Active Filters Study
Active Filters Study
Active Filters Study
Homework #2
Student: Dao Ngoc Dat / ID: 21650109
Subject: Filter study
Report:
1. INTRODUCTION
A filter is a device that passes electric signals at certain frequencies or
frequency ranges while preventing the passage of others. Webster.
Filter circuits are used in a wide variety of applications. In the field of telecommunication, band-pass filters are used in the
audio frequency range (0 kHz to 20 kHz) for modems and speech processing. High-frequency band-pass filters (several
hundred MHz) are used for channel selection in telephone central offices. Data acquisition systems usually require antialiasing low-pass filters as well as low-pass noise filters in their preceding signal conditioning stages. System power supplies
often use band-rejection filters to suppress the 60-Hz line frequency and high frequency transients.
1.1 Filter Terminology
The range of signal frequencies that are allowed to pass through a filter, with little or no change to the signal level, is called
the passband. The passband cutoff frequency (or cutoff point) is the passband edge where there is a 3 dB reduction in signal
amplitude (the half-power point). The range of signal frequencies that are reduced in amplitude by an amount specified in
the design, and effectively prevented from passing, is called the stopband. In between the passband and the stopband is a
range of frequencies called the transition band, where the reduction in signal amplitude (also known as the attenuation)
changes rapidly. These features are illustrated in Figure 1, which gives the frequency response of a lowpass filter.
There are four possible frequency domain responses: lowpass, highpass, bandpass, and bandstop. Simplistic graphical
representations are given above in Figure 2
1.2 Frequency Domain Responses
(a) Lowpass filters pass low frequencies. That is, they allow frequencies from DC up to what is known as the cutoff
frequency with minimal loss of amplitude.
(b) Highpass filters pass high frequencies. They have the opposite function to that of lowpass filters, in that they allow
frequencies above the cutoff to pass with minimal loss. They do not pass DC.
(c) Bandpass filters pass a band of frequencies between the lower and upper cutoff points. The upper cutoff determines the
maximum frequency passed (with minimal loss). The lower cutoff decides the minimum frequency to be passed; DC is
blocked.
(d) Bandstop filters stop a band of frequencies between the lower and upper cutoff points. They are the opposite of bandpass
filters and allow two frequency bands to pass. One band that is passed goes from DC to the lower cutoff frequency. The
other band passed covers all frequencies above the upper cutoff point.
1.3 Active Filters
At high frequencies (> 1 MHz), all of these filters usually consist of passive components such as inductors (L), resistors
(R), and capacitors (C). They are then called LRC filters.
In the lower frequency range (1 Hz to 1 MHz), however, the inductor value becomes very large and the inductor itself gets
quite bulky, making economical production difficult.
In these cases, active filters become important. Active filters are circuits that use an operational amplifier (op amp) as the
active device in combination with some resistors and capacitors to provide an LRC-like filter performance at low frequencies
(Figure 3).
This report focuses only on active filter design using operational amplifiers.
( )=
Fig. 4: First-order low-pass filter: (a) Low-pass characteristic with K =1, (b) Filter design
A first-order filter that uses an RC network for filtering is shown in Fig. 4(b). The op-amp operates as a noninverting
amplifier, which has the characteristics of a very high input impedance and a very low output impedance.
The voltage (
rule:
in Laplaces domain of s) at the noninverting terminal of the op-amp can be found by the voltage divider
Substituting =
Fig. 5: Second-order low-pass filter: (a) Low-pass characteristic with K = 1, (b) Filter design
where K is the DC gain, Q is the quality factor and is the undamped natural (or resonant) frequency. A typical frequency
characteristic is shown in Fig. 5(a); for high values of Q, overshoots will be exhibited at the resonant frequency . For
frequencies above , the gain rolls off at the rate of 40 dB/decade.
A first-order filter can be converted to a second-order filter by adding an additional RC network, known as the SallenKey
circuit, as shown in Fig. 5(b). The transfer function of the filter network is:
where
= (1 +
) is the DC gain
which will have two real parts and two equal roots. Setting =
to zero, we get:
To simplify the design of second-order filters, equal resistances and capacitances are normally usedthat is, R1 = R2 =
R3 = R, C2 = C3 = C. Then the transfer function can be simplified to:
3. HIGH-PASS FILTERS
High-pass filters can be classified broadly into two types: first-order and second-order. Higher-order filters can be
synthesized from these two basic types. Since the frequency scale of a low-pass filter is 0 to and that of a high-pass filter
is to , their frequency scales have a reciprocal relationship. Therefore, if we can design a low-pass filter, we can convert
it to a high-pass filter by applying an RC-CR transformation. This transformation can be accomplished by replacing
by
and
by . The op-amp, which is modeled as a voltage-controlled voltage source, is not affected by this
transformation. The resistors that are used to set the DC gain of the op-amp circuit are not affected either.
3.1 First-Order High-Pass Filters
The transfer function of a first-order high-pass filter has the general form
A typical high-pass frequency characteristic is shown in Fig. 6(a). A first-order high-pass filter can be formed by
interchanging the frequency-dependent resistor and capacitor of the low-pass filter of Fig. 5(b). This arrangement is shown
in Fig. 6(b).
Fig. 6: First-order high-pass filter: (a) High-pass characteristic, (b) Filter design
The voltage at the noninverting terminal of the op-amp can be found by the voltage divider rule. That is,
at 3-dB gain as
The magnitude and phase angle of the filter gain can be found from:
and:
This filter passes all signals with frequencies higher than . However, the high-frequency limit is determined by the
bandwidth of the op-amp itself. The gainbandwidth product of a practical 741-type op-amp is 1 MHz.
3.2 Second-Order High-Pass Filters
A second-order high-pass filter has a stop-band characteristic of 40 dB/decade rise. The general form of a second-order
high-pass filter is:
where K is the DC gain, Q is the quality factor and is the undamped natural (or resonant) frequency. Figure 7(a) shows
a typical frequency response. As in the case of the first-order filter, a second-order high-pass filter can be formed from a
second-order low-pass filter by interchanging the frequency-dominant resistors and capacitors. Figure 7(b) shows a secondorder high-pass filter derived from the SallenKey circuit of Fig. 6(b). The transfer function can be derived
by applying the RC-to-CR transformation and substituting 1/s for s in the transfer function of a second-order low-pass filter.
For R1 = R2 = R3 = R and C2 = C3 = C, the transfer function becomes:
Fig. 7: Second-order high-pass filter: (a) High-pass characteristic with K = 1, (b) Filter design
4. BAND-PASS FILTERS
A band-pass filter has a passband between two cutoff frequencies and such that
range is attenuated. The transfer function of a BP filter has the general form
is given by
> .
As shown in Fig. 8(b), we use two filters: one low-pass filter and one high-pass filter. The output is obtained by multiplying
the low-frequency response by the high-frequency response; this solution can be implemented simply by cascading the first-
order (or second-order) high-pass and low-pass sections. The order of the band-pass filter depends on the order of the highpass and low-pass sections. This arrangement has the advantage that the falloff, rise, and midband gain can be set
independently. However, it requires more op-amps and components.
Figure 8(c) shows a 20 dB/decade wide-band-pass filter implemented with first-order highpass and first-order low-pass
filters. In this case, the magnitude of the voltage gain is equal to the product of the voltage gain magnitudes of the high-pass
and low-pass filters. In this case, the transfer function of the wide-midband filter for first-order implementation becomes
where KPB overall pass-band gain high-pass gain KH low-pass gain KL.
The equivalent filter circuit is shown in Fig. 9(c). The transfer function of the filter network is:
Fig. 9: Narrow-band-pass filter: (a) Narrow-band characteristic, (b) Filter design, (c) Equivalent circuit
5. BAND-REJECT FILTERS
A band-reject filter attenuates signals in the stop band and passes those outside this band. It is also called a band-stop or
band-elimination filter. The transfer function of a second-order band-reject filter has the general form where KPB is the passband gain. Band-reject filters can be classified as wide band reject or narrow band reject. A narrow-band-reject filter is
commonly called a notch filter. Because of its higher Q (>10), the bandwidth of a narrow-band-reject filter is much smaller
than that of a wide-band-reject filter.
where:
Fig. 11: Narrow-band-reject filter: (a) Narrow-band-reject characteristic, (b) Filter design
6. SUMMARY
The table below summarizes the characteristics of second-order filters
with K is the DC gain, Q is the quality factor and is the undamped natural (or resonant) frequency and:
then transfer function in frequency domain of second order filters can be deduced as:
Case 1: Second order Low-pass filter:
7. COMPARISON
This part will give example designs of those filters described above. The Bode graphs (with gain(dB) and phase delay) are
showed in order to easily compare the output performance between these designs.
7.1 Low-pass filter design
8. DIGITAL IMPLEMENT
After finding the transfer functions of the filters, we use z-transform to obtain a real-time discrete equivalent of a filter in
the continuous system.
The bilinear transform can be used to convert continuous-time filters (represented in the Laplace domain) into discrete-time
filters (represented in the Z-domain), and vice versa. The following substitution is used:
H LPF ( s )
H ( z)
c
s c
c
c : cutoff frequency
2 z 1
c
T z 1
c z 1
2
z 1 c z 1
T
c 1 z 1
2
2
c z c
T
T
cT 1 z 1
2 cT cT 2z 1
2 1
2
c c z
T
T
with ( ) = ( ) ( ) ,
c z 1
( ) = ( 1)
, then from the equation above, we have:
( ) = ( 1)
2 cT yk cT 2 yk 1 cT uk uk 1
yk
2 cT
cT
uk uk 1
yk 1
2 cT
2 cT
c2
H LPF ( s) 2
s 2c s c2
c : cutoff frequency
2 z 1 2
2 z 1
2
2
y ( z )
2c
c u ( z )c
T z 1
T z 1
y ( z ) 4 z 1 2c z 12T z 1 c2 z 1 T 2 c2 z 1 T 2u ( z )
y ( z )4 4 T T 8 2 T z 4 4 T T z T
2
c
2
c
2
c
8 2c2T 2
4 4cT c2T 2
y
k
yk 2
4 4cT c2T 2
4 4cT c2T 2
c2T 2
2c2T 2
u
k
uk 1
4 4cT c2T 2
4 4cT c2T 2
c2T 2
uk 2
4 4cT c2T 2
2
c
2
c
2 1
2
c
2 T z T 2 z 2 u ( z )
H HPF ( s )
s
s c
c : cutoff frequency
2 z 1
2 z 1
2 z 1
2 1 z 1
H ( z) T z 1
1
2 z 1
c 2 z 1 cT z 1 2 cT z cT 2 2 cT cT 2z
T z 1
2 cT yk cT 2 yk 1 2uk uk 1
yk
2 cT
2
uk uk 1
yk 1
2 cT
2 cT
H HPF ( s )
s2
c : cutoff frequency
s 2 2c s c2
2 z 1 2
2 z 1 2
2 z 1
2
y ( z )
2c
c
u( z)
T z 1
T z 1
T z 1
y ( z ) 4z 1 2c z 12T z 1 c2 z 1 T 2 4 z 1 u ( z )
y ( z )4 4 T T 8 2 T z 4 4 T T z 4 8 z 4 z u ( z )
yk 4 4 T T yk 1 8 2 T yk 24 4 T T
y ( z ) 4 4cT c2T 2 z 2 8 2c2T 2 z 4 4cT c2T 2 4 z 2 8 z 4 u ( z )
2
c
2
c
2
c
2
c
2
c
2
c
8 2c2T 2
4 4cT c2T 2
y
k
yk 2
4 4cT c2T 2
4 4cT c2T 2
4
8
uk
uk 1
2 2
4 4cT c T
4 4cT c2T 2
4
uk 2
4 4cT c2T 2
b
Q
H BPF ( s )
2
b
Q
b : centerf frequency
B : band frequency
s
2
b
b
B
2 z 1 b 2 z 1
2 z 1
2
y ( z )
b b
u ( z )
Q T z 1
T z 1
Q T z 1
2
2
y ( z )4 z 1 b z 12T z 1 b2 z 1 T 2 b z 1 z 12T .u ( z )
Q
2
b
8 2 T
yk
yk 1
2
b
2T T
Q
Q
2T b2T 2
yk 2
2
b
2T T
b
Q
2T
uk uk 2
2
b
2T T
b : centerf frequency
s 2 b2
H BSF ( s )
2
b
Q
B : band frequency
2
b
b
B
2 z 1 b 2 z 1
2 z 1 2
2
2
y ( z )
b u ( z )
b
Q T z 1
T z 1
T z 1
yk
2
b
8 2 T
4
b
Q
2
2
b
2T T
uk
2
b
yk 1
4 b2T 2
2T T
Q
Q
2T b2T 2
yk 2
2
b
2T T
8 2b2T 2
4
b
Q
2
b
2T T
4 b2T 2
uk 1
2
b
Q
uk 2
2
b
2T T