The Dunhuang Chinese Sky

THE DUNHUANG CHINESE SKY: A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF THE OLDEST KNOWN STAR ATLAS
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THE DUNHUANG CHINESE SKY: A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF

THE OLDEST KNOWN STAR ATLAS
Authors
Jean-Marc Bonnet-Bidaud is an astrophysicist in the Astrophysical Department of the
French Atomic Energy Commission (C.E.A.), and specialises in high energy
astrophysics and in the study of highly condensed stars in the Galaxy. He is also
deeply interested in the history and popularisation of astronomy. He is currently the
scientific adviser of the French astronomy magazine Ciel et Espace and has published
numerous articles in different magazines and newspapers. He is mainly interested in
the history of modern cosmology and in the roots of ancient astronomy in China and
Africa.
Dr Franoise Praderie, an outstanding European astronomer, passed away on 28
January 2009, before this paper was published. Prior to that she was an Honorary
Astronomer at the Paris Observatory. She was a former Vice-President of the Paris
Observatory and former Editor of Astronomy and Astrophysics. She contributed to the
creation of the trans-disciplinary European association Euroscience, where she served
as its first Secretary General. Her main research interests are in stellar seismology, and
she was the author of the Book The Stars (which was co-authored with E. Schatzman).
Dr Susan Whitfield is Director of the International Dunhuang Project at the British
Library and an historian and writer on China and the Silk Road. She is interested in
cross-disciplinary research, combining history, archaeology, art history, the history of
religions and science in her study of manuscripts and artefacts from the eastern Silk
Road. She has published extensively, lectures worldwide and also has curated several
exhibitions, including a display of historical star charts in the collections of the British
Library.
Abstract
This paper presents an analysis of the star atlas included in the medieval Chinese
manuscript Or.8210/S.3326 discovered in 1907 by the archaeologist Aurel Stein at the
Silk Road town of Dunhuang and now housed in the British Library. Although partially
studied by a few Chinese scholars, it has never been fully displayed and discussed in
the Western world. This set of sky maps (12 hour-angle maps in quasi-cylindrical
projection and a circumpolar map in azimuthal projection), displaying the full sky visible
from the Northern Hemisphere, is up to now the oldest complete preserved star atlas
http://bonnetbidaud.free.fr/chine/articles/index_a4d.html#section10
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known from any civilisation. It is also the earliest known pictorial representation of the
quasi-totality of Chinese constellations.
This paper describes the history of the physical object a roll of thin paper drawn
with ink. We analyse the stellar content of each map (1,339 stars, 257 asterisms) and
the texts associated with the maps. We establish the precision with which the maps
were drawn (1.5-4 for the brightest stars) and examine the type of projections used.
We conclude that precise mathematical methods were used to produce the Atlas. We
also discuss the dating of the manuscript and its possible author, and we confirm the
date +649-684 (early Tang Dynasty) as most probable based on the available
evidence. This is at variance with a prior estimate of around +940. Finally, we present a
brief comparison with later sky maps, both from China and Europe.
Contents
1. Introduction
The Dunhuang star atlas is one of the most spectacular documents of the history of
astronomy. It is a complete representation of the Chinese sky including numerous stars
and asterisms depicted in a succession of maps covering the full sky (Figure 1). Apart
its aesthetic appeal, the document found on the Silk Road is remarkable as it is the
oldest star atlas known today from any civilization.
The Dunhuang star atlas is unique in the information it gives, which is discussed in
more detail below: a) more than 1300 individual stars in the total sky are represented,
as could be observed by eye from the Chinese imperial observatory; b) the sky is
displayed as in the most modern charts with twelve hour-angle maps, plus a North
polar region; c) the Chinese constellations are indicated with their names; d) the atlas
is drawn in two inks on the finest paper and accompanied with complementary text; e)
the document is shown to date from the early Tang period (618-907), while the oldest
other star atlases in China date from the eleventh century.
The manuscript is very often quoted in encyclopaedic and popular publications as an
illustration of Chinese astronomical knowledge. However, despite its crucial historical
and scientific importance, we realized that no extensive description and analysis of the
atlas existed in Western literature. Needham reproduced part of the manuscript and
gave only a very short description (Needham, 1959, 264). Since then it has received
only brief mentions in other studies (Sun Xiaochun and Kistemaker, 1997, 29; Deng
Wenkuan and Liu Lexian, 2003, 76).
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We decided to undertake a detailed study of the star atlas after the exhibition on the
Silk Road organised in 2004 by the British Library where the document was shown and
a preliminary analysis was given (Bonnet-Bidaud and Praderie, 2004). In the present
paper, we shall first give a full review of the Chinese sources (sect. 2), then give a
general description of the star atlas (sect. 3), examine the accuracy and the type of
planar projection used and also present a method to give a date from astronomical
arguments (sect. 4). We then discuss the date of the star atlas, compare the Dunhuang
star atlas to other Chinese atlases and further comment on the status of these
documents (sect. 5). In a monographic appendix, we also include the in-depth
description of two representative sections of the document. This study was made
possible by the use of high resolution digital copies of the star atlas made available to
us by the International Dunhuang Project. This first publication in Western language is
aimed at making available basic information on this important document.
Figure 1: The complete Dunhuang Star Atlas, the last section of the Or.8210/S.3326
British Library manuscript, showing the twelve star maps (as seen above, from right to
left), followed by the circumpolar map and ending with the drawing of a bowman in
traditional clothes. The total dimensions are 2100 mm in length and 244 mm in width.
1.1 The Discovery of the Star Atlas

Inscribed on a roll of Chinese paper, the manuscript star atlas is surprisingly well
preserved. The conditions in which the document was found are well known and leave
no doubt about its antiquity. It was discovered by the British-nationalised but
Hungarian-born archaeologist Aurel Stein in 1907 among the pile of at least 40,000
manuscripts (Hamilton, 1986) enclosed in the so-called Library Cave (Cave 17) in the
Mogao ensemble, also known as the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas near Dunhuang
(Gansu). The Mogao caves are a set of several hundred Buddhist temples cut into a
cliff and heavily decorated with statues and murals. The site was active from about
+360 to the end of the Mongol period. In about +1000, one cave was apparently sealed
(Rong Xinjiang, 1999) to preserve a collection of precious manuscripts and some
printed material including the worlds earliest dated complete printed book (Whitfield
and Sims-Williams, 2004). The sealed cave was rediscovered by accident and reopened only a few years before the arrival of Stein in 1907. He was therefore the first
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European visitor to see the hidden library.

These circumstances, together with the dry desert climate of Dunhuang, contributed
to excellent conservation of the caves contents. Most of the Dunhuang documents are
religious texts on Buddhism but there are some socio-economic documents and a few
concern medicine, divination and astronomy (Kalinowski, 2003). The astronomical texts
are all calendars or almanacs except for two star charts. One of them contains the
representation of the whole sky as it could be observed from a latitude of ~ 34N. This
is now known as the Dunhuang star atlas. The other (probably only a fragment)
represents incompletely the polar region but not the rest of the sky. This other chart
(DB 76) is preserved in the Dunhuang City Museum in China.
After the visit of Stein and the subsequent visits of other foreigners such as Paul
Pelliot, Otani Kozui and Sergei Oldenburg, as well as the clearing of the cave by the
Chinese government, the manuscripts were dispersed to England, France, China,
Russia and Japan. Steins collections were transferred to the British Museum, where
the Dunhuang star atlas received the registration number Or.8210/S.3326 (S. for Stein,
hereafter referred to as S.3326).
S.3326 did not receive much attention at the time of its discovery. This manuscript,
which is in two sections, was catalogued by Lionel Giles (Giles, 1957). He listed it under
the classification "'divination'" (cat. no. 6974) for the first section and described the
second section as "'13 star-maps with explanatory text'". He did not estimate a date.
His catalogue was published in 1957 but it had been ready for publication since 1947.
Around the earlier date, Joseph Needham and Chen Shixiang studied the Stein
collection of astronomy-related manuscripts for their volume on astronomy (Needham,
1959). In a footnote in the volume, Needham (1959: 264) claims to have been the one
to recognize the worth of the star atlas: "'I discovered this extremely interesting map in
conjunction with my friend Prof. Chhen Shih-Hsiang.'" He is also probably responsible
for the initial dating of this manuscript, quoted in most studies thereafter, as he
continues: "'Its probable date makes it about contemporary with the maps in the Book
of the Fixed Stars (+903 to +986)'" and he puts the date at "'ca. +940'" in his text
and captions to the reproduced images (his Figs. 99 and 100).
Unfortunately, the Needham archives do not yield any further information about
Needhams visit to the British Museum to view the manuscripts, nor his research notes.
The astronomy volume was published in 1959 but most of the work was carried out
between 1949-56, when the manuscript for this volume was completed. It is probable
therefore that the 'discovery' was in the early 1950s. By this time, Giles had completed
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work on his catalogue, although it was still unpublished, and could have directed
Needham to the astronomy-related manuscripts.
2. The Chinese Context

2.1 Chinese Astronomical Background
Although we know that the sky was carefully observed for at least four millennia in
China, India and Mesopotamia, what remains in written or graphical form of these
observations is very patchy. China is noticeable, though, since astronomical chapters
can be found in every of the official dynastic historical records starting in the second
century BCE with the Historical Records (Shiji
) of Sima Qian (
) (Chavannes,
1895), generally considered to be the first history of China. The astronomical chapters
of the Shiji include stellar catalogues, which are copies of older, lost ones composed
during the Warring States period (-476 to -221). They are known to result from
different schools led by three astronomers of ancient times Shi Shen (
), Gan De (
) and Wu Xian (
) who composed reference books describing the stars and the
different astrological predictions associated with them (Chavannes, 1895; Maspero,
1929). Though Sima Qian himself does not differentiate information from the three
schools of astronomers, the three distinct catalogues were maintained through the
Han period (-206-+220) and later combined by the astronomer Chen Zhuo
(+220280). The tradition of attributing each asterism (or Chinese constellation) to a
different school survived because of the demands of astrological prediction.
The most complete and detailed description of the Chinese sky, including positions,
given by coordinates in Chinese degrees, is later found in the Astrological Treatise of
the Kaiyuan Period (Kaiyuan Zhanjing
), a compilation attributed to the
astronomer Qutan Xida (
) in +729. Part of this information is also present in
the astronomical chapters of the History of the Jin (Jinshu
) and History of the Sui
(Suishu
), both probably written by the astronomer Li Chunfeng
(+60270)
(Needham, 1959, 197, 201 ; Ho, 1966).
Chinese astronomy differs from the ecliptic-based Chaldeo-Greek tradition by its
equatorial character, due to the central role of the polar star (Biot, 1862; de Saussure,
1930). The celestial region close to the equator is divided in 28 asterisms (group of
stars), called xiu ( ), and often translated as 'mansions' or 'lunar lodges' (hereafter
referred to as 'mansions'), which can be considered as an equatorial Chinese zodiac. A
mansion is defined by an hourly interval corresponding to the meridian passage of two
successive leading stars. The grouping of the stars in China is also totally different
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from the Greek tradition. Beside the equatorial region, the rest of the sky is divided in
very numerous small asterisms (nearly three hundred), most associated with practical
objects or persons of the Chinese empire, leading to astrological predictions. Lists of
the Chinese constellations were maintained all through Chinese history and did not
change much over time. They form the basis of the astronomical Chinese tradition (Ho,
1966; Sun and Kistemaker, 1997).
2.2 Review of the Chinese sources on S.3326

Based on different photographic reproductions, Chinese scholars, both historians and
astronomers, have produced several papers in Chinese on S.3326 since the 1960s. Xi
Zezong first published an article with complete images (1966). He probably used
facsimile images of S.3326 taken from the microfilm. He emphasizes the progress
represented for the first time by the representation of the sky charts not on a circular
plan but in a way similar to the Mercator projection, several hundred years before
Mercator. He notes that the column texts accompanying each hour-angle map are
similar to the ones found in the chapter 64 of the Kaiyuan Zhanjing and provides more
complete versions based on this text. He then describes the hour-angle maps and the
circumpolar map, giving the number of stars by asterism, with asterisms being ordered
according to the mansions. He counts 1,359 stars in total and compares it to the Chen
Zhuo list giving 1,464 stars following a compilation of the catalogues of Shi Shen, Gan
De and Wu Xian (Needham, 1959, 265).
Ma Shichang (1983) paid particular attention to the dating of S.3326. While Needham
(1959) mentions, without any justification, a date of ca. +940, Ma Shichang analyzes
three elements in the document: a) the style of writing, b) the clothing of the bowman
whose drawing ends the manuscript, and c) the taboo characters in the text. He cites
the taboo form of the character
(min) to infer that the manuscript was copied after
the reign of Li Shimin (
), the personal name of the Taizong emperor (r. +626-49).
He argues further that since the character
(dan) occurs several times, the
manuscript was written before the reign of the Ruizong emperor ( i.e. before +710),
who had this character as his personal name, Li Dan (
). Starting with his reign, the
character
should have been replaced. Ma Shichang narrows the time gap further by
using the type of clothes worn by the bowman (see also sect. 5.1), saying that this type
was in use only since the time of Empress Wu Zetian (r.+690-705). Since the
manuscript has no Empress Wu taboo characters, it had to be written after her reign,
i.e. after +705. From this evidence he concludes that S.3326 was written in ~+705-710.
His argument, however contains inconsistencies (see sect. 5.1).
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Pan Nai (1989, 148) also produced a description of S.3326 with a valuable discussion
on its date. , there is a possible reference to Li Chunfeng. He refutes the claim (Xia,
1982) that S.3326 was inspired by Songs of Pacing the Heavens (Bu Tian Ge (
)
(Iannaccone, 2002; Zhou, 2004), a book in verses including some sky illustrations
which is dated +590-600. Pan Nai supports the idea that there was an original star
atlas prepared by Li Chunfeng from which S.3326 was copied. Considering the style of
writing of the accompanying text, he proposes without any further argument that the
copy may date from the tenth century, thus concurring with Needham (see also sect.
5.1).
Deng Wenkuan (1996: 58ff), in the context of a study of astronomical texts and
calendars found in Dunhuang, reproduces the S.3326 star atlas with explanatory notes
and punctuated versions of the text. In a more recent book (Deng, 2002), he dedicates
a chapter to S.3326 and finds similarity with several other texts such as the
astronomical chapters of the Jinshu, another text by Li Chunfeng (Yisi Zhan
)
and the Kaiyuan Zhanjing.
In a book on ancient Chinese star atlases, Feng Shi also gives a brief survey of S.3326
(Feng, 2001, 330).
3. General Description of S.3326

3.1 Physical Characteristics of the Manuscript
S.3326, now held at the British Library, is a paper scroll of total length 3940mm and
width 244mm. It is in reasonable condition. The thickness of the original paper is about
0.04mm (0.16mm with the modern lining). The manuscript is currently wrapped in a silk
wrapper and supported by a wooden roller, both being later additions. The Chinese
paper is very fine and a recent analysis revealed that it is made of pure mulberry fibres.
The scroll is fully lined with a brown Kraft paper. The lining on the object is a treatment
performed in the 1950s, its style and materials being consistent with the type of
interventions performed during that period and the following decade at the British
Museum. The microfilm provides further evidence. This was shot in 1953 and shows
the manuscript already lined. It is possible that the Kraft paper lining was only added to
the manuscript after Needhams discovery. It is clear that those items in the Stein
Collection receiving the most attention from scholars were those that received
conservation treatment. The remainder were largely left in their original condition.
The scroll is inscribed on one side only. The beginning of the scroll is however missing
so that there is no title or names of the authors. The bottom section is also missing at
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the beginning of the document. In some parts, there are traces of replication marks by
contact due to the long conservation in a rolled state. The document is divided in two
different parts. From right to left, the first section is an uranomancy/meteoromancy
text containing 80 extant columns of text below 26 drawings of clouds of different
shapes. In this part there is an interesting citation under column 43 which can be
translated as "'according to your servant Chunfeng'" (Pan, 1989; Deng and Liu, 2003),
a possible direct reference to the astronomer Li Chunfeng. L Buwei
(c.291
235), advisor to the First Emperor of China, Qin Shihuangdi, is also mentioned (Figure
2; see also sect. 5.1).
The star atlas follows this first section without a break. The atlas is 2100mm in length
and consists of 12 vertical maps, each with accompanying texts in columns on the left,
followed with one map of the circumpolar region with no text, and one column at the
end, making 50 columns and 13 maps in total. The full star atlas is presented in Figure
1. The very last part of Figure 1 is the drawing of a bowman shooting an arrow in
traditional clothes and, judging by the caption to his right, this depicts the god of
lightning. He is followed by what appears to be a title (to his left). It is common in
Chinese manuscripts to note the title at the beginning and end of the document so it is
probable, therefore, that this text refers to the previous parts. However, the meaning of
this title remains a mystery and it has not yet been possible to make sense of it;
moreover a survey of Chinese historical and bibliographical sources failed to reveal a
similar title.
3.2 The Astronomical Content

3.2.1 The Star Maps
The twelve star maps are arranged in separate hour-angle sections, beginning with the
mansions of Xu ( ) and Wei ( ) and covering the entire sky, namely the 28 mansions
and their North and South prolongations, by slots of about 30 in the East-West
direction. In each map, the Chinese asterisms with their names are drawn from stellar
declination about - 40 to about + 40. The stars are shown as coloured dots, the
majority of which encircled in black. All dots are of similar size. Black lines joining the
dots materialize the constellations or asterisms. The orientation is such that North is
up and West is at right so that the star right ascensions (or celestial longitudes) grow
from right to left in the direction of the document. The celestial equator and the ecliptic
are not represented and the Milky Way is not apparent. There is no coordinate grid
either. The thirteenth and last map is the North circumpolar region, represented as a
planisphere of radius about ~40 i.e. covering the declination zone from 90 to 50.
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Obviously, the 12 maps are limited towards South by the

visibility above the horizon of the night sky, from the Imperial
Observatory which might have been in Changan (present-day
Xian) or Luoyang, both at latitude of ~34 N.
Noticeably, S.3326 records however the presence of several
very southern objects, hardly observable from Changan or
Luoyang. On the map corresponding to the fifth lunar month
(map 6), the star Laoren
(! Car-Canopus) is displayed,
though misplaced towards the north and closer to the equator
than it is in reality. Despite its southern position, the star is also
included in Sima Qians astronomical chapter. He indicates it
symmetrically about Tian Lang
(! CMa-Sirius) as "'a big
star called "the old man of the south pole" (Nanji Laoren
)'". Also shown, are the very southern stars, Beiluo shimen
(map 1- ! PsA) and Nanmen
(map 9 - two stars of
Centaurus), also reported by Sima Qian. This shows that
Chinese astronomers explored the Southern sky and had done
so long before the known southern expedition of +724-725. It
was led by Yi Xing
(+683727), a Tang astronomer who
re-measured the positions of many stars in the Chen Zhuo list
and established at least eleven observation stations, down to
latitude 17.4 near Hu in present-day Vietnam (Beer et al,
1961).
The individual stars appear to have been taken from a
composite catalogue, established by the astronomer Chen
Zhuo by merging the observations of the Three Schools
astronomical tradition (see sect. 2.1). Although the Chen Zhuo
catalogue, which is also said to have contained a star atlas (Ho,
1966, 67) is lost, Kaiyuan Zhanjing has preserved the list of
constellations of the Three Schools, with 1464 stars grouped in
Figure 2: Part of the

S.3326 first section (cloud
divination texts). Columns
41 to 44 are shown, 41 to
the right. The text (fully
translated in Section 5.1 in
the present paper)
includes a reference to
the possible author of
S.3326, the astronomer Li
Chunfeng (text in red
frame).
283 asterisms. S.3326 contains similar information and is the

first known document which shows stars as different coloured
dots to differentiate between the astronomers of the Three
Schools: Shi Shen (red), Gan De (black) and Wu Xian (white and/or yellow). Here the
colour conventions are grosso modo followed. There are many changes however,
which suggests that this tradition was less rigidly followed at the time S.3326 was
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drawn. We have counted 1339 stars grouped in 257 asterisms, although some
overlapping or some non-encircled dots prevent an accurate census. Xi Zezong (1966)
gives for the same chart a number of stars of 1359. We were able to identify all but
fifteen asterisms as their Chinese names are given on the map.
Out of the 28 mansions, 27 are shown on S.3326, as a belt roughly following the
celestial equator, and all show up with their leading star. The only missing one is Wei
( ) or belly which may be present in the east part of map 3 but with a character
including a mistake. As in the description given by Li Chunfeng in the astronomical
chapters of the Jinshu (Ho, 1966), the Chinese sky exhibited by S.3326 displays the
three yuan ( enclosures or wall systems), namely Ziwei (
), Taiwei (
) and
Tianshi (
), which encircle different groups of stars. These are regions of the
present pole star ! UMi and stars in Draco and Cassiopeia for Ziwei; " Vir and stars in
Virgo for Taiwei; # Oph and stars in Ophiucus for Tianshi. All the bright stars visible
from latitude 34N are found on the map. As to the faintest ones, they correspond to
eye observations of astronomers with very sharp eyesight. It is puzzling, and noted for
a long time, that Chinese astronomers did not pay attention to visual magnitudes when
drawing star atlases. This is the case in S.3326, where we estimate that stars as faint
as visual magnitude 6.5 are present.
The document, drawn by hand and possibly a copy, shows the positions of the stars
with, in general, good precision (see sect. 4.1). In Chinese astronomy, the large number
of asterisms (257 as compared to the 88 modern constellations) allows to specify fairly
well the 'co-ordinates' of mobile heavenly bodies such as the Sun, Moon and five
planets or of unexpected events such as 'guest stars' (comets or novae). None of the
latter appears on S.3326.
We have noted some misplacements of stars or asterisms, which are either errors or
show lack of attention on the part of the copyist. For instance on map 6, the asterism
Liu
(part of Hydra) should be at the same declination as Nanhe
(containing !
CMi) while on the map Liu is too far to the North. We also note that the same name
appears for different groups of stars, but this is in accordance with the Chinese
tradition. For instance, Tiantian
denotes an asterism south of the mansion Niu
(map 12) as well as an asterism of 3 stars north of the mansion Jiao
(map 9). On
map 13, there are also two groups of 3 stars with the same name, Sangong
(Three
excellencies), one to the south of the handle of Beidou
, the other near the star !
UMa also in Beidou, but this appears here to be a faulty duplication. Finally there is
some confusion between left (zuo ) and right (you ) when denoting east and west
relative to a given star or asterism. An example is found on map 3, with Yougeng
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being east and Zuogeng

west of Lou
and on map 8 with Youzhifa east and
Zuozhifa west of Taiwei
(" Vir). This
seems in both cases an error of the author
of the S.3326 map, an error which is not
repeated on map 12 where Youqi
is
west and Zuoqi
is east.
Two representative maps, the Orion stellar
region (map 5, Figure 3) and the
circumpolar region (map 13, Figure 4) are
fully described in the Appendix.
Figure 3: The Orion star map (Map 5, lunar month

4th). The map shows the recognizable Western
constellation, Orion, and includes additional calendar
texts (on the left) and culmination texts (at the
bottom).
3.2.2 The Calendar Texts (Jupiter Stations)

Each of the twelve hour-angle maps comes with an explanatory text in one or two
columns located to the left. The north polar map has no such text.
The texts are a description of the twelve divisions of the Chinese year with their
associated astrological predictions. In each map, the equatorial zone (including
classically 2 or 3 mansions) is defined precisely by its extension in Chinese degrees
and related to the corresponding station of Jupiter (the so-called year star). The
sidereal period of Jupiter being 11.86 tropical years, it was approximated to 12 years in
Chinese tradition. The sky was therefore divided in twelve sectors, successively
occupied by Jupiter in 12 years, and named Jupiter stations (ci ). Moreover each
column text gives two more indications: the name of each terrestrial branch (one
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element in the enumeration of days in the Chinese calendar) associated with the
Jupiter station and the name of the state within the Chinese empire supposedly
influenced by that region of the sky (see Table 1). As an example, the first map refers to
the Jupiter station Xuan Xiao. The text reads:
From the 8th degree of N to the 15th degree of Wei, associated with [the terrestial
branch] zi, is [the Jupiter station] Xuan Xiao. The colour of the North direction is
the black. When Xu [appears], [it will be] a bad harvest. At the 11th month, the spirit
yang contracts, the spirit yin expands, the ten thousand beings [all the creation]
disappears into the darkness, there is no life, sky and earth are without
consistence, the Sun [goes] into Xuan Xiao. This division corresponds to [the state
of] Qi.
These texts are mainly of astrological use but the scientific notation in degrees reveals
that they are based on astronomical observations and have been produced with the
attempt to be as precise as possible for this period. Interestingly, a reduced version of
similar texts is found in the astronomical chapters of the Jinshu with a later redaction
commonly attributed to Li Chunfeng. This shortened version includes only the station
extensions in degrees, the terrestrial branch and a more detailed association with
Chinese states but without any astrological predictions (Ho, 1966: 113-120). We have
checked the S.3326 extensions and found them almost exactly the same to those of
the Jinshu, with only very minor one-degree variations in three cases (Table 1).
We also note that in five cases (maps 1, 4, 5, 7 and 9), the texts refer to a lunar month
different from the corresponding map, in reference with the long astrological tradition
of considering a 'shadow planet' moving in the opposite direction of Jupiter (see
Needham, 1959, 402).
The astrological comments were found by previous authors analogous to texts in the
section Fenye Lueli (
) of the astronomical treatise (chapter 64) of the later
Kaiyuan Zhanjing. Based on this complementary information, a completed version in
Chinese of the twelve calendar texts was produced, restoring the punctuation and the
missing characters since some of the texts seem abbreviated on S.3326 (Xi, 1966;
Deng, 1996, 58). The S.3326 texts appear therefore more developed than those found
in Jinshu but also a somewhat earlier preliminary version of those of the Kaiyuan
Zhanjing.
Analysis of the stations equatorial extensions on S.3326 shows that their lengths are
approximately equal, with a mean value of 29.0 and a total range from 27.1 to 31.4
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(for an equator at date +700). A major difference occurs however for the Jupiter
stations Chun Huo (month 6) and Chun Wei (month 7) with respectively an extension of
36.7 and 19.7 (Table 1). This appears to be an error of 10 in the extension of the
mansion Zhang that is given as 18 while the mansion total extension is only 8 (the
effect of the precession will not vary this value by more than a fraction of a degree
even for dates back to 500).
Table 1 shows that the correspondence between Jupiter stations and Chinese
mansions on the Dunhuang atlas is almost exactly the same as that found on Figure 91
and Table 34 (Needham, 1959). Actually the repartition of the mansions with respect to
the Jupiter stations is conventional and seems to go back to a very old tradition (de
Saussure, 1930). As these calendar texts are based on Jupiter cyclic behaviour, they
do not provide useful astronomical information on the production date of the
document.
Table 1 : Correspondence between Jupiter stations and Chinese mansions according to the S.3326
Map1
Month
12
S.3326
Jupiter
Stations
S.3326
Jupiter
Stations
Extensions
Xuan
Xiao
from 8th
of N to
15th of
Wei
Zou Zi
S.3326
Month/Branch/State3
Needham
Jupiter
Stations
Xu, Wei(12)
11 / zi / Qi
5. Xuan
Xiao
om 16th
of Wei to
4th of Kui
Shi, Bi(14)
- / hai/Wei
6. Qu Zi
Jiang
Lou
from 5th
of Kui to
6th of
Wei
Kui, Lou
- / xu/Lu
7. Jiang
Lou
Da Liang
from 7th
of Wei to
11th of Bi
Mao, Bi(19)
8 / yu / Zhao
8. Da
Liang
Zui, Shen, Jing
7 / shen/ Wei
9. Shi
Chen
Gui, Liu
- / wei / Qin
10.Chun
Shou
Xing, Zhang
5 / wu / Zhou
11. Chun
Xin
Shi Chen
from 12th
of Bi to
15th of
Jing
Chun
Shou
from 16th
of Jing to
8th of Liu
Chun
Huo
S.3326
Chinese
mansions2
(from West to
East)
from 9th
of Liu to
17th of
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Zhang6
7
Chun
Wei
from 18th
of Zhang to
11th of
Zhen
Shou
Xing
from 12th
of Zhen to
4th of Di
Jiao, Kang
3/chen/Zheng
1. Shou
Xing
10
Da Huo
from 5th
of Di to 9th
of Wei
Di,Fang,Xin,Wei(6)
- / mao / Song
2. Da Huo
Ji, Dou
- / yin / Yan
3. Xi Mu
Niu, N
-/chou/Wu-Yue
4. Xing Ji
11
10
Xi Mu
from 10th
of Wei to
12th of
Dou7
12
11
Xing Zhi
from 12th
of Dou6 to
7th of N
Yi, Zhen
- / si / Chu
12. Chun
Wei
1. The Dunhuang S.3326 maps are numbered 1 to 12, according to their order in the document, map 1
corresponding to the Winter solstice.
2. Chinese mansions (xiu) with same pinyin names [as Bi(14), Bi(19)] are distinguished by their order nu
as in Needham (1959), Fig. 91, p. 243.
3. Lunar month used for predictions and name of the corresponding state as indicated in the astrologic
text.
4. Correspondence between Jupiter stations (ci) and Chinese mansions (xiu) from Needham (1959), Fi
(p. 243) and Table 34 (p. 403).
5. The xiu Wei(17) is absent from the S.3326 map.
6. Apparent copyist error introducing a very unequal station (see text).
7. Between month 10 and 11, the station extension is noted with the same degree on the map (from 12t
Dou) instead of increasing by one degree as in the other extensions.
3.2.3 The Culmination Texts

At the bottom of the maps, an additional text gives the major tropical landmarks
associated with the lunar month. One reads together with the number of the lunar
month, the position of the Sun with respect to the mansions present on the map and
the culminating constellations at dusk and at dawn during the month. The first map is
labelled '12th lunar month'. For three maps (8, 10 and 12), these indications are absent
or erased.
The twelfth (lunar) month, the Sun meets the mansions N and Xu; at dusk the
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mansions Kui and Lou culminate; at dawn the mansion Di culminates.

-
The astronomical content of these texts is summarized in Table 2. According to

different authors (Pan, 1989; Deng, 2002) these monthly texts are identical to those
found in an early text, the Monthly Ordinances (Yueling
), that can be found both in
the historical text The Spring and Autumn Annals (Lshi Chunqiu
), dated -240
and in a chapter of the Classic of Rites (Liji
), dated approximately to the third or
second century before the modern era. For comparison, the corresponding information
from the Yueling texts is also given in Table 2, according to Legges translation (Legge,
1885; also Couvreur, 1913). Despite an overall similarity, there are notable small
differences between Yueling and S.3326. For the culminations of mansions at dusk and
dawn, the differences only affect months 2, 6 and 10 (out of the 9 months for which
these texts are present on S.3326), with at least one obvious copying error (see Table
2).
Interestingly enough, for the Sun conjunction with the mansions, the months 3, 4, 5, 10
and 12 are given with two mansions instead of one, the second one always with a
higher right ascension than the mansions in Yueling. If interpreted as corrections to
take into account the effect of precession for a period later than that of the Yueling,
this is opposite to what would be expected. The culmination texts on the maps can
however be dated by comparing with known astronomical configurations (see sect.
4.2).
Table 2: Culmination texts: positions of the sun and culminations in lunar months
Map
Lunar Month
12
Major
Western
Constellations
on S.3326
CygnusPegasusAquarius
AndromedaPegasusPisces
AriesCetusAndromeda
PerseusTaurusEridanus
AurigaOrionLepus
CancerCanis
MajorGemini
Xu
Wei (12)
Shi
Bi (14)
Kui
Lou
Mao
Bi (19)
Zui
Shen
Jing
Gui
Liu
Sun
conjunction
N
Xu
Shi
Kui
Wei (17)2
Mao
Bi (19)
Zui
Jing
Gui
Dusk
culmination
Kui
Lou
Shen
Liu
Xing
erased?
Yi
??
Kang
Di
Wei (6)
Niu
erased?
Wei (12)
S.3326
Chinese
mansions
(xiu)1 on
S.3326
Dawn
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culmination
YUELING4
Sun
conjunction
(Ying)Shi
Kui
Wei (17)
Bi (19)
Jing
Dusk
Lou
Shen
??
Xing
Yi
Kang
Dawn
Di
Wei (6)
Dou
Niu
Wei (12)
Map
10
11
12
Lunar Month
10
11
Major
Western
Constellations
on S.3326
LeoHydra
Virgo
Corvus
Canes
Venatici
BootesVirgoLupus
SerpensOphiucusScorpius
HerculusOphiucusSagittarius
LyraAquilaCapricornus
Xing
Zhang
Yi
Zhen
Jiao
Kang
Di
Fang
Xin
Wei (6)
Ji
Dou
Niu
N
Sun
conjunction
Xing
no text
Jiao
no text
Wei (6)
Ji
no text
Dusk
culmination
Fang
no text
Niu
no text
Kang3
no text
Dawn
culmination
Kui
no text
Zui
no text
Xing
no text
Liu
Yi
Jiao
Fang
Wei (6)
Dou
Dusk
Huo/Xin5
JianXing
Niu
Xu
Wei (12)
Bi (14)
Dawn
Kui
Bi (14)
Zui
Liu
Xing
Zhen
S.3326
Chinese
mansions
(xiu)1 on
S.3326
YUELING4
Sun
conjunction
1. Chinese mansions (xiu) in pinyin transcriptions are given from West to East on the maps
(right to left). Mansions with same pinyin names [as Bi(14), Bi(19)] are distinguished by
their order number as in Needham (1959), Fig. 91, p. 243.
2. Wei (17) is the only xiu missing graphically in the star atlas. A character in the eastern part
of panel 3 could be Wei but with a mistake.
3. Does not correspond to a possible astronomical configuration, possible copying error.
4. From J. Legge, The Li Chi , (1885, new edition 1967), Univ Books, New-York ; see also
F. Couvreur (1913), Le Li Ki , ed. Ho Kien Fu.
5. The term huo ( ) also designates the xiu xin ( ).
3.3 The Polar Star
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Figure 4: The North circumpolar region (Map 13). The map displays
from the polar region down to a celestial latitude of about +50.
The circumpolar map is fully described in the Appendix and shown in Figure 3. As was
usual in the Chinese sky representations, the North Polar region features the central
Purple Palace with the Celestial Emperor at the pole, surrounded by his family,
servants, military officers and the corresponding housing.
According to Gaubil, also quoted by de Saussure (Gaubil, 1819; de Saussure, 1930), the
star " UMi was adopted as polar star by the Chinese about -1000, and named Di (the
first ancestor), but it was distant by 630' from the real pole. Due to the precession of
equinoxes, the astronomical North pole describes a circle around the ecliptic pole in
25800 years. Recognising the North polar star would therefore be a means of dating
the sky map. On S.3326 the asterism Beiji is clearly drawn, with four stars red encircled
by a black line ($ U Mi, " UMi, 5 UMi, 4 UMi). Another star is red and pale, not encircled
in black, and is located near 4 UMi. It is not easily identifiable in modern terms. The
polar star is not indicated as such on the map. It could be that red, pale spot, but it
would be strange that the star figuring the supreme ruler be so little prominent on the
map. At the difference of the Suzhou sky map (see sect. 5.2), the polar star on S.3326
cannot be seen within the asterism Sifu (the four advisors). We therefore conclude that
for some reason the polar star is not shown on S.3326. However, the type of projection
used to represent the polar region in S.3326 allows to date the map, even if there is no
graphic representation of the pole itself (see sect. 4.1).
4. Scientific Evaluation of S.3326

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4.1 Accuracy and Projection Study

S.3326 is a unique document as it presents a display of the full sky in a very 'modern'
way, including a set of hour-angle maps in cylindrical-type projection, combined with a
circumpolar region in azimuthal projection. This is the way most geographical maps are
still presented today. Unlike most other ancient astronomical artefacts (i.e. the
Denderah zodiac or the Farnese globe, see sect. 5.2) which only show constellations
figures without individual stars, it also provides a large number of star positions,
grouped in asterisms each clearly labelled so that only few ambiguities remain. In this
sense, it can be considered as a scientific document and its accuracy can be tested.
To evaluate the accuracy of the star positions in the maps, we made use of only the
brightest stars (magnitude mv<3). Identifications were made using mainly the list
provided from the study of the Han catalogues (Sun and Kistemaker, 1997, 44) as well
as other traditional compilations (Ho, 1962) as a check. We have further selected only
the stars for which no ambiguity exists on their identification by name though, in some
cases, slightly different positions are still possible, adding probable systematic errors.
The star positions on the maps were measured from the high-resolution scans
provided by the British Library. A ruler is present in each scan that allows the
conversion to the physical size. The scan scale (204.8 pixel/cm) yields a precision an
order of magnitude better than the size of the symbols on the maps. The typical size of
the dots marking the stars (~ 0.2 cm) is indeed the limiting factor, so that the
measurements accuracy can therefore be estimated to less than ~ 0.1 cm. The star
positions on the maps were compared to the star equatorial (right ascension RA,
declination DEC) coordinates, corrected for proper motion and precessed to the date
+700 (ESA, 1997 for proper motions). As no absolute references are present in the
document, the effect of the precession is not fully relevant here (see however below for
the pole position).
To evaluate the maps accuracy, some assumption has to be made on the projection
used. We tested the hour-angle maps with the two simplest versions of the cylindrical
projection (pure-cylindrical and Mercator) and the circumpolar map with two azimuthal
projections (equidistant and stereographic). In each case, the accuracy in the two
coordinates (RA and DEC) was evaluated separately to judge for the effect of different
scales.
The best parameters of the projections consistent with the measured positions (X,Y)
were determined by least-square fits with fitted function as :
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where (RA, DEC) are the star predicted position, (X,Y) the star measured position and
(a,c) and (b,d) respectively the zero points and scale factors for each projection.
Table 3 gives representative results of the fits for three selected hour-angle maps
(maps 1, 2 and 5) and for the circumpolar map (map 13).
The general quality of the document is illustrated by the mean residuals (in degrees)
and the associated correlation factor R. For the hour-angle maps, the regression factor
is always quite good ranging from 0.91 to 0.99 with a marked better correlation in the
vertical (declination). The residuals are of the order of a few degrees only, with the best
accuracy (~ 1.6) achieved in map 5. One notices also a significant difference between
the horizontal (right ascension) and the vertical (declination) scales, the last one being
always larger. This means that the projection is not strictly conformal (equal scales) but
the scales are consistent from one map to another. The typical scale is ~ 4.5/cm
(horizontal) and ~ 5.5/cm (vertical). The extensions and the geometrical centre of the
maps have been computed from the star extreme fit positions. From one map to the
other, they are very similar (~50) in right ascension but more variable in declination
(70 to 100) though more or less centred at the horizon. The comparison of the
different types of projection, pure cylindrical vs Mercator does not yield a significant
difference in the quality of the fit as shown by the corresponding similar regression
factors. Within the uncertainties, both projections are therefore in equal agreement
with the maps. For illustration, Figure 5 gives the correlation results for the map 5 as
well as the reconstructed positions using the fitted scales.
Figure 5: The regression factors and residuals (Orion, Map 5). Least-square fit of the
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measured X-Y positions with a pure cylindrical-projection. Note the very good
correlation in the vertical scale (Y-declination).
Figure 6: Computed vs measured positions (Orion, Map 5). The

measured positions from the best fit cylindrical projection (filled
circles) are compared to star positions for +700 (open circles with
crosses). Note the good accuracy in declination.
For the circumpolar map (map 13), the results are also given in Table 3 in terms of the
azimuthal fit (hour-angle) and radial fit (polar distance). The azimuthal fit is extremely
good with a correlation factor of 0.995 and mean residuals of 1.7. With a scale factor
of 1.050.03, there is also no significant distortion from the theoretical value (1.0) for
the azimuthal projection. Comparatively, the radial fit is notably poorer (R=0.92) with
mean residuals at 33 and significant distortions in the polar distances (see Table 3
and Figure 7). The comparison of the pure equidistant projection with the
stereographic gives a slightly better fit to the stereographic (R=0.93) but not strictly
significant with respect to the statistics. Though some distortions obviously exist (Fig.
7, see also the Appendix), the overall accuracy of the projection is well preserved.
Interestingly, the correlation study also provides an indication of the expected position
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of the pole on the map with respect to the reference position at date +700. The
measured shift in polar distance of the pole reference point (0, 90) between the
S.3326 map and the sky at date +700 is only marginally significant with a difference of
(3.92.9). This position and associated uncertainty is compared in Figure 5 to the
stars close to the pole at different dates, ! UMi (~ +2000), % Dra or " UMi (~ 1000)
and ! Dra (~ -2500). Within the above uncertainties, the pole is fully consistent with a
+ 700 date.
Figure 7: The regression factors and residuals (North polar region, Map 13). Leastsquare fit of the measured polar distance (radius) and azimuth with an azimuthal
equidistant projection. Note the good azimuth correlation.
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Figure 8: Computed vs measured positions (polar region, Map 13). The

measured positions from the best fit azimuthal projection (filled
circles) are compared to star positions for +700 (open circles with
crosses). Also shown is the measured uncertainty in the Pole position
from the best fit (dotted circle) and the different positions of the Pole
(open squares with crosses) at dates of about +2000 (! Ursae
Minoris), 1000 (" Draconis) and 2500 (! Draconis).
The numerical study of the S.3326 document yields important results. The atlas is not
a simple hastily hand-made reminder but is established according to precise
geometrical rules. The projection methods used are consistent with either a pureequidistant or the Mercator projection for the rectangular maps and with the
azimuthal-equidistant or stereographic projection for the circular one. This is in line
with similar results obtained on two later Song period maps, the Suzhou
planisphere and the Xin yixiang fayao
rectangular map (Miyajima, 2002).
In all cases, the correlations are very good, which eliminates any random coincidence.
Based on the brightest stars, the general positional accuracy of the maps is of the
order of ~ 1.5 to 4. The layout of the rectangular maps is reasonably good with similar
scales from one to another but with 5 variation in the location of the equator. The
map appears therefore as a probable hand copy of a previous more accurate document
although the method of reproduction is not clear. The fineness of the original paper
might have allowed for the maps to be traced from a clear original. It has nevertheless
preserved a remarkable accuracy. It should be noted however that this accuracy study
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is based on selected bright stars only. The overall accuracy is well preserved but with
local significant differences in the positions of individual stars (see for instance " CMa
in map 5 or ! Car (Laoren) in map 6). In some parts, the geometrical shape of
numerous asterisms appears also highly approximate and even fantastical.
Table 3. Computed scales and projections of the Dunhuang maps
Map 1
Map 2
Map 5
Map 13
Input stars1
19
12
17
22
Selected stars2
16
10
15
19
Horizontal
Horizontal
Scale factor (d/cm)
4.40
4.24
4.56
1.05
Mean residuals (d)
3.54
4.63
2.26
1.67
Correlation factor3
0.947
0.957
0.907
0.995
Right Ascension (RA) fit
Declination (DEC) fit
Vertical
Horizontal
Vertical
Azimuthal
Vertical
Radial
Scale factor (d/cm)
5.40
7.66
5.28
5,10
Mean residuals (d)
3.57
4.07
1.61
3.29
Correlation factor
0.974
0.975
0.996
0.919
Correlation factor Mercator
0.972
0.974
0.994
0.932
Map centre (RA)
308
344
73
Map limits (RA)
284 to 332
321 to 366
49 to 97
48
45
48
Map centre (DEC)
+0.3
+10
+8
87.6
Map limits (DEC)
-44 to +45
-41 to +61
-27 to +43
+90to +52
Map extension (DEC)
89
102
70
48
Geometrical centre (DEC)
-14
-8
+5
Correlation factor Stereographic

Map dimensions
Map extension (RA)
1. Input stars selected according to their magnitude.

2. Selected stars for the fit after rejection of largest deviations.
3. The correlation coefficient R is the Pearson least-square fit parameter with value R=1 for
a perfect fit and R=0.76 and 0.68 for a random probability of 0,01% and 0,1%
respectively.
4.2 Analysis of the Culmination Texts : An Attempt at Dating
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Figure 9: Dating from the culmination texts. The time difference

between the Suns position and the mansion (xiu) indicated in the
culmination texts as a function of time. Shown is the mean Sun
position indicator, Hsun, an average value over the 12 months for each
epoch. Note the large error bars reflecting the important dispersion of
the monthly values around the mean value. From a polynomial
interpolation (thick line), the minimum difference is found at date
~+85 with an interval (40 to +220) according to the mean errors
(shown by vertical lines).
Temporal information can also be extracted from the Dunhuang maps using the
culmination data contained in the texts added to at least 8 out of 12 maps. In these
texts, the given information is the number of the month, the name of the mansions
through which the Sun passes during that month, and the names of the mansions
which culminate (i.e. cross the meridian) at dusk and dawn during the month. This
information does not change appreciably from one year to another but on longer
timescale, the slow effect of the precession of the equinoxes introduces a significant
shift in the position of the stars defining the mansions with respect to the Sun.
We have calculated the effect of the precession in a period ranging from -500 to +900,
which corresponds to the most likely interval where the information could have been
produced. The definition of the mansions and more precisely their leading stars, have
been taken from the list by Needham (table 24, Needham, 1959, 234-237). Standard
precession has been applied without introducing proper motion, which is negligible for
this list of stars.
The Sun position through the Chinese zodiac formed by the mansions was computed
for each chart at mid-month and a common Chinese year starting on 5 February was
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assumed. This is the exact middle date for the variable Chinese luni-solar calendar
(see Aslaksen 2003, 27). For each month, the equatorial Sun coordinates (right
ascension RA, declination DEC) were computed from astronomical formulae as well as
using a planetarium software (Voyager v. 4.0.3) and three different indicators have
been computed.
The Sun position indicator, Hsun, was defined as the difference in RA between the Sun
and the leading star of the mansions indicated in the map. In the case when two
mansions are indicated in the map, the mean RA of the two mansions was used. Two
other parameters, the rise (Hrise) and set (Hset) indicators, are defined as the difference
in RA between the culminating RA and the mansions indicated respectively for the
rising and setting time in the maps.
The culminating RA is simply the sidereal time (ST) at sunrise and sunset and can be
computed using standard formulae as:
where RA and DEC are the Sun equatorial coordinates at date and & is the observers
latitude. In the following, a latitude of 34 was used, corresponding to the city of
Changan (present-day Xian) but also compatible with Luoyang, the eastern capital of
China. For each epoch, from -500 to +900 with a 100 year step, the indicators were
computed for each month and their mean value and standard deviation for each epoch
was evaluated.
The Hsun mean value is shown in Figure 9 along time. Due to the effect of precession, it
shows a continuous decrease, starting from +0.25 hr at -500 to -0.27hr at +900. A
best date for a minimum shift can therefore be interpolated and is computed to be +85
with an interval (-40 to +220) according to the mean statistical errors. An important
dispersion around the mean value is present from month to month (up to 0.5hr) which
is reflected in the significant error bars.
Some caution has to be made about this absolute dating of the chart texts since there
is no clear indication that our basic assumptions that the Sun position is considered at
mid-month and that the mansions are given by their leading star (the starting point of
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the mansions) are correct. In other situations however, if the mansion positions are
identified with their mid-extension or the Sun considered at beginning of the month,
the absolute dates will be shifted in the past by quite a large amount, not consistent
with the supposed period.
5. The Status of S.3326

5.1 Dating the Document
The exact dating of S.3326 is a difficult task. It is necessary to distinguish between the
following factors:
(a) The date of the paper support itself. The nature of the paper makes it similar to
those used in China up to and including the Tang dynasty (618-907), though its
extreme thinness and long pure mulberry fibres makes it an expensive, not an everyday
paper. Such paper was almost certainly made in Central China and probably under
imperial order in the capital, Changan. More precise dating by means of C14
radioactive carbon should be possible but has not been attempted yet.
(b) The date indicated by its possible author. The scroll S.3326 lacks its original front
cover that could have guided us for this purpose. However, there is a phrase in the
initial uranomancy section which reads: "'chen Chunfeng yan '" (
).This
translates literally as "'your servant Chunfeng said'". It is a part of a paragraph which

reads (see Figure 2):
'L Buwei said that, as a general principle, when you approach a mound on a plain
and there are air vapours in the shape of a staff reaching high up into the sky,
straight and firm; if it is yellow, it is the colour of the Son of Heaven (i.e. the
emperor). Blue, red, white and black all mean the presence of tears and grief. Your
servant Chunfeng says that as a general principle such prefectures and cities
produce dukes and knights. With regard to colours, blue means deliverance from
sickness, white that an army is being raised, black that robbers and thieves are
increasing in the city.'
This is an argument for considering Chunfeng as a possible author of either the S.3326
manuscript itself or its original if it is a copy. The only person mentioned in historical
records at this time who had the right expertise with this name was Li Chunfeng, an
outstanding figure of astronomy and mathematics. The phrase 'Your servant says' is
formulaic and the absence of the family name is a sign of modesty when referring to
oneself in company with a famous man, here L Buwei, but it obviously makes the
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attribution to Li Chunfeng less certain. The statement is however extremely similar to

the one used to introduce the commentaries by Li Chufeng in the mathematical treaty
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art (Jiuzhang Suanshu,
). As Li
Chunfeng was also a highly skilled mathematician, it is quite reasonable to think that he
had all the expertise to design the projection methods used in the chart. The mention
of Li Chunfeng would therefore put the period of the document to about +650-670,
when he was active.
(c) The date suggested by the style and form of the writing. Just as for European
manuscripts, the style of the handwriting can be used to help date Chinese
manuscripts. Pan (1989), in the article discussed above, suggests that the manuscript
is a tenth-century copy, but Galambos (personal communication, 2008) suggests that
the handwriting is more typical of an earlier period, fitting with a seventh or early
eighth-century date and Ma (1983), in the article discussed above, also follows this
view. The handwriting is not that of a professional scribe who would have written in a
much neater and more regular hand and might, if required, have copied an earlier style.
It is individualistic and this suggests that the writer was using his own hand and
following the conventions of his time. This is relevant to the use of taboo characters,
another clue to dating (see below).
(d) The date suggested by the taboo form or spelling of the Chinese characters.
Taboo characters are particular to Chinese texts (see footnote 9). As discussed above,
Ma (1983) points out the use in the Star Chart of the taboo form of min, one part of
emperor Taizongs personal name, confirming a date after the end of his reign (+649
onwards). He also points out that the character dan, forming the emperor Ruizongs
personal name, is in its standard, non-taboo form. This suggests a date before this
emperor came to the throne. Ma gives this as +710. However, Ruizong also ruled briefly
in 684 (e.g. see Fairbanks and Twitchett, 1979) and the taboo form should have been in
effect from this earlier date. There are no other characters from later emperors or
empresss names appearing in the manuscript in either standard or taboo form. This is
fairly strong evidence that the manuscript dates from between +649 and +684. The
individualistic style of the handwriting supports this conclusion: it is not the
handwriting of a scribe paid to make an exact copy of an earlier manuscript. These two
pieces of evidence seriously challenge Needhams +940 date.
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Figure 10: The last section of the S.3326 document showing the image
of a bowman in traditional clothes shooting an arrow. Judging by the
caption to the right of the image, the figure is the god of lightning
(Dian Shen
). The drawing is followed by what appears to be a title
(to the left). The clothing is typical of an imperial functionary and the
official hat provides some evidence of the epoch. After the tenth
century it became common for officials to starch their hat flaps so that
they stuck out horizontally. This image shows unstarched hat flaps,
which suggests an earlier date.
(e) The date suggested by the drawing, which Ma Shichang argues is a style common
during Empress Wu Zetians reign. The clothing is fairly generic, but the official hat
does provide some useful supporting evidence (see Figure 10). From the tenth century,
it became common for officials to starch their hat flaps so that they stuck out
horizontally. This image shows unstarched hat flaps, also suggesting an earlier date.
(f) The date of the sky epoch as it is graphically represented in the maps. This is
provided by the astronomical analysis presented here. The sky configuration may be
dated using a) the location of the Celestial Equator in the stellar maps, and b) the
position of the Pole in the circumpolar map. On the short stretch of each hour-angle
map, the location of the Celestial Equator is too imprecise to give useful constraint (see
Table 3). However, the projection analysis of the circumpolar chart gives however a
meaningful constraint on the position of the Pole (Fig. 6). The configuration is fully
consistent with a date around +650.
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(g) The date corresponding to the additional culmination texts. The analysis of the
Sun's position among the mansions as indicated in the maps, points to a configuration
at dates -40 and +220, which puts these texts at an earlier epoch than the maps. This
indicates that the texts on the document may be a compilation of different sources.
From our analysis, it is likely that both the original document and its possible copies
were produced in the interval +649-684, at the beginning of the Tang dynasty, a
period rich in significant works in astronomy. The precise range is provided by the
taboo characters and is consistent will all other estimates. This date range
encompasses a time contemporary with Li Chunfeng and is earlier than the period
when the important astronomical text Kaiyuan Zhanjing was produced. It also
corresponds to the full apogee of the Tang domination in the Gobi region where the
manuscript was found. The preliminary date of about +940 initially provided by
Needham, on grounds that we were unable to trace, is certainly not confirmed by our
analysis though it was still compatible with the closing date of the Dunhuang sealed
library (c.+1000). At this time China was divided and so the conditions were certainly
less favourable for production of such a sophisticated scientific document.
5.2 A Comparison with Other Sources

It is outside the scope of this paper to review all the different sources where a pictorial
representation of the sky is included but we will consider S.3326 in relation to the
important most ancient artefacts with related contents.
In China, before the Dunhuang map, only few objects give a graphical description of
the sky and none of its totality. Among the oldest is the lacquer box found in 1978, in
Sui county (Hubei), in the tomb of the Marquis of Yi. Dated from 430 (Warring States
period), it is decorated with the first known representation of the 28 mansions
encircling the central Bei Dou (Ursa Majoris) but with no other detail on the sky (Li
Changhao, 1987; Rawson, 1997). Later sky representations were also found in the
ceiling of different tombs such as the Jiaotong University tomb, dated -25
(Stephenson, 1993) or the Luoyang tomb, dated +526 (CASS, 1980) but all with a very
limited fraction of the sky. The closest comparable document is the already cited Bu
Tian Ge (Iannaccone, 2002; Zhou, 2004). The book, dating from +590-600, includes
sky illustrations with stars and asterisms, comparable to the Dunhuang map but limited
only to the mansions at the equator and the North circumpolar region. Though it may
be considered as a preliminary version, it is by no means as complete and accurate as
S.3326.
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Later, i.e. after 700, the production of star atlases continued, in China, Korea and finally
in Europe. Different known Chinese maps immediately follow S.3326. They of course
largely benefited from the improvement of observation methods during the Song
dynasty (960-1279). Two outstanding Chinese star charts with a complete coverage of
the observable sky are quoted by Needham (1959: 277-279) and are still the only
available ones from the Song period.
The Su Song atlas, included in the book Xin Yixiang Fa Yao (
, New Design
for an Armillary Clock) written by the astronomer Su Song, is dated +1092 by

Needham. It is a set of five maps, more elaborate and more complete (1,464 stars) than
S.3326, comprising two (instead of twelve) rectangular maps where the mansions, the
equator and the ecliptic are conspicuously drawn, one circumpolar map and two North
and South polar projection maps. All five maps are reproduced in Zhongguo Heng Xing
Guance Shi (History of the Observation of Fixed Stars in China) (Pan, 1989, 436-438).
The Suzhou map (Suzhou Tian Wen Tu
) is a planisphere engraved in stone
in +1247 and is still visible in a temple in Suzhou (Jiangsu). Astronomer Huang Shang
prepared it in +1193 for the instruction of a future emperor of the Song dynasty. It is
remarkable since it is accompanied by an explanatory text which is a full astronomical
treaty. This text has been translated by Chavannes (1913). The Suzhou planisphere is
more elaborate than S.3326 in the sense that it shows radial grids converging on the
North Pole and corresponding to the equatorial mansions. It also displays the equator,
the ecliptic and the Milky Way. Like S.3326, it extends up to the declination limit
beyond which stars are no more visible from the observing place.
Those two star atlases allow an assessment of the astronomical quality of S.3326,
which is 400 and 500 years earlier respectively. It is interesting that all three maps are
based on the same 'Three Schools' list of stars and asterisms. Progress in sky
observation under the Song but within the frame of the same objects observed as
before the Han originates from documents like S.3326. It is a valuable witness of the
advancement of ancient Chinese astronomy.
In western civilisations, there are no known extant sky charts before the early Islamic
work by the Persian astronomer, Al-Sufi (+903986), the Book of Fixed Stars,
illustrated with constellation pictures with stars. Unfortunately, apart from a unique
copy kept in Oxford possibly dated from (1009-1010) (Wellesh 1959, Brend 1994), no
contemporary documents survived and the earliest other copies are from the twelfth
century. The sky is displayed through independent panels showing stars in separate
constellations but without indication of the constellation relative positions. Among the
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other related works in Europe, only the Farnese globe is older than the above
documents. It is considered to be a Roman copy of the second century AD of a Greek
original dating from before the modern era (Schaefer, 2005; Duke, 2006). Though the
major constellations of the Greek sky are carved on marble, no individual stars are
positioned on the sphere; therefore it is hardly comparable to a full star atlas such as
S.3326. Similarly, the other most famous source, the Denderah zodiac, dated -50
(Aubourg, 1995) and preserved in the Louvre Museum, shows only constellations with
no identifications and no individual stars. In the same way, a Carolingian manuscript
(dated +818), drawn according to Aratus, and sometimes referred as the earliest
European star atlas, shows only nave drawings of a few constellation figures, without
stars (Whitfield, 1995).
The tradition of representing the sky finally came to Europe during the early
Renaissance. The oldest true star atlas in Europe is probably the Vienna manuscript
(Oesterreichische Nationalbibliotek MS 5415) dating ca. +1440, which contains the
main northern constellations with a limited number of stars, plotted in a polar
projection from the ecliptic pole (Whitfield, 1995), dating some seven centuries after
the Dunhuang Star Atlas.
An extensive compendium of astronomical maps, mostly from the western world can
be found in Gingerich (1983). As to Chinese star atlases, they are collected by Feng Shi
(Feng, 2001).
5.3 The Purpose of S.3326

S.3326 lacks its cover and start which might have guided us to its purpose. The first
section on the extant document is concerned with uranomancy The star atlas follows
and completes the manuscript. The scroll is also lacking its end sheet so we have no
way of knowing whether it originally consisted of only these two texts or more. What
could be the use of a star atlas just following this first section of the manuscript? We
can only make conjectures.
Dunhuang was an important strategic town for the Chinese for much of the first
millennium and was administered by imperially-appointed officials, the senior ones
from Central China. The administrative office kept archives of important documents. It
is hypothesized that, because of the shortage of paper during the Tibetan rule of
Dunhuang (c.+786-848), documents from the Chinese administrative archive were
recycled with Buddhist sutras being inscribed on the backs or versos. At other
times, the back of Buddhist texts was used. Such documents came to be stored in the
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Library Cave, a Buddhist library. Documents like S.3326 with no Buddhist text on the
back could have been kept there for future use.
A manuscript such as S.3326 contains however very important and valued official
knowledge. Astronomy in China was an essential imperial science as the divination
based on the sky events taking place in the celestial mirror image of the empire was
the way to rule the state. S.3326 was either copied in Dunhuang or originally produced
at the Imperial Observatory, and brought to Dunhuang. There is no evidence that Li
Chunfeng, a possible author of the original of S.3326, ever went to Dunhuang. As a
high official under the early Tang dynasty he would have lived in Changan, the capital.
He remained in office in the Imperial Observatory to at least +664, occupying from
about +648 the position of Taishiling (
) i.e. Director of the Astrological Service
(Chemla and Guo Shuchun, 2004; Hockey, 2007).

We can also focus on the portable character of the document. It is possible that we
have in hands not a scientific text intended for scientists only but a product of more
general use which existed in several copies for several users. This would suggest that
the version found in Dunhuang is one example among others of the copied original. As
we have noted, the calligraphy is not of imperial standard. Since the manuscript found
in Dunhuang has two consecutive sections on the same paper support, the purpose of
such scroll could have been to help travellers or warriors on the Silk Road who needed
both predictions of the future from the aspect of the clouds and assistance in their
travel from the aspect of the night sky. But the high quality of the paper and the
importance and sensitivity of the subject-matter argues against this. It is a mystery
and, unless we discover similar documents, we might never know its original purpose.
6. Conclusion
At the end of this paper, it is legitimate to underline again the importance of the
Dunhuang star atlas, S.3326.
It has a special position in the history of astronomy, as it is the oldest extant graphical
star atlas known from any civilisation. There is no equivalent either in Western Europe
or in any other civilisation. Though it was found at the edge of the central Chinese
empire, a region open to different influences and not always controlled by the Chinese,
the precious document is conceived in the purest Chinese astronomical tradition. It is
probably one of the most synthetic documents that encompasses information of
different origins for the use of scientific astronomy as well as divination purposes.
First, it is the first known pictorial presentation of the traditional Chinese constellations.
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Individual stars, more numerous than in Ptolemy catalogues, are represented and
grouped in constellations. It gives us a full representation of the Chinese sky, in strict
accordance with all previous known catalogues, retaining, by use of different colours,
the old tradition of attributing to three different schools the naming and description of
the different asterisms. The information on the star positions is delivered using a
careful systematic method that makes use of accurate projection methods. This is
unique considering the period of the document and in all points similar to present-day
techniques. The overall accuracy (of the order of a few degrees) is surprising for a
document from an early epoch and considering the relatively small dimension of the
paper roll.
It also includes additional texts with information relative to a conventional calendar (the
position of each lunar month in the seasons and within the Jupiter cycle) as well as
some specific astronomical conjunctions within each month. These texts are also part
of the ancient Chinese astronomical tradition as they are only slightly different versions
of known separated sources, respectively the Yueling (not older than -240), the Jinshu
(with a redaction around +635) and the probably later Kaiyuan Zhanjing (dated +729).
The source of S.3326 is probably the early Chinese lists of stars such as those
compiled in the third century Chen Zhuo catalogue. Based on different arguments, the
dating of the star atlas (649-684) shows that it could have been originally drawn by Li
Chunfeng around ~+650, though the lack of its front cover and any other evidence
does not allow us to confirm this.
Nonetheless S.3326 as we have it today was serendipitously preserved in a hidden
cave for almost a millennium and this makes it a unique witness of the sky as it was
represented under the Tang.
7. Appendix
7.1 The Orion stellar region (map 5)
The sky region displayed on map 5 (fourth lunar month) extends from 30 to + 40 in
declination (Fig. 3 and Table 4). Right ascension increases from ~50 to 100, right to
left, i.e. west is to the right of the map, east to the left. At the difference of most of the
other maps, a major constellation can be recognised: Shen
or Orion, a rare case
where a constellation seen by the ancient Chinese is similar to what we are used to in
the Western world.
The map contains 109 stars, grouped in 20 Chinese asterisms (see Table 4). The
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northern feature is Wuche
and Sanzhu
24/03/2016 19:05
, both forming Auriga. The two
mansions Zui
and Jing
are easily found south of it. Shenqi
and, more South,
Shen (also a xiu) comprise the brightest stars of Orion. Three not encircled, hazy, red
stars form the group named Fa
, but here no label is present; they represent the
multiple star ' Ori and maybe also the M 42 (Orion) nebula visible by naked eye. To the
southeast of Shen, but located too far north by about 10, one finds the star Yeji ("
CMa), surrounded by a crown of 11 stars. It is noticeable that this crown (asterism
Junshi
) is formed of faint stars that a modern naked eye could hardly distinguish
(visual magnitude around 6). However the very bright star Lang
(! CMa or Sirius) is
not related to Yeji and is found on map 6. The modern constellation Lepus is here
spread into several small asterisms, all at about the same declination, which is not
correct. Finally two groups of two stars (Zi
and Zhangren
) are identified as
belonging to constellation Columba, but in this case they are also drawn too far north
as compared to Ce
, Junjing
and Ping
This chart, the drawing of which is quite clear, shows nevertheless that the author had
difficulties placing the southernmost stars of the zone. The constellations which are
best represented are those along the celestial equator (declination 0). Several stars
and asterisms which are described in the Jinshu are absent from this map: within
Wuche the asterisms Tianhuang
and Xianchi
; south of Wuche the star
Tianguan
; the asterisms Siguai
and Wuzhuhou
Calendar text (2 columns left)

From the 12th degree of Bi to the 15th degree of Jing, the astral position is Shen. It is
Shichen, the sinking (or fructification). It is said that at the 7th lunar month, the ten
thousands livings are full of force and blossoming, the yin spirits deepen and are
heavy; the ten thousands livings fructify. For this, it is called Shichen. It is part (of the
state) of Wei.
(?)
Culmination text (3 columns bottom)
The fourth (lunar) month, the Sun meets the mansions Bi and Zhu, at dusk the mansion
Yi culminates, at dawn the mansion N culminates.
-
Table 4. Content of the map 5 (Orion region)

MAP : 5
MONTH : 4 (wu yue)
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XIU : Zhi, Shen, Jing

(The fourth lunar month), the Sun meets with the mansions (xiu) Bi and Zhi (Zui), at dusk the m
culminates, at dawn the mansion N culminates.
Note : R= red, list of Shi shi (I); B= black, list of Gan shi (II) ; W = white, list of Wu Xian shi (III). The
I,II,III are found in the book by Sun Xiaochun et Kistemaker (The Chinese Sky during the Han). This
abbreviated as SXC. IAU= International Astronomical Union.
Asterism
(pinyin)
by !
and from
N to S
Asterism
(common
Chinese
name)
Identification
in SXC
Colour
(R,B,W)
On
map
Nb of
*
(SXC)
Nb
of *
on
map
Ident.
of
one
star
(SXC)
IAU
Constellation
Wuche +
Sanzhu
Five
chariots +
three
poles
Aur
I 37
14
14
( Aur
Zhuwang
Several
princes
II 60
) Tau
Zuoqi
Left
banner
Aur
II 62
% Aur
Tian zun
Celestial
wine cup
Gem
II 59
*
Gem
Tiangao
Celestial
high
terrace
Tau
II 63
97
Tau
Jing
Eastern
well
Gem
I 114
Gem
Shenqi
Shen
banner
Ori
I 82
, Ori
Zui
Bird beak
Ori
I 112
& Ori
Shuifu
Water
palace
Mon
II 106
- Ori
10
Sidu
Four
rivers
Ori
II 107
. Mon
Warriorhttp://bonnetbidaud.free.fr/chine/articles/index_a4d.html#section10
R
circled
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11
Shen
hunter
Ori
I 113
black
and red
alone
10
10
* Ori
12
Jiuliu
Nine flags
Ori
I 104
54
Eri?
13
Yujing
Jade well
I 83
" Eri
14
Yeji
Pheasant
cock
C Ma
I 88
"C
Ma
15
Junshi
Soldiers
market
Lep
I 87
13
11
17
Lep
16
Ping
Toilet
screen
I 84
Lep
17
Junjing
Soldiers
well
Lep
II 105
% Lep
18
Ce
Toilet
with a
shed
Lep
I 85
" Lep
19
Zhangren
Husband
man
Col
II 110
. Col
20
Zi
Son
Col
II 111
" Col
Total: 20 asterisms and 109 stars

Notes:
1. Asterisms are listed from North to South and from West to East (i.e. by increasing right ascension
2. NI= Unidentified, SXC = Sun Xiaochun, * means star.
3. Confidence index: from 1 to 5. 5 =very good, 1 = bad.
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3. Confidence index: from 1 to 5. 5 =very good, 1 = bad.
7.2 The circumpolar map (map 13)

The circumpolar map (Fig. 4) is the richest in terms of the number of objects it
displays, namely 144 stars. This marks the attention with which Chinese astronomers
observed this northern part of the sky, supposed to be seat of the emperor, his family,
court and officials. On the Dunhuang maps, the names of all asterisms are easily read
therefore identification is not dubious, insomuch as the author of the map is correct.
The map extends over 40 in declination (from about 50 to 90). A major role is played
by the polar (or pivot) star, around which the sky seems to be revolving. On the S.3326
atlas, this star is not specially indicated. A red, hazy spot, not encircled in black, could
be it. The asterism Sifu
, a group of four stars representing the four advisors to the
Emperor is close to this spot, on its west side, but does not surround it. The emperor
sits in the Purple Palace (Zigong). The palace is surrounded by an eastern (7 stars, left
on the map) and a western (8 stars, right on the map) wall, constituting Ziwei, one of
the three enclosures (yuan) of the Chinese sky. A number of high officials,
commodities such as grains, or rooms such as kitchens or bedrooms are also
represented in the sky (see Table 5). Over the three asterisms named kitchen (chu) in
the Chinese sky, two are found on the circumpolar map: Tianchu
and Neichu
(the latter without a name on the map, see below).

The Northern Dipper (Beidou,
) is well recognised at the bottom of the map.
Contrarily to the situation corresponding to the present epoch, the alignment between
! and " UMa does not lead to the polar star and even does not enter the Ziwei region.
Some ambiguity also exists for the one-star asterisms Xiang
and Taiyangshou
, which are not located accurately south of the Dipper if they are identified with / and
0 UMa respectively, as suggested by Sun & Kistemaker (Sun and Kistemaker, 1997).
They are better identified respectively with 5 CVn and / UMa as proposed by Ho (Ho,
1966).
Near the Southern gate of Ziwei, a group of six stars raises a question: they are
labelled Tianyi (
) and Taiyi (
), Tian ( ) and Tai ( ) , plus two unnamed stars
just 'above' * UMa which we identify with Neichu (
). The stars Tianyi and Taiyi,
North of . UMa, translated literally as 'celestial unique or celestial unity' and 'great
unique or supreme unity' respectively. Their names refer to a supreme quality,
indicating they were once polar stars. Two stars, Tai and Tian, North East of . UMa, are
not mentioned in previous catalogues. Is the confusion on the Dunhuang atlas a
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copying error? Suggestions have been made of an inversion with two other asterisms
but also of a misinterpretation with two different positions of the pole in the past
(Maeyama, 2002).
An unnamed asterism is located between Tianhuang
and Gouchen
(upper
part of the map), it is red, circled in black. Thus it may belong to the Shi Shi catalogue,
and is likely * UMi. The name Gouchen on the map refers to a single star (in red), !
UMi, (the present-day polar star) and not, as usual, to an asterism of 5 stars. Within
Beiji
, an important asterism since it represents the North Pole office, the second
red star, named Di (emperor) by the Chinese, but without name on the map, is
identified with " UMi, which was also once approximately the polar star (together with
% Dra) around -1000.
Altogether, the S.3326 circumpolar map is well documented. There are however
several imperfections:
(a) the shape of Beidou with respect to the Ziwei walls differs from that displayed on
the Suzhou map or from any modern map of the sky. The largest displacements affect
the extreme stars, 1 UMa and ! UMa (see Figure 8). It is because of this wrong position
that the alignment ! - " UMa is poorly oriented.
(b) the asterism Gouchen is not represented in full and the star we identify with ! UMi
is here the bottom star of the handle (Gang) of Huagai
instead of being the
brightest star of Gouchen. Some asterisms (Wudi
, Zaofu
) also listed in the
Jinshu are absent on S.3326.

Table 5. Content of the map 13 (North Circumpolar region)
MAP: 13
MONTH: North cicumpolar zone
XIU:
(The fourth lunar month), the Sun meets with the mansions (xiu) Bi and Zhi (Zui), at dusk the mans
dawn the mansion N culminates.
Note: R= red, list of Shi shi (I); B= black, list of Gan shi (II) ; W = white, list of Wu Xian shi (III). The l
found in the book by Sun Xiaochun et Kistemaker (The Chinese Sky during the Han). This book na
SXC. IAU= International Astronomical Union.
Asterism
(pinyin) by
! and
from N to S
Tianchu
Asterism
(common
Chinese
name)
Celestial
IAU
Constellation
Identification
in SXC
Colour
(R,B,W)
On
map
Nb of
*
(SXC)
Nb
of *
on
map
Dra
II 15
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kitchen
Wudizuo
Seats of five Di
Chuanshe
Guest rooms
Tianzhu
Celestial pillars
Liujia
Huagai
II 4
II 17
Dra
II 6
Six jia
Cam
II 5
Canopy of the
emperor
Cas
II 3
7 (+
6)
Gouchen
UMi
I 60
NI 1
UMi
Tianhuang
High God of
Heaven
UMi
II 1
Ziwei
Celestial
purple palace
wall
Dra
I 59
14 R, 1
B
15
15
10
Cep
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11
Zhuxiashi
12
Nshi
13
Officer in
charge of
communication
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Dra
II 7
Woman officer
Dra
II 8
Tianpei
Celestial flail
Dra
I7
5 R, 1B?
5 or
6
14
Shangshu
Secretary
Dra
II 9
15
Beiji
North Pole
Office
UMi
I 60
16
Sifu
Four advisors
Cam and UMi
II 2
17
Neijie
Inner steps
UMa
II 14
18
Bagu
Eight species
of grains
Cam
II 65
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19
Tianchuang
Celestial bed
20
Taiyi
21
Tianyi
22
Dra
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II 11
Supreme unity
(L'archipremire)
I 62
Heavenly unity
(La premire
du ciel)
I 61
Tai
Not in SXC
23
Tian
Not in SXC
24
Sangong(2)
Three
excellencies
UMa
Not in SXC
25
Tianqiang
Celestial spear
Boo
I6
26
Beidou
Northern
Dipper
UMa
I 58
27
Tianli
Great Judge
for Nobility
UMa
II 12
28
Wenchang
Administrative
center
UMa
I 57
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29
Xuange
Halberd
Boo
I5
30
Sangong(1)
Three
excellencies
CVn
II 39
31
Xiang
Prime minister
UMa
I 54
32
Taiyangshou
General in
charge of the
yang valve
UMa
I 55
33
Shi
Eunuch Official
UMa
II 55
34
Tianlao
Celestial
Prison
UMa
I 56
Total : 34 astrisms among which 1 unidentified. 142 toiles (+ 3 in Beiji). All stars on this circumstellar ma
Gan Shi.
Notes:
4. Astrisms are listed from North to South and going from East to West.
5. NI = Unidentified, SXC = Sun Xiaochun.
6. Confidence index: from 1 to 5. 5 = very good, 1 = bad.
8. Acknowledgments
We are indebted for their remarks and contributions to: Barbara Borghese, Karine
Chemla, Vincent Durand-Dastets, Imre Galambos, Isaia Iannaccone, Marc Kalinowski,
Zhang Guangda, Bernadette Zhu.
9. Notes
The International Dunhuang Project (IDP) was started in 1994 to promote the study and
preservation of the archaeological legacy of the Eastern Silk Road through international
cooperation. Its UK directorate is based at the British Library.
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The dates are given in the so-called astronomical system where year -1 corresponds to
2 BC (or 2 BCE) and year +1 to AD 1 (or 1 CE).
The Chinese government cleared only the Chinese manuscripts leaving the remaining
Tibetan manuscripts behind, and they are now in collections throughout Gansu
Province. The Stein collection was divided between the British Museum and the
Government of India, co-sponsors of his expedition, and part of the Dunhuang
collection is in the National Museum, India. The Japanese collections were dispersed
and a large part are now in the National Museum of Korea in Seoul.
The manuscripts in the British Museum became part of the British Library collection at
the establishment of the latter institution in 1972. S.3326 is now preserved in the Asian,
Pacific and African Collections of the British Library.
Following Giless retirement in 1940 and the initial offering of the manuscript for
publication in 1947, see Frances Wood, Two Thousand Years at Dunhuang in S.
Whitfield and F. Wood (eds.), 1996. Dunhuang and Turfan: contents and conservation
of ancient documents from Central Asia. The British Library Publishing Division,
London.
Chinese characters are given here in their simplified form together with their standard
pinyin transcription in latin alphabet (marked in italics)
Their precise origin is still an enigma and their relation to the Moon is not documented.
However, these constellations are constantly used throughout Chinese history as
precise markers of the positions of heavenly bodies during the seasons.
For those not familiar with the convention, during the reign of any emperor, characters
that made up the emperors personal name were not allowed to be used in their
standard form. The characters were changed slightly usually by omitting or adding a
stroke. This is known as the taboo form of the character. After this death, the taboo
forms of any of the characters in his name not just his whole name were used
until the end of the dynasty. The consistent use of taboo characters in all documents is
not absolutely certain, but the fact that a taboo form is used in this document suggests
the rule was being followed.
From a study carried out by Anna-Grethe Rischel (National Museum of Denmark) who
remarks that the fibres are "'particularly long and fine'". Complete images of the
manuscript are shown on IDP.
"'The roller has been lined with acid-free Japanese tissue paper to protect the object
from acid migration. The Kraft lining extends to both end maps. Due to the lack of
written surviving documentation it is impossible to trace the history of conservation of
the object, so our remarks can only be based on transmitted knowledge and visual
observation. Using transmitted light it is possible to observe a long patch running
along the whole length of the scroll. This patch has an irregular shape with nonhttp://bonnetbidaud.free.fr/chine/articles/index_a4d.html#section10
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defined margins. This might suggest that the patch is contemporary with the object,
and was obviously not removed when the lining was applied. Other evidence to
support this is represented by the fold lines, which can be observed in some areas.
This fold runs through the patch and along the objects in a continuous manner
suggesting that the patch has indeed been in place for a long time although not
conclusive in respect to a precise dating. There is evidence of other small patches
along the manuscripts although some were removed as we could only observe their
shape in the imprint they left in the paper.'" Description by Barbara Borghese, IDP UK
and European Project Manager (private communication).
This title has been transliterated in some recent Chinese publications as Qi jie meng ji
dian jing yi juan with the suggested translation of Interpreting Dreams and Book of
Lightning in One Chapter (Deng and Liu, 2003). However, this interpretation is very
problematic. Firstly, it ignores the first character qi, which makes no sense in this
context. Secondly, it reads the third character, which is in a non-standard form, as
meng dreams even though this is not a attested variant of meng. A more probably
reading would be
or mie (scorn, villify). And two titles like this joined with ji (and) is
not a form seen in China.

The Chinese degrees are defined according to the mean year duration (365,25 days)
and therefore 365,25 Chinese degrees corresponding to 360 European degrees.
The correlation coefficient R is the Pearson least-square fit parameter with value R=1
for a perfect fit and R=0.76 and 0.68 for a random probability of 0,01% and 0,1%
respectively.
Translation by Imre Galambos (IDP). He also notes that the first part of the compilation
of Lshi chunqiu, sponsored by L Buwei in the mid-third century BC, is concerned
with the correlation of colours and the workings of the universe.
The mention found here only differs from the one in the Nine Chapters by the use of
yan (says) instead of an (comments) and the absence of with respect (K. Chemla,
private communication).
A star catalogue, previously part of Shi Shens works, a copy of which is preserved in
Kyoto, seems to contain illustrations of asterisms within the Chinese mansions. We
have not seen this manuscript and can only quote Fung Kam Wing (2003).
An early discussion of ancient North pole stars can be found in de Saussure (1930),
494525
No mention is made in the Jinshu (Ho, 1966) nor in the Han catalogues (Sun and
Kistemaker, 1997).
10. References
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Aubourg_1995
Aubourg, E., 'La date de conception du temple d'Hathor Dendrah'. Bulletin de

l'Institut franais d'archologie orientale (1995): 110.
Beer_1961
Beer, A., Ho, Ping-Y, Lu, Gwei-Djen, Needham, J., Pulleyblank, E. G.,
Thompson, G. I., 'An 8th-century meridian line: I-Hsing's chain of gnomons and
the pre-history of the metric system'. Vistas in Astronomy 1961: 328.
Biot_1862
Biot, J. B., tudes sur l'astronomie indienne et sur l'astronomie chinoise. Paris: M.
Lvy, 1862.
Bonnet-Bidaud_2004
Bonnet-Bidaud, J. M., Praderie, F., 'Star charts on the Silk Road: astronomical star
maps in ancient China'. In Whitfield_2004.: 2004.
Brend_1994
Brend, B., A Reconsideration of the Book of Constellations of 400/100910 in the

Bodleian Library. Costa-Mesa: Mazda Pub. 1994.
CASS_1980
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Institute of Archaeology, Zhongguo shehui

kexueyuan kaogu yanjiusuo
, Zhongguo Gudai
Tianwu Wenwu Tuji

, (Album of Relics of Ancient Chinese
Astronomy). Beijing: Antiquity Pub. House, 1980.
Chavannes_1895
Chavannes, E., Les Mmoires Historiques de Se-Ma Ts'ien. Paris: Maisonneuve,

1895.
Chavannes_1913
Chavannes, E., 'L'instruction d'un futur empereur de Chine en l'an 1193'. In
Mmoires concernant l'Asie Orientale.: 1913.
Chemla_2004
Chemla, K., Guo, Shuchun, Les Neuf Chapitres. Paris: Dunod, 2004.
Couvreur_1913
Couvreur, S., Li Ki. Ho Kien Fu: Imprimerie de la mission catholique, 1913.
Deng_1996
Deng, Wenkuan
, Dunhuang tianwen lifa wenxie ji xiao
(Compilation of Dunhuang astronomical calendar documents). Nanjing:
Jiangsu Ancient Books Publishers, 1996.
de_Saussure_1930
de Saussure, L., Les origines de l'astronomie chinoise. Paris: Maisonneuve, 1930.

Duke_2006
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Duke, D. W., 'Analysis of the Farnese Globe'. Journal for the History of Astronomy
(2006): 87100.
ESA_1997
ESA, The Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogues. Paris: ESA, 1997.
Feng_2001
Feng, Shi, Archaeoastronomy in China. Beijing: China Social Science
Documentation Publishing House, 2001.
Fung_2003
Fung, Kam Wing, A Critical Study of the Shishi xing guan bu zan
(Star Catalogue of Master Shi [Shen, fl.370B.C.-340B.C.]). In Study on Ancient

Chinese Books and Records of Science and Technology: The Colloquia of 2nd
ISACBRST August 2328, 1998, Berlin Germany. Dai, Wusan (ed.), Zhengzhou,
China: 2003.
Gaubil_1819
Gaubil, A., 'Histoire de l'Astronomie chinoise, depuis le commencement de la

monarchie chinoise jusqu' l'an 206 avant J.-C.'. In Lettres difiantes et curieuses
crites des missions trangres.. Lyon: 1819.
Gingerich_1983
Gingerich, O., The New Encycopaedia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopedia
Britannica, 1983.
Hamilton_1986
Hamilton, J., Manuscrits ougours des VIIIe-Xe sicles de Touen-houang. Paris:
Peeters-France, 1986.
Hockey_2007
Hockey, T. (ed.), Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer,

2007.
Ho_1962
Ho, Peng Yoke, 'Ancient and Mediaeval Observations of Comets and Novae in
Chinese Sources'. Vistas in Astronomy (1962): 127225.
Ho_1966
Ho, Peng Yoke, The astronomical chapters of the Chin Shu: with amendments, full
translation and annotations. Paris: Mouton and Co., 1966.
Iannaccone_2002
Iannaccone, I., 'A Jesuit scientist and ancient Chinese heavenly songs'. In
International conference on the history of science in East Asia; Historical

perspectives on East Asian science, technology and medicine. Chan, A. K. L.
(ed.), Singapore: 2002.
Kalinowski_2003
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Kalinowski, M. (ed.), Divination et Socit dans la Chine mdivale. Paris:

Bibliothque Nationale de France, 2003.
Legge_1885
Legge, J., The Li Chi. New York: University Books, 1885.
Li_1982
Li, Guohao
, Zhongguo keji shi tansuo
Ancient Books Publishers, 1982.
Li_1987
Li, Changhao, Zhongguo Tianwenxue Shi
Astronomy). Beijing: Kexue chubanshe, 1987.
. Shanghai: Shanghai
(History of Chinese
Maeyama_2002
Maeyama, Y., 'The Two Supreme Stars, Thien-i and Thai-i and the Foundation of
the Purple Palace'. In History of Oriental Astronomy. Ansari, S. M. (ed.),
Dordrecht: 2002.
Maspero_1929
Maspero, H., 'L'astronomie chinoise avant les Han'. T'oung Pao (Tong Bao)
(1929): 267356.
Miyajima_2002
Miyajima, K., 'Projection Methods in East Asian Star Maps'. In History of Oriental
Astronomy. Ansari, S. M. (ed.), Dordrecht: 2002.
Pan_1989
Pan, Nai,
, Zhongguo hengxing guance shi
(History of Stellar
Observations in China). Shanghai: Xuelin chubanshe, 1989.

Rawson_1997
Rawson, J. (ed.), Mysteries of Ancient China. London: British Museum
Publications, 1997.
Schaefer_2005
Schaefer, B. E., 'The Epoch of the Constellations on the Farnese Atlas'. Journal for
the History of Astronomy (2005): 168196.
Stephenson_1854
Stephenson, R., 'Stargazers of the Orient'. New Scientist (1993): 3234.
Sun_1997
Sun, Xiaochun, Kistemaker, J., The Chinese Sky during the Han: Constellating
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, Kaoguxue he kejishi
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, Dunhuang xingtu
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Page 48 sur 48

The Dunhuang Chinese Sky

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THE DUNHUANG CHINESE SKY: A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF THE OLDEST KNOWN STAR ATLAS

THE DUNHUANG CHINESE SKY: A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF

1.1 The Discovery of the Star Atlas

European visitor to see the hidden library.

2. The Chinese Context

2.2 Review of the Chinese sources on S.3326

3. General Description of S.3326

3.2 The Astronomical Content

Obviously, the 12 maps are limited towards South by the

Figure 2: Part of the

283 asterisms. S.3326 contains similar information and is the

being east and Zuogeng

Figure 3: The Orion star map (Map 5, lunar month

3.2.2 The Calendar Texts (Jupiter Stations)

Zui, Shen, Jing

3.2.3 The Culmination Texts

mansions Kui and Lou culminate; at dawn the mansion Di culminates.

The astronomical content of these texts is summarized in Table 2. According to

3.3 The Polar Star

4. Scientific Evaluation of S.3326

4.1 Accuracy and Projection Study

Figure 6: Computed vs measured positions (Orion, Map 5). The

Figure 8: Computed vs measured positions (polar region, Map 13). The

rectangular map (Miyajima, 2002).

Scale factor (d/cm)

Mean residuals (d)

Right Ascension (RA) fit

Declination (DEC) fit

Scale factor (d/cm)

Mean residuals (d)

Correlation factor Mercator

Map centre (RA)

Map limits (RA)

Map centre (DEC)

Map limits (DEC)

Map extension (DEC)

Geometrical centre (DEC)

Correlation factor Stereographic

Map extension (RA)

1. Input stars selected according to their magnitude.

4.2 Analysis of the Culmination Texts : An Attempt at Dating

Figure 9: Dating from the culmination texts. The time difference

5. The Status of S.3326

translates literally as "'your servant Chunfeng said'". It is a part of a paragraph which

attribution to Li Chunfeng less certain. The statement is however extremely similar to

5.2 A Comparison with Other Sources

for an Armillary Clock) written by the astronomer Su Song, is dated +1092 by

) is a planisphere engraved in stone

5.3 The Purpose of S.3326

) i.e. Director of the Astrological Service

(Chemla and Guo Shuchun, 2004; Hockey, 2007).

northern feature is Wuche

, both forming Auriga. The two

, but here no label is present; they represent the

; the asterisms Siguai

Calendar text (2 columns left)

Table 4. Content of the map 5 (Orion region)

XIU : Zhi, Shen, Jing

Total: 20 asterisms and 109 stars

3. Confidence index: from 1 to 5. 5 =very good, 1 = bad.

7.2 The circumpolar map (map 13)

, a group of four stars representing the four advisors to the

(the latter without a name on the map, see below).