and need to be specified during
manufacture.
2.1.2 Testing
2.1.2.1 Benchmark Testing
Benchmark testing (or fingerprinting) is a valuable method of providing baseline data about the transformer.
This information is used to make asset management decisions, to help with troubleshooting, and make
decisions about whether to reenergize a transformer after it has tripped.
2.1.2.1.1 Perform the following benchmark tests on all new transformers:
Thermography
Transformers
5-4
Page 11
5-4
Transformers
Page 12
Perform the IEC 62535 or Doble covered conductor deposition test in addition to the ASTM 1275 Modified
Method B test.
When corrosive sulfur is detected, add copper passivators to the transformer oil to a concentration of 100
ppm. Check the concentration of the passivators on an annual basis to determine if additional passivators are
needed. Add additional passivators as needed.
The addition of passivators needs to be made known to the laboratory performing dissolved gas analysis,
as passivators can affect the stray gassing characteristics of the transformer oil.
2.1.2.2.4 Test the electrical protection system (fuses, circuit breakers, batteries, and relays) in accordance
with Data Sheet 5-19, Switchgear and Circuit Breakers.
2.1.2.2.5 In addition to the recommended standard fluid tests, perform the following tests on the transformer
fluid every three years:
PCB
Furan analysis
2.1.2.2.6 Perform the off-line tests listed in Table 2 every three years.
Table 2. Routine Off-line Tests
Component
Windings
Bushings
Core
On load tap changer
Test
Insulation resistance
Winding resistance
Polarization index
Turns ratio
Power factor/capacitance
Power factor/capacitance
Core insulation resistance
Turns ratio
Contact resistance
Insulation resistance
DGA
Fluid screen test
Motor current measurement
Acoustic signature analysis
2.1.2.2.7 Perform the additional tests listed in Table 3 if regular on-line tests indicate a problem with the
transformer.
These additional tests are also useful in making a decision about whether to reenergize the transformer after
it has tripped due to the operation of protection relays.
Transformers
5-4
Page 13
Failure Mode
Transformer Condition
Partial discharge activity involving the transformer core,
On-line
winding or bushings
Electromagnetic interference
Partial discharge activity involving the transformer core,
On-line
winding, bushings and connections
Acoustic measurement
Partial discharge activity involving the transformer core,
On-line
winding or tap changer
Off-line
Exciting current
Shorted core laminations
Poor core joints
Short circuited or open circuited windings
Poor electrical connections
Tap changer problems
Core and winding movement
Frequency response analysis
Radial buckling or axial deformation of windings
Off-line
Core and winding movement
Clamping failure
Shorted turns
Leakage inductance measurement Core and winding movement
Off-line
Winding distortion or damage
Capacitance/power factor (winding) Moisture, carbon and other internal contamination of the
Off-line
winding insulation
Winding resistance
Shorted turns
Off-line
Poor connections
Open circuited windings
Poor tap changer connections
Core insulation
Unintentional core grounds
Off-line
Deteriorated core ground insulation
Turns ratio
Shorted turns
Off-line
Open circuited windings
Tap changer problems
Capacitance/power factor (bushing) Moisture, carbon and other internal contamination of
Off-line
bushing
Shorted condenser layers in capacitive type bushings
Faulty bushing test taps
Winding resistance
Shorted turns
Off-line
Open circuited turns
Loose or high resistance connections in the tap changer
Loose or high resistance connections on the bushings
Insulation resistance
Core grounds
Off-line
Contaminated or deteriorated winding insulation.
Shorted turns
Open circuited turns
5-4
Transformers
Page 14
B. Transformers with known problems such as a history of gassing, high moisture levels, winding
movement, and design defects
C. Transformers that are operated under onerous conditions such as in a high surge environment, constant
or frequent overload operation, and high harmonic distortion
D. Critical arc furnace transformers and rectifier transformers
E. Transformers where the maintenance and testing intervals have to be significantly extended due to
reasons such as the inability to remove the transformer from service, location in remote areas, and lack
of resources
F. Transformers that are on a condition-based maintenance program
2.1.4.2 Provide on-line condition monitoring systems that will monitor the following parameters (several
separate pieces of equipment may be needed to achieve the required level of condition monitoring):
Moisture-in-oil (with appropriate algorithms to translate this to a moisture-in-paper measurement)
Temperature
Dissolved gases
Bushing power factor
Partial discharge activity
Tap changer motor current
2.1.4.2.1 In addition to online condition monitoring systems, conduct routine on-line condition monitoring
using the following equipment:
Thermography cameras
Acoustic sensors
Corona cameras
The online condition monitoring should be performed on an annual basis and adjusted based on Appendix
D.
2.1.4.3 Where transformers are frequently operated in overload condition (for contingency or emergency
purposes) use transformer monitoring and control systems that give real-time thermal ratings of the
transformer by measuring load, tap position, winding temperature, oil temperature, ambient temperature and
moisture. These systems will adjust transformer cooling in an intelligent manner to optimize the life of the
transformer and can also warn of dangerous conditions (such as when there is a high level of moisture in the
paper insulation) and will prevent the transformer from being overloaded in this condition.
2.1.4.4 Select on-line condition monitoring systems with the following features and capabilities:
The ability to either transmit data continuously to a manned location (SCADA), or the ability to allow remote
retrieval of the data.
The ability to generate alarms when unusual conditions are detected.
The ability to analyze monitored parameters and generate a summary of the condition of the transformer.
The ability for the user to set caution and alarm levels.
The ability to store and trend monitored parameters.
Field calibration and self diagnostic capabilities.
A measurement accuracy of 5% for DGA gases and moisture-in-oil.
A sampling rate of at least once every 4 hours, with an hourly sampling rate being the preferred option.
Robustness and immunity to electromagnetic fields.
Security to prevent unauthorized changes to alarm conditions and limits.
Transformers
5-4
Page 15
2.1.5 Operation
2.1.5.1 Install, operate and maintain transformers in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations.
2.1.5.2 Follow the manufacturers instructions for filling new transformers with oil. Check all oil to ensure it
meets the specifications for new oil. In particular, make sure the moisture content, PCB content and corrosive
sulfur content are within limits.
2.1.5.3 Immediately after commissioning, and periodically for several days after commissioning, inspect the
transformer thoroughly for indications of overheating, oil leaks, abnormal vibration, abnormal noise, or
malfunction. Proper operation and calibration of each monitoring and protective device should be verified.
Perform benchmark tests as recommended in Section 2.1.2.1.
As a minimum, perform dissolved-gas-in-oil analysis within 18 to 24 hours after energization, one month
later, and six months later to determine if the transformer has any infant mortality problems.
2.1.5.4 Do not overload the transformer. If short-term overloading is required for emergency purposes, perform
studies to determine the economic, loss of life, and bubbling risks associated with overloading. Consider
the use of a dynamic transformer monitoring and control system as described in Section 2.1.4.3 if frequent
overloading of the transformer is expected.
2.1.5.5 Do not perform on-line insulating fluid processing on a routine basis or without a proper evaluation
of the need and consequences of processing the insulating fluid.
2.1.5.6 Take the following precautions when insulating fluid has to be processed or replaced:
A. Perform DGA and furan analysis before the insulating fluid is processed or replaced to preserve data
about the transformers condition. Repeat DGA analysis immediately after the fluid has been processed
or replaced. Perform both DGA and furan analysis about six months after the fluid has been processed or
replaced.
B. Take proper precautions when handling insulating fluid with high levels of combustible gas as this may
present an explosion risk.
C. Check replacement mineral oil for corrosive sulfur and PCB contamination.
D. Ensure the equipment used to process the insulating fluid has been thoroughly cleaned to prevent
PCB cross-contamination.
E. Follow the manufacturers instructions regarding insulating fluid processing or replacement to prevent
moisture contamination of the transformers solid insulation. For example, if the transformer has to be
opened, most manufacturers limit this time to no more than 2 hours and recommend that dry air be
circulated into the transformer at a specified flow rate.
F. Replace tank gaskets when insulating fluid is replaced.
2.1.5.7 For transformers with a bladder in the conservator tank, check the bladder for leaks once every two
years. This is done by swabbing the inside of the bladder to check for oil, and also checking the oil screen
and DGA results for indications of bladder leaks. Replace leaking bladders as soon as possible.
The bladder in a conservator tank generally has a 10-year life. A leaking bladder will allow oxygen and
moisture to enter the transformer, which accelerates its aging process. Proper maintenance of the bladder
is a critical part of a transformer life management program.
2.2 Fire Protection for Indoor Transformers
2.2.1 Construction and Location
2.2.1.1 If transformers cannot be located outdoors in accordance with Section 2.3, provide a detached
dedicated building or room with location and construction safeguards as described in Figure 2a and Table
4.
5-4
Transformers
Page 16
1
2
Main Building
(plan view)
3
4
1 - Detached building
2 - Outside room with direct access from outside only
3,4 - Inside room with direct access from outside only
(See Table 4 for construction features)
Fig. 2a. Locations for transformer buildings and rooms
Fluid Volume in
Fluid Type
Largest Transformer
Not applicable
FM Approved liquids
Anyd
FM Approved liquids
Anyd
One-hour fire-rated
Noncombustible
One-hour fire-rated
Noneb
Per Section 2.2.3e
Noneb
Three-hour fire-rated
with subdivisions if
multiple transformersf
Three-hour fire-rated
with multiple
transformers and no
subdivision
One-hour fire-rated
with single
transformer
Noneb
With no oil-filled bushings, oil-filled tap changers or other oil-filled accessories that could increase the fire hazard.
See also Section 2.2.3.4 for protection of combustibles other than transformer liquids.
c
Section 3.3 describes FM Approved and equivalent transformers.
d
Provide liquid spill containment in accordance with Section 2.2.1.5
e
Automatic sprinklers, foam-water sprinklers or water mist. Also provide emergency drainage for sprinkler discharge per Section 2.2.1.6
f
Subdivide room or building with three-hour fire-rated construction for each transformer if multiple transformers are present.
b
2.2.1.2 Arrange transformer rooms for direct access only from outdoors.
2.2.1.3 Provide construction for transformer rooms and detached buildings as follows:
Transformers
5-4
Page 17
5-4
Page 18
Transformers
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
Transformers
5-4
Page 19
2.2.3.4 Provide sprinkler protection for transformer rooms and buildings where combustible grouped electrical
cables are present, per DS 5-31, Cables and Bus Bars.
2.2.4 Human Factor
2.2.4.1 Develop a pre-fire plan for transformer fire and electrical emergency response:
A. Prepare a documented procedure to promptly isolate the transformer equipment in order to expedite
firefighting activities.
B. Train and authorize electrical personnel on each shift who will respond promptly to isolate the
transformer for access by fire responders.
2.2.4.2 Conduct transformer fire drills and review and update the pre-fire plan at least annually.
2.3 Fire Protection for Outdoor Transformers
Apply the following recommendations to protect important buildings and equipment from exposure to fire
involving outdoor transformers.
2.3.1 Location and Construction
The separation distances and construction features recommended in this section are intended to be
implemented together with spill containment. The recommended distances for liquid-filled transformers may
not protect surrounding property from damage due to overpressure and rupture of transformer casings or
bushings.
2.3.1.1 Exposure Protection for Main Buildings
2.3.1.1.1 Provide any one of the following five alternatives to protect exterior walls of main buildings against
exposure to outdoor transformer fires:
A. Providing minimum separation distances according to the construction type and transformer fluid in
accordance with Figure 2b and Table 5.
B. Provide a 2-hour fire barrier of concrete block or reinforced concrete with separation distance and
horizontal and vertical dimensions (X, Y, and Z respectively) as shown in Figure 2c and Table 6.
C. Provide at least 5 ft (1.5 m) separation with a 3-hour fire rated barrier with the same horizontal and
vertical extent as dimensions Y and Z in Table 6.
D. Provide at least 5 ft (1.5 m) separation from fire-rated or noncombustible construction, plus water spray
protection on the transformer in accordance with Section 2.3.2.
E. Provide at least 5 ft (1.5m) separation from the inside edge of containment barrier and install water
spray protection on the exposed building wall, over the vertical and horizontal extent (coverage area) as
dimensions Y and Z in Table 6. Design water spray in accordance with Section 2.3.2.
5-4
Transformers
Page 20
Main building
Transformer
Main building
X
Containment
Plan view
Elevation view
Table 5. Separation for Exposure Protection of Main Buildong Walls (also refer to Figure 2b)
Fluid or Transformer
Type
FM Approved
transformer or
equivalent
FM Approved Liquid
in non-Approved
transformer
Non-Approved
transformer liquid
10,000 (38)
>10,000 (38)
<500 (1.9)
5,000(1.9-19)
>5,000 (19)
5 (1.5)
15 (4.6)
5 (1.5)
15 (4.6)
25 (7.6)
25 (7.6)
50 (15.2)
15 (4.6)
25 (7.6)
50 (15.2)
25 (7.6)
50 (15.2)
100 (30.5)
For definitions of combustible and noncombustible construction materials, see Appendix A of DS 1-1, Firesafe Building Construction and
Materials.
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5-4
Main
building
Page 21
Plan view
Elevation view
Table 6. Separation and Extent of 2-hour Fire Barriers for Protection of Main Building Walls (for dimensions refer to Figure
2c)
Fluid Type
FM Approved
transformer fluid
Fluid Volume
gal (m3)
10000
(38)
>10000 (38)
Non-Approved
transformer fluid
<500(1.9)
5000(19)
>5000 (19)
The X distances refer to minimum separation between the closest inside edge of the spill containment barrier area and the 2 hour fire
barrier. These are the same as Table 5 for 2-hour fire-rated walls. Dimension Y is the horizontal extent of the barrier starting from the
respective edge of containment.
2
Barrier vertical extent is dimension Z in the Table or the building height plus 30 in. (0.75 m) parapet, whichever is less.
3
For definitions of combustible and noncombustible construction materials, see Appendix A of DS 1-1, Firesafe Building Construction and
Materials.
2.3.1.1.2 Where exposure protection is provided per alternatives C, D or E of 2.3.1.1.1, determine the extent
of roof area exposed to excessive radiant heating, if any, using Figure 2d and Table 7.
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Table 7. Transformer Fire Exposure to Noncombustible Building Roof Where Separation from Wall is Based on a 3-hour
W-X
Exposed
roof area
X
Main building
with
noncombustible
roof
X
Containment
Elevation view
Plan view
Building Height,
ft (m)
Any
50 (15)
25 (7.5)
<25 (7.5)
<50 (15)
2.3.1.1.3 Provide a Class A rating for external fire resistance over at least the section of the roof, if any, that
is determined to be exposed per 2.3.1.1.2 and Table 7. (See DS 1-22, Maximum Foreseeable Loss, for
description of Class A roof installations).
2.3.1.2 Exposure Protection from Roof-Mounted Transformers
Avoid locating transformers on roofs of main buildings. Where rooftop location is unavoidable, provide all
of the following safeguards.
A. Use one of the following types of transformers:
1. Dry-type transformer
2. FM Approved transformer or equivalent
3. Transformer filled with FM Approved transformer fluid
B. Provide spill containment for all liquid-insulated transformers in accordance with Section 2.3.1.4.
C. If roof-top transformers use non-Approved fluids, do the following:
1. Locate the transformer away from walls of adjoining buildings with higher roofs in accordance with
Section 2.3.1.1, and
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Page 23
2. Provide a Class A roof covering for at least the horizontal distance from the transformer specified for
noncombustible construction in Table 5. (See DS 1-22, Maximum Foreseeable Loss, for description of
Class A roof installations.)
2.3.1.3 Exposure Protection for Outdoor Transformers and Other Equipment
To protect transformers and other important equipment against exposure fire from adjacent transformers,
provide separation, a fire barrier, or a water spray system in accordance with any one of the following three
alternatives:
2.3.1.3.1 Provide separation distances for exposed transformers and other critical equipment in accordance
with Table 8. Distances in Table 8 are referred to the closest edge of containment.
Table 8. Minimum Separation Distances Between Adjacent Transformers
Liquid Type
FM Approved Transformer
Fluid
Non-Approved Transformer
Fluid
FM Approved Transformer
or Equivalent?
Yes
No
N/A
Liquid Volume
gal(m3)
N/A
10000(38)
>10000 (38)
<500 (1.9)
500 - 5000 (19)
>5000 (19)
Distance
ft(m)
3 (0.9)
5 (1.5)
25 (7.6)
5 (1.5)
25 (7.6)
50 (15.2)
2.3.1.3.2 Where the separation distances in Table 8 cannot be met, provide 2-hour fire-rated barriers between
transformers as shown in Figure 2e and as follows:
A. Extend the barriers 1 ft (0.3 m) vertically and 2 ft (0.6 m) horizontally beyond transformer components
that could be pressurized as the result of an electrical fault, including bushings, pressure-relief vents,
radiators, and tap changer enclosures.
B. Use concrete block or reinforced concrete construction adequate for two-hour fire-resistance for the fire
barriers.
C. Fire barriers constructed of materials other than concrete may be used if:
1. All components are capable of withstanding a two-hour hydrocarbon fire exposure test from either side
with no flame penetration to the unexposed side.
2. Barriers are capable of withstanding not less than 25% of full design wind loads at maximum
fired-exposed material temperatures, using design wind speeds (3-second gust) per DS 1-28, Design Wind
Loads, or similar, acting concurrently with the worst-case fire exposure.
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Transformers
Page 24
Transformer
Containment
2.3.1.3.3 For installations where the separation distances between transformers in Table 8 are not met and
barriers are not provided, install water spray protection on each transformer in accordance with Section 2.3.2.
2.3.1.4 Spill Containment and Emergency Drainage
Spill containment requirements for environmental protection and related regulations are outside the scope
of this data sheet.
2.3.1.4.1 Provide outdoor liquid-filled transformers with spill containment when accidental release of the
transformer fluid could expose a main building or adjacent equipment or storage.
2.3.1.4.2 Design the spill containment system in accordance with Chapter 7 of IEEE STD 980-1994 (Guide
for Containment and Control of Oil Spills in Substations, 1995) or equivalent standard.
2.3.1.4.3 Where water spray protection is provided for a transformer, install additional containment or direct
the discharged water to an impoundment with a capacity of at least a 60-minute discharge of fire hoses plus
the design flow of the water spray system. Size the drainage and containment assuming adjacent water spray
systems on both sides of an exposing transformer will operate simultaneously with the original activating
system. Design drainage in accordance with DS 7-83, Drainage Systems for Flammable Liquids.
2.3.1.4.4 Provide a system for removal of rainwater from the containment area.
2.3.1.4.5 Extend the containment perimeter at least 5 ft (1.5 m) beyond fluid-containing components, including
any external coolers, for transformers with up to 1,000 gal (3.8 m3); and 8 ft (2.4 m) for transformers with
more than 1,000 gal (3.8 m3).
2.3.1.4.6 Provide containment systems for roof-mounted liquid-filled transformers as follows:
A. For transformers with 500 gal (1.9 m3) or less of insulating liquid, the containment system may be a
welded steel pan or curbed and sealed concrete pad with capacity large enough to handle the liquid in the
largest transformer.
B. For mineral oil-insulated transformers with more than 500 gal (1.9 m3), provide a rock-filled containment
design with drainage to a suitable impoundment area.
C. Open containment is acceptable for FM Approved transformer liquids.
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5-4
Page 25
5-4
Transformers
Page 26
Noncombustible roof
Noncombustible roof
Solid or open
Table 9. Sprinkler Densities for Roof Level and Local Protection Options for Transformer Production Test Areas (see Figures
2f and 2g)
Height (H) of Sprinklers Above Pool,
ft (m)
H 15 (4.6)
15 (4.6) < H 30 (9.0)
30 (9.0) < H 45 (13.8)
45 (13.8) < H 60 (18.5)
1
Water Density1
gpm/ft2 (mm/min)
0.30 (12)
0.40 (16)
0.80 (32)
1.60 (64)
2.4.3 Design roof level sprinklers for a demand area of 5,000 ft2 (465 m2).
Transformers
5-4
Page 27
2.4.4 Design local sprinklers for a demand area of 5000 ft2 (465 m2) or the limits of the containment, whichever
is less.
2.4.5 Provide a water supply adequate for at least 2 hours, with hose stream demands as follows:
A. Adequate for 1 hour hose stream demand of 250 gpm (950 L/min) for transformers holding FM Approved
liquids or up to 1000 gal (3.8 m3) of mineral oil.
B. Adequate for 2 hour hose stream demand of 500 gpm (1900 L/min) hose stream for greater than 1000
gallons (3.8 m3) of mineral oil in an individual transformer.
C. A standpipe with 1.5 in. (40 mm) hose connections such that all areas can be reached with at least
one hose stream.
2.5 Transformers Insulated with Liquids Containing Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
2.5.1 Replace PCB-filled and PCB-contaminated transformers containing more than 50 ppm of PCBs.
Alternatively, flush and fill the transformers with PCB-free fluid. Use a competent and certified company to
perform this work.
2.5.2 Every three years, test transformers that have been flushed and refilled with a replacement liquid to
verify that PCB concentrations are below 50 ppm.
2.5.3 Adhere to the following recommendations pending replacement of PCB-filled and PCB-contaminated
transformers.
2.5.3.1 Develop a written emergency response plan to handle a PCB spill. Include the following information:
Availability of an emergency replacement power supply
Telephone numbers for critical facility staff, emergency response personnel, PCB handling and disposal
companies, and, for clients, the local FM Global office
Telephone numbers of the appropriate authorities responsible for handling PCB contamination (in the United
States this includes the National Spill Response Center and the nearest EPA Office)
2.5.3.1.1 Perform monthly visual inspections of transformers, including stored transformers, to check for leaks.
Repair any leaks immediately.
2.5.3.1.2 Seal floor drains exposed to a PCB spill, with the exception of drains leading to an oil-containment
system for fire protection purposes.
2.5.3.2 Do the following for PCB-filled or PCB-contaminated transformers located in open facility areas:
A. Provide a curbed area around each transformer or bank of transformers sufficient to contain liquid from
the largest transformer.
B. Isolate PCB-contaminated transformers from hazardous processes or areas of combustible storage
by means of one of the following:
1. A one-hour fire-rated barrier
2. A minimum 15 ft (5 m) separation distance free of combustibles
2.5.3.3 Do the following for PCB-filled or PCB-contaminated transformers located within rooms:
A. Seal wall penetrations.
B. Exhaust air directly to the outside.
C. Keep the room free of combustibles.
2.5.4 Take the following precautions when replacing PCB-filled or PCB-contaminated transformers:
A. Develop a plan before moving PCB-filled equipment or containers to minimize exposure to plant areas
and to prepare for a PCB spill.
B. Provide spill containment equipment such as plastic sheeting, oil-absorbent materials, and empty drums.
C. Drain PCB-contaminated liquid from transformers containing more than 100 gal (0.38 m3) before
moving.
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Transformers
Page 28
D. Pack drums containing PCB within a larger outer drum with absorbent material between the two drums.
E. Remove drums containing PCBs from main facility areas and dispose of as soon as possible.
F. If PCB-filled drums are stored on-site, locate the drums in detached, low-value buildings. Take the
following precautions for on-site PCB storage:
1. Store the drums in rooms of noncombustible construction with noncombustible occupancy.
2. Provide a minimum 6 in. (15.2 cm) high curb around the drum storage sufficient to contain either
twice the volume of the largest container or 25% of the volume of the PCB containers in the room,
whichever is larger.
3. Ensure there are no drains within the curbed area.
4. Use an impervious material for the floor and curbing.
2.5.5 Use a competent, certified company to perform all PCB-related work.
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1 Transformer Testing
The test limits discussed in this section are only general guidelines and should not be relied on to make
important decisions. Better interpretation of test results can be obtained by comparing results from past tests,
comparing test results with name plate information or with results from a family of similar equipment and
observing trends.
Improved interpretation can also be obtained by looking at results from other relevant tests; for example,
oil screen results should be checked if power factor measurements on a transformer are unexpectedly high.
Complementary tests should be performed to confirm a diagnosis. For example, frequency response analysis
can be used to confirm if large changes in the capacitance measurement of a transformer is indicative of
winding movement.
Do not rely on any single test to make an important decision.
The reference temperature is ideally taken as the rated temperature for each component as provided by
the manufacturer. However, this is not always readily available. It is also acceptable to use the temperature
of neighboring equipment or neighboring points on the transformer as a reference. For example, when
evaluating the bushings, a good reference temperature would be the coolest bushing. And, when evaluating
the radiator banks, a good reference point would be the temperature of the top of the transformer tank.
3.1.1 Thermography
Thermography is performed with a thermographic camera with the transformer on-line. It can be used very
effectively to detect the following problems:
Low fluid level in transformer or bushing
Blocked oil flow in radiators
Shut radiator banks
Eddy current heating of the tank
Overheating tap changer contacts
Loose connections at bushing terminals
Moisture contamination of surge arrestors
A general criteria for evaluating thermographic scans is provided in Table 10.
Transformers
5-4
Page 29
Action
Continue to monitor on regular basis.
Repair at next convenient opportunity.
Repair immediately.
Failure imminent; shut down equipment for repair.
Less than 69 kV
23 kV min
40 kV min
28 kV min
47 kV min
30 kV min
50 kV min
0.5% max
5.0% max
25 min
0.5% max
5.0% max
30 min
0.5% max
5.0% max
32 min
0.2 max
0.15 max
0.10 max
27 mg/kg
15% sat
35 mg/kg
15% sat
55 mg/kg
15% sat
0.09% min
12 mg/kg
8% sat
20 mg/kg
8% sat
30 mg/kg
8% sat
0.09% min
10 mg/kg
5%sat
12 mg/kg
5% sat
15 mg/kg
5% sat
0.09% min
The interfacial tension and neutralization number (acidity) are usually used as criteria for determining when
the oil needs to be processed or replaced. At certain interfacial tension and acidity levels, the oil is prone
to forming sludge that can coat the windings and lead to decreased cooling efficiency. In addition to increasing
the oil-sludging tendency, acid is also a catalyst for cellulose aging and can accelerate the deterioration of
the paper insulation.
The tests described in the following sections may also be performed on the oil to determine if incipient faults
or deterioration are present in the transformer.
3.1.2.1 Furan Analysis
Furanic compounds are generated when paper insulation in the transformer degrades. These compounds
are concentrated in the paper, but will partition to the oil. Sampling the oil and testing for furanic compounds
provides a convenient and nonintrusive means of determining the extent of degradation of the transformers
paper insulation.
There are some important factors that need to be considered:
A. Type of paper insulation. Transformers with thermally up-rated (KTU) paper will generate much less
furan compounds. For this reason, furan analysis on transformers with KTU paper relies on the
measurement of the total furan concentration rather than just the 2FAL (2-furfural) concentration.
Transformers used in North America are almost all manufactured with KTU paper, while transformers in
5-4
Transformers
Page 30
C2H4
H2
C2H2
Likely Cause
Conductor overheating involving
cellulose
Oil overheating
Partial discharge
Arcing
Name
Hydrogen
Methane
Acetylene
Ethylene
Ethane
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Dioxide
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Other key gases sometimes included in DGA results are propane and propylene.
There are many factors that will affect the DGA results for a transformer. The interpretation of DGA results
is a highly specialized field requiring an understanding of both oil and paper chemistry as well as transformer
design, construction, and operation.
Factors such as the oil preservation system (sealed, nitrogen blanketed, or free breathing) will influence the
dissolved gas analysis results. Sealed transformers keep most of the fault gases within the oil. Free breathing
transformers allow some fault gases to escape to atmosphere, while the dissolved gases in nitrogen
blanketed transformers will partition between the oil and the gas blanket depending on the individual gas
partial pressures. These transformers will all show different DGA patterns for the same fault.
Having the tap changer in a separate compartment or within the main tank will also have an effect on the
DGA pattern. Tap changers generate gases at different rates depending on factors such as the diverter switch
type, number of tap changer operations, and the tap changer design. Faults with the tap changer will also
generate gases. These gases can mix with the oil in the main tank and may either mask faults in the main tank
or lead to a wrong conclusion that there is a fault in the main tank.
Transformers
5-4
Page 31
It is important to ensure that oil sampling practices follow ASTM D3613 or equivalent standards. This is
especially true if oil sampling is done by the transformer owner or a third party rather than a transformer oil
testing laboratory. Improper oil sampling practices will render oil screen testing and dissolved gas analysis
completely useless and, even worse, it can give misleading results that cause a bad decision to be made. For
example, when taking oil samples for dissolved gas analysis, an oil sampling syringe should be used so
dissolved gases are not lost to atmosphere. The syringe should also be protected from sunlight and extreme
temperatures that can also cause the concentration of dissolved gases to change. Taking an oil sample for
DGA from the same bottle that has been used to collect oil for oil screen tests will result in a DGA result
that has higher concentrations of oxygen and nitrogen. The concentration of hydrogen and some of the other
lighter gases will also be lower as these gases are lost when the oil sample is exposed to atmosphere.
A proper flushing of the oil valve on the transformer is needed to ensure a good oil sample is collected. The
body of the oil valve frequently collects debris, rust, and free water, which will result in misleading oil screen
test results.
3.1.4 Exciting Current
Purpose: To detect shorted core laminations, poor core joints, short circuited or open circuited windings,
poor electrical connections, tap changer problems, core and winding movement.
The exciting current test is performed by applying the same AC voltage to the high side windings. The voltage
is applied to one winding at a time with all other windings open circuited. The exciting current (comprising
the core magnetizing current, resistive loss current and capacitive charging current) drawn by the winding is
measured. This test should be performed before any DC tests have been performed. DC testing leaves a
residual magnetism of the core that will influence the exciting current.
It is good practice to repeat each exciting current measurement with the tap changer in neutral, raised one
position and lowered one position, as well as at full raise and full lower positions. If the exciting current test
is being used to diagnose problems with the tap changer, the test should be performed for all tap position.
Doble Engineering has identified 12 different tap changer exciting current patterns.
The exciting current test is evaluated by looking at the pattern of the exciting current.
For three phase, star connected, core form transformers, the exciting current pattern is two high similar
currents corresponding to the two windings on the outer core limbs and a low current corresponding to the
middle winding.
For three phase, delta connected, core form transformers the exciting current pattern is two high but dissimilar
currents corresponding to the two windings on the outer core limbs and a low current corresponding to the
middle winding.
It is important to note that exciting current patterns can vary depending on transformer construction.
It is possible to use the difference between the two higher currents to detect problems. As a general rule, if
the exciting current is greater than 50 mA, there should not be more than 5% difference between the
magnitudes of the two higher currents. If the exciting current is less than 50 mA, there should not be more
than 10% difference between the magnitudes of the two higher currents.
3.1.5 Turns Ratio for On-Load Tap Changers
Purpose: To detect shorted turns, open circuited windings, and tap changer problems.
The turns-ratio test is performed using a special test set. A known low voltage is applied to the primary winding
and the induced voltage is measured on the secondary winding. In a three winding transformer, the induced
voltage on the tertiary winding is also measured. The test is performed one phase at a time.
The measured turns-ratio should be within 0.5% of the nameplate value. Deviations between the measured
and nameplate value can indicate shorted turns, open circuits, incorrect winding connections and tap changer
problems. Usually further testing or visual internal inspection of the transformer or tap changer is needed
to locate a fault identified by turns-ratio testing.
It is good practice to perform turns-ratio tests on each of the tap changer positions and compare these against
the nameplate values to detect problems with the tap changer.
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Transformers
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Transformers
5-4
Page 33
Interpretation
Good
Deteriorated
Investigate
Bad
New
1.0%
0.5%
Service Aged
2.0%
1.0%
Interpretation
Good
Deteriorated
Investigate
Bad
Non-Cast Resin
2.0%
3.0%
4.0%
Cast Resin
1.0%
3.0%
2.0%
It is important to note that, as with all general guidelines for test results, better interpretation can be obtained
from trends and comparing test results to similar transformers or nameplate data. Other relevant test
information should also be consulted and complementary tests performed to confirm a diagnosis.
The power factor test set can also be used to determine the condition of the transformer bushings. Condenser
or capacitive bushings will have either a potential test tap or a power factor test tap to allow power factor
and capacitance testing to be performed.
The GST-ground mode is used to measure the overall power factor and capacitance of the bushing. In this
test mode all the terminals of the winding under test are short circuited and the other windings are grounded.
The high voltage lead is attached to the center conductor of the bushing and the bushing flange ground is
connected to ground terminal of the test set. All currents flowing through the main capacitive insulation of
the bushing, the upper porcelain, the lower porcelain, the sight class, and the liquid or compound filler in the
bushing are being measured.
The UST test mode is used to measure the power factor and capacitance of the bushings main insulation
(C1) only. The high voltage lead is attached to the center conductor of the bushing, the low voltage lead is
connected to the test tap, and the bushing flange ground is connected to ground terminal of the test set and
is guarded. Only currents flowing through the main capacitive insulation of the bushing are being measured.
The GST-guard mode is used to measure the power factor and capacitance of the test tap (C2). In this test
the high voltage lead is connected to the test tap (it is important to make sure the applied test voltage is
appropriated for the test tap so as not to damage the test tap insulation), the low voltage lead is connected
to the center conductor of the bushing and guard, and the bushing flange ground is connected to the ground
terminal. Only currents flowing through the test tap insulation, the ground flange, and the immediate area of
the porcelain around the test tap, are measured
Overall and C1 Power Factor: Should closely match nameplate and in general be below 0.5%.
C2 Power Factor: Should closely match nameplate and in general be less than 1.0%.
Capacitance: Should match nameplate with changes of more than 10% being cause for concern.
5-4
Transformers
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Non-condenser-type bushings (e.g., solid porcelain bushings, epoxy bushings, compound filled, oil-filled and
gas-filled bushings) do not have a test tap. It is not possible to measure the power factor and capacitance
for these bushings. A hot collar test can be performed on these bushings to measure the watts loss and
current. Increase of the watts loss is an indication of contamination of the outer surface of the bushing (typical
Watts loss is between 0.02 and 0.04 Watts, with a Watts loss greater than 0.1 Watts being a cause for
concern). Decrease of the current is an indication of internal voids, low oil or compound levels (typical
currents of 40 to 120 mA).
3.1.8 Frequency Response Analysis
Purpose: This test detects movement of the windings, core, and leads.
This test measures the frequency response of the transformer to either a variable frequency sinusoidal voltage
input (frequency response method) or to an impulse voltage input (impulse response method). In both cases,
the voltage is very low and the test is nondestructive.
The test protocol is as follows:
For each winding, inject the signal at one end of the winding and measure the response at the other end
of the same winding. For star connected windings, inject the signal at one end of the winding and measure
the response at the neutral.
Inject the signal into the high voltage winding and measure the response at the low voltage winding for each
phase.
For windings with tap changers, perform the test with the tap changer in 2 positions: the neutral position
and the position that puts the entire winding in the circuit.
The response (or transfer function) is displayed as a Bode Plot (amplitude vs. frequency) from power
frequency to 2 MHz.
The shape of the frequency response is analyzed. In particular, the resonances of the frequency response
curve provide information about the mechanical disposition of the transformer windings, leads, and core. This
test is sensitive to very small changes in transformer winding, lead, and core geometry and can pick up
problems such as axial winding collapse, hoop buckling, movement of windings relative to each another, and
shorted turns.
To gain the most value from frequency response analysis, it is useful to have a previous frequency response
plot to compare the readings to. However, the skill of knowledgeable experts as well as the experience in
frequency response analysis has advanced to the stage where it is possible to obtain good information from
a standalone test by comparing this against a database of expected results.
This test does require a knowledgeable person to interpret the results. Some companies are developing
expert systems to perform this analysis as well as general rules for reading the results. This will enable less
knowledgeable persons to provide a preliminary diagnosis. This is particularly valuable if FRA testing is used
to determine if a transformer should be reenergized after seeing a fault.
3.1.9 Insulation Resistance
Purpose: This test is performed by applying a DC voltage and measuring the leakage current to determine
if the transformer insulation is dry and clean. The test can also pick up any unintentional grounds.
A mega-ohmmeter (Megger) is typically used. The test is performed by shorting all the windings and making
sure the tank and core are grounded. The resistance to ground is then measured from the primary windings
to the secondary windings, and then from the secondary windings to the primary windings, as well as from
each winding to ground. In a three winding transformer, the tertiary winding is also measured.
The resistance is a function of temperature (winding temperature, oil temperature, and ambient temperature).
The resistance is also a function of the physical size of the transformer and its construction. Therefore, in
order to evaluate insulation resistance readings, the measured 60-second resistance value should be
corrected to 20C and compared to a minimum resistance value derived from the following formula:
R minimum = 0.8 x E
kVA
Transformers
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Where:
E is the voltage rating of the winding under test.
kVA is the rating of the transformer.
0.8 is a factor used for oil filled transformers at 20C. A factor of 16 should be used when windings are
untanked.
Because of the temperature dependence of resistance measurement, dielectric absorption ratios are used
to evaluate insulation cleanliness and dryness. The dielectric absorption ratio is the ratio of the 60-second
insulation reading to the fifteen second insulation reading. A dielectric absorption ratio in the range of 1.3
to 3 indicates a clean and dry transformer.
Another insulation ratio used is the polarization index, which is a ratio of the 10-minute insulation reading
to the 60-second insulation reading. A polarization index less than 1 indicates a wet or contaminated
insulation. A polarization index greater than 2 indicates dry and clean insulation.
It is important to discharge the windings after an insulation resistance test because any residual charge will
interfere with other electrical tests and generate bad results. There is also a potential for insulation resistance
testing to magnetize the core and this can also result in bad test results. For these reasons it is good practice
to make insulation resistance testing the last test performed on the transformer.
3.1.10 Winding Resistance
Purpose: This detects shorted turns, poor connections, open circuited windings and problems with the tap
changer connections.
Winding resistance is measured using a low resistance ohmmeter (Ductor). The test is performed by
measuring the phase to neutral winding resistance in a wye connected winding and the phase to phase
winding resistance in a delta connected winding. The phase to phase winding resistance should be resolved
to individual phase winding resistances.
Because winding resistance is temperature dependent, the following precautions must be taken:
1. The current used to perform the measurement should not exceed 10% of the rated winding current.
2. The transformer top and bottom oil temperature differential should be no more than 5C.
3. The winding temperature should be close to the average oil temperature. (Leaving a transformer
deenergized for at least 3 hours is normally enough to meet the temperature requirements.)
The measured winding resistance should be corrected to the same temperature at which the nameplate
winding resistance has been provided, and then corrected in accordance to the following formula:
R corrected = Rmeasured x (CF + CT)
CF + winding temperature
Where
CF = 234.5 for copper windings and 225 for aluminium windings.
CT = 75 for 55C rise transformers and 85 for 65C rise transformers.
Winding temperature is given in C.
There should not be more than 2% difference between the corrected measured value and the nameplate
value. Differences more than 2% indicate short circuits, tap changer contact problems, or turn to turn shorts.
3.1.11 Core Insulation Resistance
The transformer core is typically insulated from ground with only one deliberate core ground. Multiple core
grounds lead to circulating currents in the core laminations and overheating of the core.
The core ground may be brought through the tank wall via a low voltage bushing or accessed by opening
a man hole.
Core insulation resistance testing performed on accessible core grounds can provide indication of multiple
core grounds. The test is performed using a standard DC insulation resistance tester at no more than 1 kV.
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New transformers have core ground resistances greater than 1000 Mohm. Service aged transformers have
core ground resistances greater than 100 Mohm. Core ground resistances less than 10 Mohm should be
investigated.
DGA results can be used to check if core overheating is occurring. The presence of hot metal gases (ethane,
ethylene and methane) is an indicator that core overheating may be occurring. CO and CO2 may also be
present if the core overheating involves pressboard or paper insulation.
3.1.12 Electromagnetic Interference Measurement
Purpose: This test detects problems with the windings, core, and bushings that generate electrical noise.
Electromagnetic interference measurement detects radio frequency noise using radio frequency antennae
or high frequency current transformers. It is possible to apply triangulation or other methods to localize the
source of radio frequency noise generated by the transformer. This test is relatively new and is often used as
a complement to partial discharge measurements.
3.1.13 Partial Discharge Measurement
Purpose: This test detects problems with the windings, core and bushings that generate electrical noise.
Partial discharge measurement may be performed using a variety of acoustic, electrical and radio frequency
sensors. This test is relatively new but it is becoming more common as a factory acceptance test as well
as a benchmarking test. It is also being performed more frequently as a condition monitoring or diagnostic
test. Methods to triangulate the partial discharge activity have been developed that provide additional
information as to the source and therefore the seriousness of the problem.
3.1.14 Power Factor Tip-Up
Purpose: This test detects contamination and other defects in the winding insulation.
This is the same test as conventional power factor testing; however, multiple measurements are taken as
the test voltage is increased in steps.
Increasing power factor with increasing voltage is evidence of ionic contamination (i.e., conductive
contaminants like rust, salts, and copper particles) or carbonization of the oil and/or winding. Polar
contaminants such as moisture will not cause the power factor to increase with voltage.
The power factor tip up test, when applied to dry-type transformers, is useful in detecting ionic contamination
and voids in the insulation. These will cause the power factor to increase with increasing voltage.
3.1.15 Dielectric Frequency Response
Purpose: This test is used to measure the amount of moisture in the solid insulation.
The validity of this test remains controversial.
Dielectric frequency response is an extension of the power factor test. While the power factor test is performed
at a single frequency (power frequency), the dielectric frequency response test measures the power factor
of the transformer across a frequency range from 0.001 Hz to 1.0 kHz. This allows the determination of the
cause of a poor power factor reading.
This test in particular allows engineers to distinguish between moisture in cellulose insulation, chemical
contamination of cellulose insulation, and contamination of the oil or moisture in the oil as possible causes
of a poor power factor reading. Knowing the cause of a poor power factor reading allows the problem to be
treated more effectively.
The dielectric frequency response test is also able to provide an estimate of the moisture concentration in
the cellulose insulation. This is useful in determining the aging rate and remaining life of the transformer as
well as its susceptibility to bubbling.
3.2 Condition Monitoring
There are many commercial condition monitoring products available, and this market is constantly evolving,
with new products continually being offered to the transformer owner.
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Because aging of transformers depends on these three factors, the nameplate age alone cannot be relied
upon to determine when a transformer needs to be replaced.
For example, a free breathing transformer with dry insulation (0.5% by wt) operating at its rated hot spot
temperature will last about four years, while a sealed transformer with dry insulation, also operating at its rated
hot spot temperature, will last about 18 years. If the moisture in the sealed transformer is doubled to 1.0%
by wt, the transformer will fail in 9 years. If the operating temperature of the sealed transformer is increased
to 6C above its rated hot spot temperature, its life is further reduced to 4.5 years.
Degradation of paper causes the long cellulose chains to break. Shorter cellulose chains provide less tensile
strength. The length of cellulose chains in paper is measured in degrees of polymerization (DP). New
transformers have paper insulation with a DP of 800. The IEEE has set the transformer end-of-life criterion
at a DP of 200, which represents a loss of 50% tensile strength.
FM Global recommends the use of oil screen tests, DGA, and furan analysis as screening tools to determine
when transformers are approaching their end of life. Oil screen tests will identify transformers with high
moisture in paper concentrations. The ratios and concentrations of CO and CO2 in DGA analysis will identify
transformers where thermal degradation of the paper is a serious concern. And, furan analysis will provide
an approximation of the DP of the paper insulation.
4.0 REFERENCES
4.1 FM Global
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4.2 Other
ANSI/IEEE Std. 493, Design of Reliable Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
ANSI/IEEE Std. C57.91, Guide for Loading Mineral Oil-Immersed Transformers
ANSI/IEEE Std. C57.92, Guide for Loading Oil-Immersed Power Transformers
ANSI/IEEE C57.109, Transformer Through-Fault Current Duration
ANSI/IEEE C37.100, Thermal Evaluation of Oil-Immersed Distribution Transformers
International Council on Large Electric Systems (CIGRE). Life Management Techniques for Power
Transformers. WG A2.18. 2003
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Equivalent transformer: A transformer equivalent to an FM Approved transformer. An example is a UL
transformer listed per Section 450-23 and provided with electrical protection to clear a sustained low-current
fault.
FM Approved: References to FM Approved in this data sheet means the product or service has satisfied
the criteria for Approval by FM Approvals. Refer to the Approval Guide for a complete listing of products
and services that are FM FM Approved.
FM Approved transformer: A less flammable liquid filled transformer rated at 5 to 10,000 kVA. The transformer
includes electrical protection to clear high current as well as sustained low current faults. A pressure relief
device and tank discharge strength prevent tank rupture under a low-level electrical fault.
Higher secondary voltages: Secondary voltages equal to or greater than 480 volts, including 480/277 volt
systems.
In or near commercial buildings: within the interior of, on the roof of, attached to the exterior wall of, in the
parking area serving, or within 30 meters of a non-industrial non-substation building. Commercial buildings are
typically accessible to both members of the general public and employees, and include: 1) Public assembly
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The J&P Transformer Book, 11th Edition, A. C. Franklin, D. P. Franklin.RTE/ASEA Transformer Instruction
Book.
Johnson, D. L., Conserving Inherent Transformer Life Expectancy, Bonneville Power Administration, 51st
Annual International Conference of Doble Clients.
NFPA 70, National Electrical Code (NEC).
NFPA 850, Electric Generating Plants.
US Code of Federal Regulations, Part 761: Polychlorinated Biphenlys (PCBs).
European Standard EN 50195, Code of Practice for the Safe Use of Fully Enclosed Askarel-Filled Electrical
Equipment.