Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Forty Years of Brewing Research
Forty Years of Brewing Research
formation, wort composition and beer analysis. His contributions were remarkable and his focus was to solve
practical brewing problems by employing and developing
fundamental scientific principles. A number of previous
recipients of the Horace Brown Medal have reviewed
Browns achievements in detail14,73,105. However, a brief
summary here of Browns research is appropriate.
In 1916, the London Section of the Institute of Brewing presented Horace Brown with a portrait of himself
(Fig. 1) as an expression of the affection, esteem, and
homage of the Members of the Institute. In reply, Brown
presented a lecture15 entitled: Reminiscences of Fifty
Years Experience of the Application of Scientific Methods to Brewing Practice. Brown began his presentation
with the following statement: The origin of this paper is
the result of a retrospect and a process of mental stock-
Key words: Co-flocculation, flavour, flocculation, genetic manipulation, high gravity brewing, petite mutation, propagation,
stability, wort clarity and composition, yeast management.
INTRODUCTION
The Horace Brown Medal commemorates Horace
Tabberer Brown (1848-1925), one of the founding fathers of the Institute of Brewing. Although largely selftaught, Horace Brown was a true polymath who left his
mark on virtually all areas of science as applied to brewing, in a career which lasted over 50 years. His research
work considered barley germination, beer microbiology,
water composition, oxygen and fermentation, beer haze
1 International
brewing questions. Although most of the research discussed in this paper has been conducted at Labatt and
Heriot-Watt University, relevant research by other groups
has been included. All of the research discussed was initially published elsewhere, mainly in peer-reviewed journals.
PROPAGATION
AND SEDIMENTATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF LAGER
AND ALE STRAINS
The contribution of the Carlsberg Foundation to brewing research has already been discussed. One of their notable scientists was Emil Christian Hansen (Fig. 2). He
successfully isolated four strains of bottom fermenting
yeast from the Carlsberg lager yeast culture. He studied
them from the standpoint of brewery performance, and
only one of these strains proved to be suitable for beer
fermentation. The strain, described as Carlsberg Yeast
No.1 was introduced into the Carlsberg Brewery for use
on a production scale on 13 May 1883 and pure strain
brewing of lager can be said to have commenced from this
date59. Due to the origin of Carlsberg Yeast No.1 it was
named Saccharomyces carlsbergensis Hansen 1883.
This grouping of lager yeasts is now known as Saccharomyces pastorianus91.
Hansen soon found that it was too tedious and inconvenient for the laboratory to regularly furnish the Carlsberg Brewery with pure cultures and it would be easier to
obtain a specific apparatus for this purpose. With the assistance of the coppersmith, W.E. Jansen, Hansen started
to construct such an apparatus. By the beginning of 1886,
the apparatus was working effectively in the Carlsberg
Brewery. Jansen began to sell the apparatus and Heineken
was one of the first breweries to purchase this equipment.
As a result of Hansen and Jansens work, the practice
of employing a pure strain in lager production was soon
adopted by breweries all over the world, particularly in
the United States. Ale-producing regions however, met
this radical innovation with severe opposition! The
method was merely regarded as a means of reducing
infection by wild yeasts and bacteria. In 1959 it was reported60 that of 39 ale yeast cultures in use commercially
in Britain, 12 contained a single strain, 16 had two major
may also be by flotation because of cell aggregates entrapping CO2 bubbles. These are top-cropping ale brewing
strains.
Calcium adsorption
The importance of calcium ions during yeast flocculation cannot be over emphasised147. With many flocculent
strains, the calcium can be removed from the yeast cell
wall as a result of washing with deionised water and the
culture will become reversibly non-flocculent156. If calcium is then added to this de-flocculated culture the cells
become flocculent again (Fig. 7). Some flocculent strains
are not de-flocculated by washing with water, the cells
need to be treated with a solution of a chelating agent
such as EDTA followed by washing with water to remove
Flocculation
characteristics
Ale
Ale
Ale
Ale
Ale
Ale
Lager
Lager
Lager
Lager
Lager
Non-flocculent
Non-flocculent
Non-flocculent
Flocculent
Flocculent
Flocculent
Non-flocculent
Non-flocculent
Flocculent
Flocculent
Flocculent
258
200
144
203
244
207
214
256
272
189
191
Yeast culture
Flocculation
characteristic
Ale
Ale
Ale
Ale
Lager
Lager
Lager
Lager
Non-flocculent
Non-flocculent
Flocculent
Flocculent
Non-flocculent
Non-flocculent
Flocculent
Flocculent
18
19
30
42
12
14
20
22
structure from strain to strain. In addition, this strain-tostrain variation in calcium adsorption per se does not correlate with the flocculation phenotype, when comparing
one strain to another. The only meaningful measure of
calcium behaviour that correlated with flocculation was
the ease with which calcium washed off the cell and this
coincided with the visible loss of flocculation.
Yeast flocculation and cell surface fimbriae
The yeast cell wall is a complex structure consisting of
mannan, glucan, protein, chitin, lipid and a number of
other compounds (Fig. 9)66. Flocculation requires the
presence of cell surface proteins and mannan receptors80.
If these are not available, masked, blocked, inhibited or
denatured, flocculation cannot occur. Onset of flocculation is an aspect of the subject where there is significant
commercial interest, but about which little is understood.
The ideal brewing strain is one which in a typical fermentation, without the use of a centrifuge, remains in suspension as fermenting single cells until close to the end of
fermentation, when the wort sugars and most amino acids
have been utilised (details later) and the vicinal diketones
(diacetyl, etc.) are reduced. Only then will the culture rapidly flocculate and settle out of suspension to be harvested
and re-pitched into a subsequent fermentation126,172. What
signals the onset of flocculation? This is still an unanswered question162.
Electron microscopy of flocculent and non-flocculent
brewers yeast cultures shadowed with tungsten oxide has
revealed that flocculent cultures possess a hairy outer
surface (called fimbriae), whereas, non-flocculent cultures
do not contain cell surface fimbriae (Fig. 10)40. This
observation has been re-confirmed by recent studies125,163.
There are a number of treatments that will result in deflocculation of flocculent cultures that contain fimbriae
prior to treatment. Treatments include protease and shear
in a blender, both of which result in irreversible loss of
flocculation and these cultures no longer contain cell surface fimbriae. It is interesting to note that when these deflocculated fimbriae-less cultures were recultured in wort,
they became flocculent again when they entered late logarithmic growth phase and they also once again contained
cell surface fimbriae.
Fig. 10. Electron photomicrographs of Saccharomyces cerevisiae flocculent and non-flocculent shadow cast with
tungsten oxide.
GENETIC MANIPULATION
OF BREWERS YEAST STRAINS
The behaviour, performance and quality of a yeast
strain is influenced by two sets of determining factors, collectively called nature-nurture effects. The nurture effects
are all the environmental factors (i.e. the phenotypes), to
which the yeast is subjected from pitching onwards. On
the other hand, the nature influence is the genetic makeup (i.e. the genotype) of a particular yeast strain.
It has already been stated in this paper that the expectation that genetically manipulated yeast strains would be
employed in brewing has not been achieved. In 1986 we
stated132: The use of manipulated yeast strains in brewing
will become commonplace within the next decade with
yeast strains specifically bred for such characteristics as
extra-cellular amylases, -glucanases, proteinases, -glucosidase production, pentose and lactose utilisation, carbon catabolite repression and production of a plethora of
heterologous proteins. There is no doubt that prior to the
10
Fig. 12. Growth of respiratory sufficient (RS) and respiratory deficit (RD) cultures on fermentable (glucose) and nonfermentable (lactate) carbon sources.
VOL. 115, NO. 1, 2009
11
1015
12
12
5060
1520
2030
13
Fig. 18. Maltotriose (A) and maltose (B) uptake profiles from 16Plato wort 30 L static fermentation at 15C.
14
Fig. 21. Amino acid absorption pattern for a typical ale yeast
strain with a 15Plato wort. , Group A; M, group B; f, group C;
z, proline.
Fig. 22. Total nitrogen absorption profile for a typical ale yeast
strain during fermentation of a 15Plato wort. , Total
oligopeptides; M, proline; f, total ammonia; z, total amino
acids.
Group B:
intermediate
absorption
Valine
Methionine
Leucine
Isoleucine
Histidine
Group C: slow
absorption
Glycine
Phenylalanine
Tyrosine
Tryptophan
Alanine
Ammonia
Group D:
little or no
absorption
Proline
Fig. 23. Proteinase activity for ale and lager yeast strains during
fermentation of a 15Plato wort. M, Proteinase lager activity; ,
proteinase ale activity.
VOL. 115, NO. 1, 2009
15
24 hours (g/L)
48 hours (g/L)
2
5
2
5
4
8
4
8
Cloudy wort
Clear wort
Clear wort plus 0.2 g/L diatomaceous earth (DE)
Clear wort plus DE and 5.5 mg/L C16:1 fatty acid
Clear wort plus 0.2g/L bentonite.
The concentration of CO2 during fermentation of the
15Plato wort types was determined (Table V). Cloudy
wort, containing trub, and wort with DE acted as nucleation sites and increased CO2 evolution out of the wort.
Clear wort and wort plus bentonite did not function as
nucleation sites and consequently CO2 remained in the
fermenting medium to a much greater extent. Why was
there a difference between trub, DE and bentonite? In
order to visualise each type of particle and obtain data on
their surface characteristics, environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) was conducted (Fig. 25). In DE,
there was a heterogeneous mix of particle shapes and
sizes. The surface of most of the particles had an extremely porous structure, as would be expected. The micrograph of the cloudy wort solids showed a mix of
different structures, again porous in nature. Bentonite had
a more homogeneous structure. In addition, it possessed a
Fig. 25. Environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) of different solid materials.
Table VI. Concentration of ethyl acetate and isoamyl acetate following
160 h fermentation of different wort types.
Cloudy wort
Clear wort
Clear wort plus diatomaceous
earth and C16:1 fatty acid
Ethyl acetate
(mg/L)
Isoamyl acetate
(mg/L)
30
16
0.95
0.55
25
0.75
final attenuation37, high quality yeast viability and vitality17, decreased maturation times92, more efficient stabilisation and filtration140, enhanced beer quality and stability135 and high gravity brewing81.
Various studies with high gravity worts have already
been discussed in this paper. High gravity brewing employs wort at higher than normal concentration, and consequently requires dilution with water (usually de-oxygenated) at a later stage in processing81. By this means, increased production demands can be met without expanding brewing, fermenting and storage facilities.
The use of high gravity brewing,
followed by appropriate dilution
Dilution of high gravity wort, before or after fermentation, requires that the water employed be given special
treatment. The specifications of the treatment procedure
will vary depending on the dilution point81. The longer the
fermented wort is maintained undiluted, the greater the
capacity efficiency. Consequently, most breweries add
water to the concentrated beer immediately prior to the
final polishing filter. Dilution at this point requires that
the water is specially treated to secure biological purity
and chemical consistency. Most importantly, the dissolved
oxygen (DO) content of the dilution water must be reduced to approximately 50100 g/L (DO), in order to
enhance beer flavour stability.
High gravity brewing began in the United States in the
early 1960s and spread throughout North America, Australia and South Africa. Taxation and regulation difficulties impeded its implementation in a number of European
countries. Regulation problems have now largely been
overcome and high gravity brewing can now be implemented worldwide without financial penalties. Nevertheless, the impact on the flavour and foam stability of cerVOL. 115, NO. 1, 2009
17
16Plato
12 Cycles
18Plato
8 Cycles
Significant strain to strain variation has been observed
and, although there are exceptions, it would appear that,
in general, ale strains are more susceptible than lager
strains to repeated re-pitching in high gravity wort
(>16Plato)136.
Influence of high gravity worts
on yeast viability
When yeast is first pitched into high gravity wort,
passive diffusion of water out of the cell occurs and this
results in a decrease in cell viability (determined by
methylene blue and methylene violet staining). Figures 26
and 27 illustrate experiments with 12 and 20Plato worts
fermented with a lager and an ale yeast strain. Cell viability decreased in both strains within the first 24 h of
fermentation99. However, the decrease in viability was
exacerbated with the 20Plato compared to the 12Plato
wort. However, with both yeast types (which are representative of a number of lager and ale strains studied99
data not shown) the viability recovered later in the fermentation. In addition, for reasons that are unclear, ale
strains maintained higher viability than lager strains102.
is also an important stress indicator in brewing yeast cultures during high gravity wort fermentation (Figs. 29 and
30). There was rapid synthesis of trehalose in 20Plato
wort during the first 24 h of fermentation. As the cultures
acclimatised to the stress conditions imposed by this wort,
the intracellular trehalose levels decreased. It is interesting
to note that lager strains maintained higher trehalose levels than ale strains99.
Glycogen is an intracellular glucose polysaccharide
with a structure similar to starch consisting of 1,4 linkages with 1,6 branch points (Fig. 31). It is the major
reserve energy storage material in yeast cells and many
other organisms (including humans). Glycogen accumulates in yeast under nutrient limiting conditions. It has a
role in providing carbon and energy for the maintenance
of cellular activities104. During the first 68 h of wort
fermentation there is rapid utilisation of intracellular glycogen (Fig. 32). This utilisation is directly proportional to
the synthesis of lipids [mainly unsaturated fatty acids
(UFA) and sterols (ergosterol)]. These lipids are employed
by the cells to produce de novo membrane material during
cell division. Once cell division begins to decrease, glyco-
19
Fig. 33. Effect of wort gravity on vacuole size with an ale yeast strain.
Fig. 34. Changes in the vacuolar morphology during high gravity wort fermentations with an ale yeast strain.
Fig. 35. Effect of wort gravity on the cell surface morphology of an ale yeast strain.
21
20Plato
05.1
14.2
00.5
05.0
21.2
00.7
Ethanol (v/v)
Ethyl acetate (mg/L)
Isoamyl acetate (mg/L)
Ale 1
Ale 2
Ale 3
Lager 1
Lager 2
Lager 3
Glucose
Maltose
96
92
94
97
96
95
98
98
98
99
98
99
aPeptone
Glucose
Maltose
0.8
0.9
1.1
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.3
1.3
1.4
0.9
1.2
1.0
Fig. 40. The effect of low (10Plato) and high (20Plato) worts
on proteinase A release by yeast during fermentation.
Glucose
Maltose
Glucose
Maltose
4.13
2.97
3.13
6.00
3.75
4.13
2.79
2.59
2.71
5.22
3.28
3.51
0.14
0.06
0.05
0.22
0.26
0.23
0.14
0.04
0.03
0.21
0.22
0.17
Glucose
Maltose
Maltotriose
Dextrins
Maltose syrup
(MS)
15
55
10
20
5
70
10
15
acidification power test) of the cells, respectively, following four days of fermentation. For all six strains studied,
cells cultured in maltose consistently had higher viabilities and enhanced vitalities compared to their glucose cultured counterparts. Reasons for these differences are not
immediately apparent. It may be the result of slower
initial uptake rates of maltose compared to glucose and
consequent reduced growth rates. In addition, the fact that
maltose uptake occurs by active transport and glucose by
passive transport is no doubt relevant.
Despite the apparent sturdiness of the maltose grown
cells, the production of ethyl acetate and isoamyl acetate
was lower than in the glucose grown cells (Table X). The
lower levels of ester production, with maltose as the substrate, could be due to a number of reasons. It is possible
that fermentation with maltose inhibits the transport of
esters out of the cell, perhaps by modifying the plasma
membrane, thus giving the impression that fewer esters
are produced. However, in the light of the increased
viability and vitality of the maltose grown cells, this is unlikely. Another possibility is that maltose metabolism produces lower levels of acetyl-CoA, which has been suggested as resulting in fewer esters due to a lack of
23
Table XII. Percentage viability of an ale and a lager brewing strain after
fermentation in 12Plato and 20Plato wortsa.
20Plato
12Plato
MSb
VHMSc
MS
VHMS
95
94
98
97
93
95
96
98
Ale
Lager
a Methylene
12Plato
MSb
VHMSc
MS
VHMS
0.9
0.7
1.1
0.9
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.9
Ale
Lager
a Acidification
power test.
(55) syrup.
c Very high maltose (70) syrup.
b Maltose
20Plato (MS) wort174. This confirms the findings employing synthetic media with single sugars, that maltose
fermentations produce less ethyl acetate and isoamyl acetate than glucose fermentations. In addition, similar to the
synthetic media fermentations, the wort with elevated
concentrations of maltose produced yeast with higher viabilities than the wort containing lower levels of maltose139
(Tables XII and XIII).
der stress conditions (for example, high gravity wort fermentations) and proteinase A remains in the cytoplasm or
is excreted into the environment. Laser scanning confocal
microscopy as a qualitative tool, in conjunction with flow
cytometry61,177 details later, is a powerful tool to gain
insight into the response of yeast cells to the changing
environmental conditions occurring during fermentation.
Flow cytometry
Flow cytometry is a technology that simultaneously
measures then analyses multiple physical characteristics
of single particles, usually cells, as they flow in a fluid
stream through a beam of light. It can assess yeast physical and chemical characteristics based on cell size, relative granularity and fluorescence. Flow cytometry methods have been developed to measure cell viability,
damaged cells, intracellular pH(pHi), mannan residues21
and intracellular glycogen and trehalose22.
An example of the application of flow cytometry in
brewing research is the recently conducted study of disc
stack centrifuge operating parameters and their impact on
yeast physiology24. Modern centrifuges produce forces in
excess of 10,000 times the earths gravitational force,
achieving solid separation in seconds with reduced equipment volume. Centrifuges have a number of applications
in a brewery and can be used for:
Cropping of non-flocculent yeast cultures at the end of
primary fermentation which may then be re-pitched
into a subsequent fermentation;
Reducing the yeast quantity from green beer before
the start of secondary fermentation;
Beer recovery from cropped yeast;
Separation of the hot break after wort boiling;
Removal of cold break and yeast at the end of maturation.
This study has concentrated on the effect that centrifugation has on yeast which is intended to be re-pitched.
The passage of yeast through a centrifuge exposes cells to
mechanical and hydrodynamic shear stresses161. We have
shown23 that these stresses can cause a decrease in cell
viability and flocculation, cell wall damage, increased extracellular proteinase A (PrA) levels, hazier beers and
reduced foam stability. In these studies, a commercial ale
yeast was subjected to differing operating conditions during centrifugation with 56 hL/h Westfalia Separator (Fig.
44). Yeast cultures, following centrifugation, were analysed using flow cytometry techniques. Cell viability and
intracellular pH decreased due to the processing conditions encountered during yeast cropping with a centrifuge.
A relationship has been established whereby yeast cell
wall mannan, an unfilterable haze constituent, as a function of G-force and centrifugation cycles is released from
the cell wall while concurrently, particle sizes between
0.52.8 mm and beer haze increased. Furthermore, yeast
intracellular glycogen and trehalose levels were depleted
as a result of centrifugation. During these experiments,
the centrifuge was operated under conditions similar to
those encountered during commercial production. It is important for yeast management systems that utilize centrifuges, that they are designed and operated properly, to
minimize negative consequences on beer quality and stability19. Recent investigations found that implementation
EPILOGUE
Although Horace Brown conducted his fifty years of
research over one hundred years ago, the results of his
studies are still apparent. The award that has been established in his name is to recognise eminent services on the
scientific or technical side of the fermentation industries,
has to date recognised 24 brewing scientists who have
made considerable contributions to our understanding of
the brewing process and to the development of beer quality and stability. The studies discussed in this paper have
attempted to solve fermentation questions with the application of fundamental research principles. Areas that are
discussed include: yeast flocculation, yeast management
and storage methods, genetic manipulation of yeast, wort
sugar and amino acid uptake and the influence of wort
composition (particularly wort clarity and concentration)
Many people and organisations have contributed to the research studies described in this paper and are gratefully acknowledged. Much of the research described has been conducted as
part of studies for PhD degrees. Fourteen such theses are cited.
In addition, many post doctoral scientists have made considerable contributions to the research effort at both Labatt and
Heriot-Watt University. Also visiting scientists from Argentina,
Australia, Brazil, Canada, Croatia, China, Finland, Germany,
Jamaica, Japan, Slovenia, South Africa, Turkey, the United
Kingdom and the United States, have contributed to the research
programme. In Canada, as well as both financial and moral
support from Labatt, the Canadian Federal Government provided invaluable grants and advice. Thanks are specifically due
to: Agriculture Canada, the National Research Council of
Canada (NRC), and Natural and Engineering Sciences Research
Council (NESRC) for their support. In Heriot-Watt, a number of
industry organisations have supported the research effort particularly: Brewery Research International (BRi), the Brewing, Food
and Beverage Industry Suppliers Association (BFBi), the British
Brewery and Pub Association (BBPA)(including the IBD Grants
Committee), the Scotch Whisky Association (SWA), the Scotch
Whisky Research Institute (SWRI), and the companies who have
supported the research programme include: Alltech, Asahi
Limited, Briggs of Burton, British Sugar, Charlton United Brewers, Coopers Brewery, Coors Brewing (including Bass), Corn
Products, Diageo (including Guinness and their Spirits Division), Ineos Silicas, Lion Nathan, Miller Brewing, Scottish
Courage, South African Breweries, Steiner Hops, Suntory Limited and Wessex Grain (Green Spirit).
During my forty years in the brewing industry, I have been
supported by a large number of excellent scientists. Administrators and secretaries have also been an invaluable part of this
endeavour. Worthy of particular mention and thanks are Karen
Smith (who was my secretary at Labatt for thirteen years) and
Anne Anstruther (who was my secretary at Heriot-Watt University for three years immediately prior to my retiral).
Lastly, but by no means least, I have been supported by Inge
Russell since 1970. Her encouragement, enthusiasm, friendship
and critical approach cannot be over emphasised.
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PhD Thesis, Heriot-Watt University, 2003.
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