Guide To Microturbines Fairmont Press (2004)
Guide To Microturbines Fairmont Press (2004)
Guide to Microturbines
Bernard F.Kolanowski, BSME
Dedication
I couldnt have written this book without the encouragement of Mr. Bill Payne, former
editor of Cogeneration and Competitive Power Journal, and his recommendation to the
publisher to see such a book published. I hope Ive confirmed Bills confidence in me.
AND
To my considerate wife, Mary Beth, who allowed me to take time away from her to
accomplish this.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction and History of the Microturbine
19
22
29
43
62
76
90
117
158
Index
190
Acknowledgments
The following companies and individuals have contributed to this book:
Mr. Robin Mackay
Bowman Power Systems
Capstone Turbine Corporation
Elliott Energy Systems
Ingersoll-Rand Power Works
Turbec AB
Toyota Turbine Co.
ALM Turbine Co.
Orkas Energy Endurance and Dr. Ake Almgren
Mr. Jim Clyde
Chapter 1
Introduction and History of The
Microturbine
I WAS THERE at the birth of the microturbine. North American Co-generation was
owned by Herb Ratch who knew Robin MacKay and Jim Noe, two engineers that had left
Garrett Corporation after it had merged with Allied Signal. Robin and Jim decided to
form a company to develop a small gas turbine that might be useful in the automotive
market. This was in 1988 when NoMac Energy came into being.
Funding was important to NoMac and they decided to solicit a grant from the Gas
Research Institute for those funds. Robin asked Herb to help prepare the proposal to the
GRI and as I was then representing North American Cogeneration, they solicited my help
in doing some of the writing. A prototype machine had already been manufactured by
NoMac and I not only held many of the key component parts in my hands, I saw the first
microturbine in operation at NoMacs facility. Little did I know that some 10 years later
the microturbine would be such an instrumental part of my future.
Its believed the word microturbine evolved from the fact that it is a true gas turbine
demonstrating all the characteristics of a gas turbine, but simply smaller in power output.
No formal boundary exists as to when a gas turbine becomes a microturbine or viceversa. However, it is generally accepted that zero to 300 kilowatts is the range of the
microturbine. Pratt & Whitney gave this credence when they developed their 400
kilowatt unit and called it a mini turbine!
NoMacs company evolved into what is today the Capstone Turbine Company
headquartered in Chatsworth, CA. While Capstone is rightly considered the originator of
todays microturbine, it was not until December of 1998 when commercially available
and reliable units were finally marketed. An elaborate article in the April 1, 1996 issue of
Fortune Magazine prematurely touted the advent of this pint-sized power house. False
starts plagued Capstone, mostly in the power electronics area, before they finally solved
the problems. After all, getting 60 hertz, AC current from a generator spinning at 96,000
rpm was no mean trick.
So, the microturbine is a recent development. The vast majority of gas turbines today
are jet engines, turboprops or turboshaft engines. Renowned for their high power to
weight ratio, extreme reliability and low maintenance, these engines dominate the aircraft
industry. Derivatives of these turbines drive electric utility generators, power pipeline
compressors and propel ships. A separate class of industrial gas turbines is used in power
generation and other heavy duty applications. Almost all of these industrial gas turbines,
however, are rated in the thousands or tens of thousands of kilowatts with more than a
few over a hundred thousand kW. The microturbine has many big cousins, but it is a gas
turbine extolling the same advantages as those brawny brutes.
The one noted advantage, however, is the ultra-low emissions that the microturbine
emits. One disadvantage is that the small size of the compressor and turbine wheels limits
Guide to microturbines
the component efficiency, holds down the pressure ratio and prevents the turbine wheel
from being internally cooled. Thus, the efficiency of a small, simple cycle gas turbine is
well below that of a reciprocating engine14% vs. 40%. Small production quantities
have meant relatively high prices compared to the 100-year-old reciprocating engine that
is installed in virtually every moving vehicle driving down the highway. These two
factors have limited market penetration.
EVOLUTION
The primary application for small gas turbines has been in the aircraft industry. Most
commercial and military airplanes use pneumatic starters to start their jet engines or
turboprops. Most air conditioning on these aircraft is air cycle and requires a source of
clean, oil free, compressed air. Simultaneously electric power is needed. Accordingly, gas
turbines were developed that have oversize compressors that can be bled to provide the
needed compressed air. At the same time the gas turbine drives an alternator through a
reduction gearbox to provide electricity that is typically 400 hertz.
When these auxiliary power units, APUs, are installed in an aircraft, the low weight,
low maintenance and high reliability overcome any concerns about high cost and fuel
consumption, especially since the operating hours are few.
In the early 1960s The Garrett Corporation adapted two of their 85 series APUs to run
on natural gas and drive 200 kW generator sets. Equipped with exhaust heat boilers, they
were installed in one of the early gas turbine-driven cogeneration systems. With the
concept proven, Garrett then developed the 831 series industrial gas turbines that were
derived from their 331 series turboprop engines. Initially rated at 218 kW, the rating was
eventually increased to 515 kW. Several hundred of these units were installed in a wide
variety of cogeneration systems. Reliability was extremely high and systems were
installed to provide precise power for the central computer systems of United,
Continental and Western airlines as well as the United States Air Force Automated Data
Weather System and also at a savings and loan institution.
The Boeing Company designed some of the first small gas turbines during World War
II. This was an exercise to learn the characteristics of gas turbines when Boeing started
the design of the B-47. Although this was a six engine jet propelled bomber, it was
originally planned to be a turboprop. Hence, Boeings small gas turbine had an output
shaft. Indeed, this was the first free turbine engine. Separate turbine wheels drove the
compressor and the output shaft. Thus, the output shaft speed could be varied all the way
down to stall.
The U.S. Navy noticed that the Boeing 502s were primarily stainless steel and
aluminum and thus had no magnetic signature. They purchased several hundred for mine
sweepers. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, Boeing pioneered many gas turbinepowered applications such as anti-submarine drone helicopters, an oil cementing truck, a
bulldozer, fire engines, a fire boat, high speed launches, army tanks and even an
Indianapolis race car. Two were delivered for installation in a Thunderbird and a
Fairlane. Many were used to provide compressed air to start 707s, DC-8s and other
aircraft that did not have auxiliary power units.
Introduction
The first cogeneration system powered solely by gas turbines was installed at Southern
California Gas Company in their Downey, CA, facility in 1962. The two gas turbines
were Boeing 502s rated at 140 kW each.
Boeing even developed a 100 horsepower outboard motor. It was a technical triumph.
It weighed 100 pounds less than the 80 horsepower conventional outboards that were the
largest in production in those days. It also burned less fuel. However, Boeing was not in
the consumer products business and the outboard program was terminated and three years
later Boeing sold their gas turbine business to Caterpillar
During the 1960s many automobile companies developed prototype gas turbines for
automobiles. Rover was the first. Chrysler put fifty units out in the field for testing.
General Motors and Allison built several different models. Ford drove a truck across the
United States powered by their gas turbine. Daimler Benz, Volkswagen, BMW, Toyota,
Nissan and others all built gas turbines. To solve the fuel consumption problem,
automotive gas turbines used heat exchangers to pre-heat the air going into the
combustion chamber using the normally wasted heat in the exhaust. These heat
exchangers were sometimes recuperators but more often regenerators. Whereas a
recuperator is a simple fixed boundary heat exchanger, a regenerator is a wheel that
rotates through the exhaust picking up heat, and through the compressor discharge where
it preheats the air going to the combustor.
Regenerators are compact and effective. However, they are usually ceramic and have a
problem with cracking. They also have a sealing problem as the wheel rotates through
both atmospheric pressure exhaust and high pressure compressor discharge air. Problems
with the regenerator, cost of production and turbo lag killed the automobile gas turbine.
Turbo lag was a particular challenge. To lower fuel consumption when an automobile
was stopped in traffic or at a red light, the rpm was lowered. When the light changed to
green, power was limited until the turbine spooled up which could take several seconds.
You can imagine the cacophony of horn sounds behind a turbine powered vehicle.
The most interesting vehicular gas turbine in those days was the Ford 705. It was
essentially a turbocharged, recuperated gas turbine. It achieved an efficiency of over
36%, which was better than the diesels being sold in those days. However, it was not
really a small gas turbine in that the two versions were rated at 300 and 600 horsepower.
Unfortunately, cost was a problem and Ford reverted to conventional regenerated gas
turbines.
The survivor in small gas turbines was The Garrett Corporation Garrett was one of the
Signal Companies. When Signal merged with Allied, Garrett became part of AlliedSignal
Aerospace. When AlliedSignal bought Honeywell and adopted the Honeywell name,
Garrett became part of Honeywell.
The two largest divisions of Garrett were the ArResearch Manufacturing Company of
Arizona located in Phoenix, and the AiResearch Manufacturing Company of Los Angeles
originally located in Los Angeles and later in Torrance. Phoenix was the dominant
manufacturer of small gas turbines with many tens of thousands of units installed as
auxiliary power units on board aircraft and in ground carts. The 831 series gas turbines
discussed above were built by Phoenix. However, it was Torrance where the precursors
to the modern microturbine were developed.
Torrance was by far the largest manufacturer of aerospace environmental control
systems. They are used for air conditioning and heating commercial and military aircraft.
Guide to microturbines
Most of these units are air cycle and include high efficiency compressors and turbines
mounted on fluid process bearings commonly known as air bearings. These bearings
require no lubricants and no outside source of compressed air.
Torrance also built high-speed generator, high-speed refrigerant compressors,
recuperators and gas turbine control systems. With support from the gas industry and the
Department of Energy, Torrance used their expertise to develop prototypes of a radical
new 10 ton heat pump in the 1970s. A 12 horsepower, natural gas fueled, recuperated gas
turbine was used to drive a centrifugal refrigerant compressor which replaced the
electrically driven compressor in a conventional heat pump. To keep the refrigeration
system hermetic, the gas turbine drove the compressor through a magnetic coupling. To
eliminate the need for a natural gas compressor and to enlarge the components so that
they could be more efficient, a subatmospheric cycle was used.
In a conventional recuperated cycle gas turbine, outside air is compressed, preheated
in the high pressure side of a recuperator, heated to higher temperature in a combustor
and expanded through a turbine wheel, which powers both the compressor and the load. It
then enters the low pressure side of the recuperator where heat is transferred to the high
pressure side of the recuperator.
Subatmospheric cycles are different in that outside air enters the high pressure side of
the recuperator first. The air is preheated in the recuperator, further heated in the
combustor and expanded into a partial vacuum in the turbine, which drives both the
compressor and the load. As in the conventional cycle, the air then enters the low
pressure side of the recuperator where heat is transferred to the high pressure side of the
recuperator. The air then enters the compressor, which sustains the partial vacuum before
being discharged to atmosphere.
The conventional cycle and the subatmospheric cycle use essentially the same
components. Both are Brayton cycles, the difference being where the air enters and
leaves the cycle. The key advantage of the subatmospheric cycle is that the combustor is
at, or very slightly below, atmospheric pressure. Thus, natural gas at normal delivery
pressures will flow into it and there is no need for a fuel gas compressor, which is
expensive and generally inefficient.
The second advantage is that the power output is reduced by a factor approximately
equal to the pressure ratio. Thus, in a very small gas turbine the compressor and turbine
are significantly larger and therefore have higher component efficiencies. In larger units,
this becomes a disadvantage as the power available for a given piece of turbomachinery
is reduced. Another way to look at subatmospheric cycles is that its performance is
essentially the same as that of a conventional cycle that is operating at altitude.
Prototypes of the 10-ton heat pump achieved high levels of performance. They also
demonstrated the feasibility of the subatmospheric cycle. The power unit was the first
example of a gas turbine designed for production that ran on air bearings and required no
lubrication and no source of compressed air. These bearings are ideally suited for high
speed machinery where there are no gears because the load is driven at the same speed as
the gas turbine. No power take-off is needed to drive an oil pump. Indeed, there is no oil
pump, no oil sump, no oil cooler, no oil changes and no need to top off or check oil
levels. Similarly, with no water cooling requirements, elimination of open or closed water
cooling systems and the attendant treatment, pump and maintenance problems were also
eliminated.
Introduction
The prototypes proved the concept and demonstrated the performance. Unfortunately,
government studies erroneously claimed that natural gas would be in short supply and
that the price of natural gas would dramatically increase relative to the price of electricity
This would cripple the economics of gas fueled heat pumps and the program was
discontinued. The fact that natural gas prices and electric prices followed the same curve
in many parts of the country was mitigated when most public utilities were regulated and
could not readily change their rates despite higher fuel costs. In this day of de-regulation
of power companies, that factor would be less of a hindrance to marketing natural gas
fueled technology.
Smaller, three ton heat pumps were also developed at Torrance for the residential
market, but suffered a similar fate even though the concept included a bottoming cycle,
which increased the output and the efficiency by about fifteen percent. Because the cycle
was subatmospheric, the exhaust discharged out of the compressor. The exhaust was hot
because of the heat of compression. Thus liquid refrigerant from the heat pump could be
pumped up to pressure and vaporized in the gas turbines exhaust. It could then be
expanded through a turbine wheel that would be mounted on the back of the refrigerant
compressor. The turbine wheel would then discharge the expanded refrigerant into the
same condenser that the refrigerant compressor discharged into. As both wheels used the
same refrigerant, small amounts of leakage did not matter.
The method of starting such a system was interesting. In a conventional gas turbinedriven generator set, the generator can be used as a starter motor. But there was no
generator in this concept. However, there was liquid refrigerant and a refrigerant turbine
wheel. Thus liquid refrigerant could be contained and heated until it vaporized using an
electric resistance hater. This vaporized refrigerant could then be suddenly released to
flow through the refrigerant turbine wheel causing it to spin up. As the refrigerant turbine
was connected to the gas turbine through the magnetic coupling, the gas turbine would
also spin up and would start.
When the energy crisis eased and it was realized that natural gas would be available,
Torrance started on the design of the Advanced Energy System or AES. Basically, it was
a recuperated gas turbine-driven generator set rated at 50 kW. It used a conventional
rather than a subatmospheric cycle. The rotating group consisted of a permanent magnet
with a compressor wheel mounted on one end and a turbine wheel mounted on the other
end. The rotor group ran on air bearings so no lubrication was needed. Other than cooling
fans and a fuel pump or natural gas compressor, this assembly was the only moving part
in the system.
With an eye on fuel consumption, the AES had a recuperator. This heat exchanger
transferred heat from the hot turbine exhaust to the compressed air entering the
combustor. Thus the combustor needed less fuel to bring the air up to the required
temperature. Fuel consumption was cut roughly in half compared with a gas turbine
without a recuperator. However, there was still a lot of heat left in the exhaust. Making
use of this energy for heating or cooling a building or for an industrial process such as
drying could raise the system efficiency up into the 80% range.
Prototypes ran well. However, the Signal Companies merged with Allied and became
AlliedSignal, as mentioned above. The Garrett divisions in Torrance and Phoenix became
part of AlliedSignal Aerospace. The non-aerospace, non-military projects were
terminated and the AES became an APU where it was installed in an army tank as a
Guide to microturbines
demonstration. Interestingly enough, AlliedSignal returned to this field several years later
to develop the Parallon microturbine, the rights of which were sold to General Electric.
Robin MacKay had been instrumental in many of these programs. At Boeing, he
initiated, sold and installed the cogeneration and oil field systems. He also worked on the
outboard motor. At Garrett, he was responsible for most of the cogeneration sales and
developed the concepts for the two subatmospheric gas turbine programs and the
Advance Energy System. He wrote numerous papers and held several patents.
FULFILLMENT
MacKay took early retirement from what was now AlliedSignal and contacted Jim Noe
who had been in engineering at Garrett, had worked with MacKay on several projects and
held various patents on air conditioning and on subatmospheric gas turbines. Thus was
the start of NoMac in 1988. Fortunately, AlliedSignal was gracious enough to grant
NoMac licenses to some of the patents that had been issued to MacKay and Noe while
they were at Garrett but were now assigned to AlliedSignal. The key patent licensed was
the one for the residential heat pump that Garrett had designed but not built.
The company was very small. For the first five years it consisted of MacKay and Noe
plus, intermittently, one engineer, one draftsman and one secretary. NoMac relied heavily
on outside consultants for detailed design and analysis. NoMac also entered into joint
venture with Tiernay Turbines called MTN Energy Systems. MTN stood for MacKay
Tiernay Noe. Eventually, this joint venture was dissolved.
The original objective was to develop the residential heat pump with funding from the
gas industry. The market for residential heat pumps and air conditioners was estimated to
be in the six million units per year range. The projected coefficients of performance
(COP) were 2.0 in the heating mode and 1.6 in the cooling mode. Thus, the units, if
successful would have offered dramatic savings in both energy consumption and energy
cost when compared with the best available units at the time.
A derivative version was also to be developed. The magnetic coupling and the
refrigerant compressor and turbine were to be replaced with a generator. The objective
was to build small generator sets in the three to six kilowatt range with the first
applications aimed at the recreational vehicle market.
The gas industry was very enthusiastic about the potential of a very efficient gas
fueled air conditioner. They were somewhat less enthusiastic about a very efficient gas
fueled heating system that would only use half the gas that the best residential furnace
then available used. Accordingly, the decision was made to increase the rating to 25 tons.
The new markets were to be commercial establishments such as stores and factories
where lots of air conditioning but very little heating would be needed.
With the increase in size, the subatmospheric cycle became less attractive and a
conventional positive pressure cycle was used. An analysis was also made of the potential
for an air cycle heat pump using principles developed for and commonly used on aircraft.
Jim Noe had been one of the principal designers of these systems at Garrett.
One of the problems encountered was that the air cycle system optimizes at a lower
speed than the gas turbine. This means that both systems should not share a common
shaft. The answer was to use the gas turbine to drive a generator that was electrically
Introduction
connected to a motor driven, air cycle heat pump. By having a different number of poles
on the generator and on the motor, the two units could operate at different speeds. The
gas turbine-driven generator set evolved into what is now the Capstone 30 kW
microturbine.
Various contracts for demonstration or study were received. They were from Southern
California Edison for air cycle heat pumps, GRI for recuperators, NASA for recuperators,
California Air Resources Board for low emission catalytic combustors and Ford for a
generator set to keep batteries charged on an electric vehicle.
In 1993, venture capitalists invested in NoMac and the company took off. Renamed
Capstone Turbine Corporation, it has shipped several thousand microturbines that have
accumulated over three million hours of combined operation as of early 2003. Some of
the early 1999 units have exceeded 35,000 operating hours without overhaul. They are
currently rated at 30 kW and 60 kW with 200 kW in development. Typical applications
include cogeneration, hybrid electric vehicles, precise power and distributed generation.
Many are used in oil fields where they operate on casing head gas that would normally be
flared. They are also used in landfills where they operate on the low Btu gases that are
generated by the decomposing garbage. Sewage treatment plants using the anaerobic
digesters give off methane gas in the 500600 Btu/cubic foot range that can be burned in
a microturbine with the waste heat put back into the digester in the form of hot water.
Multiple units are common and the electronic controller can handle up to 200 units
operating in parallel.
Today, Capstone is by far the dominant manufacturer of microturbines. While
AlliedSignals Parallon unit as marketed by Honeywell has been withdrawn from the
marketplace, others such as Bowman Energy Systems, Ingersoll-Rand Power Works,
Elliott Energy Systems and Turbec are currently manufacturing microturbines and their
products as well as Capstones are covered in subsequent chapters in this book.
Chapter 2
Design Goals and Achievements For the
Microturbine
SINCE WHAT IS NOW the Capstone Turbine Corporation became the first marketable
microturbine it is proper to know what goals were sought after when this turbine was
developed for commercial operation.
The design team broke the components of the microturbine into three distinct areas:
1. Fuel System
2. The Engine
3. The Digital Power Controller
FUEL SYSTEM
Capstone wanted a versatile machine, able to burn a variety of fuels. They envisioned
both gaseous and liquid fuels could be burned in this turbine, just as many different types
of fuels were being burned in the larger gas turbines. Since the gas turbine is a mass flow
machine vs. the reciprocating engines which are a volu-metric machine, the designers
realized that as fuel quality varied the mass of gas entering the combustion chamber had
to vary. That meant the fuel system had to be designed to handle different masses of fuel
flow.
Further, it was not just the quality gaseous fuels such as natural gas and propane
they wanted to see burned, but also the low quality fuels coming out of land fills and
digester plants, methane laden, but often accompanied by non-combustible gases such as
carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. Therefore, for a gas turbine that was designed to burn
420,000 Btu/hour of a fuel type, and produce a nominal 30 kWh, the quantity of gas
varied with the quality of the gas. For instance, natural gas is nominally rated at 1,000
Btu/cubic foot. To burn this gas, the fuel valve had to have the ability to pass 420 cubic
feet per hour of fuel to the combustion chamber.
However, for a land fill gas having only 300400 Btu/cubic foot heating values, the
amount of gas that has to be introduced to the combustor is 1400 cubic feet per hour at
300 Btu/cubic foot and 1050 cubic feet per hour at 400 Btu/cubic foot. The unit still
produces the nominal 30 kWh of electricity. Therefore, the fuel proportioning valve must
be larger to handle this higher volume of gas entering the combustor.
Microturbines, like any gas turbine, require higher pressure fuel to the combustion
chamber to match the pressure to which the supporting compressor pressure ratio
produces. In the Capstone Model C-30 a nominal 55 psig fuel pressure is required when
burning 1000 Btu/cf natural gas vs. as high as 70 psig fuel pressure when burning low
Btu/cf gas as found in landfills and digesters. Any decrease in these fuel pressures will
result in lower electric power output. Unlike its reciprocating brethren, gas turbine
engines do not compress the air/fuel mixture in the combustion chamber but must rely on
external compression to provide the proper combustion pressure. In the reciprocating
engine the action of the piston in an enclosed volume provides the desired pressure ratio.
Consequently, reciprocating engines can burn natural gas and low Btu gases with low
inlet pressures and usually require no external compression.
Fuel cleanliness is also important in the gas turbine. Spinning at 96,000 rpm, the
Capstone C-30 cannot tolerate moisture droplets in the fuel stream nor any solids. Any
moisture contained in the fuel must be at least 18F above its dew point anywhere within
the fuel connections and the system between the microturbine fuel inlet and microturbine
fuel manifold block.
Fuels coming from digesters, landfills gathering systems, oil field flare gases and the
like may contain elements harmful to the turbine. While hydrogen sulfide is often present
in such gases, the Capstone microturbine can tolerate up to 7% H2S in the gas stream
without fear of corrosion affects. Generally, H2S is prevalent in oil field flare gases while
the bio-gases, the proscribed term for digester and landfill gases, may have small
percentages of H2S while containing moisture and siloxanes.
The term, bio-gas, refers to the biological conversion of waste material to methane in
an anaerobic digestion of organic waste materials. Anaerobic refers to a process that
occurs in the absence of oxygen. Digestion refers to a biological process performed by
microbes or bacteria (commonly known as bugs), which accomplishes the digestion of
food. The bugs consume the organic waste material, rendering its solid residue essentially
inert. The process occurs in the presence of water, ideally with the temperature and pH
controlled to optimize the digestion reactions and the health of the bugs. The primary
product is methane (CH4), accompanied by carbon dioxide (CO2). Typically the gas ratio
is 60:40, 60% methane to 40% carbon dioxide.
Siloxanes may be indigenous to these bio-gases. Siloxanes are compounds containing
the structural unit R2SiO where R is an organic group or hydrogen and SiO is silicon
oxide. Not all bio-gases contain siloxanes as their presence depends on the material that
is decomposing on whether silicon is present. Siloxanes are used extensively in consumer
products to act as a volatile dispersant agents to help evenly spread organic based
specialty chemicals. Deodorant, lipstick and makeup, plus many other products use
siloxanes. As man-made compounds that typically are washed down the drain or thrown
in the trash, siloxanes are always found in landfill and wastewater treatment plant
digester gas. Not all digester plants contain these throw away items. Digesters are finding
common use in dairy and hog farms as manure digesters, breweries and ethanol plants
Guide to microturbines
10
and food processing plants. When siloxanes are present in the gas stream it behooves the
installation of microturbines to remove such contaminants. Otherwise, the silicon, under
high temperature, forms a glass like coating on the components of the microturbines
power wheel blades and entrance to the recuperator. This coating will limit the power
output of the turbine as well as its life.
Siloxane removal equipment consists of the adsorption of the siloxanes in the pores of
graphite media. One such filter is manufactured by Applied Filter Technology (AFT) and
can respond to the gas analysis with different pore sizes and structures as well as layering
them differently for each biogas to optimize overall performance.
Figure 2-1 shows a typical flowsheet for biogas fuel preparation.
Capstone wants to see a limitation of 5 ppb or 5 parts per billion by volume for
siloxanes. Since this is the detectable limit for siloxanes it means the fuel must contain no
detectable level of siloxane. When detected, filtration equipment must be installed in the
fuel stream ahead of the turbine.
Liquid Fuels
The Capstone microturbine can also burn liquid fuels, specifically diesel and kerosene.
However, other liquids have been tested such as fish oil and other more exotic liquids
from various processes. Heating value, purity, viscosity and moisture are the determining
factors as to whether the more exotic fuels can be burned.
For diesel fuel the calorific value in the HHV table is 19,900 to 20,000 Btu/pound.
Kerosene is the same. Viscosity ranges from 1.3 to 4.1 centistokes for diesel and 1.0 to
1.9 centistokes for kerosene. Diesel fuels approved are ASTM D975 No. 2-D and 1-D as
well as their counterparts in low grade sulfur content. Kerosene is
11
Guide to microturbines
12
Table 2-1.
Maximum
Minimum
14
0.95
0.75
Cloud Point F
18
Pour Point F
18
Flash Point F
150
100
20,000
15,000
350
250
700
Kinematic Viscosity-centistokes
Calorific ValueBtu/lbm
Vapor Pressurepsia
Table 2-2.
Maximum
Minimum
0.05
Particulate Sizemicrons
2.0
5.0
Sulfurppm mass
10,000
Chlorineppm mass
1,500
Fluorineppm mass
150
Ashppm mass
100
Sodium+Potassiumppm mass
0.5
0.5
Combustion System Concerns include the fuel type that may affect the stability of the
combustion system. Fuels highly diluted with inert items, as well as different liquid fuels,
may have degraded stability at low power levels. Liquid fuels especially in the
atomization ability has a significant effect on stability Fuels containing significant
amounts of hydrogen and acetylene may result in flashback and combustion system
damage.
Combustor life may be affected when fuels with significant amounts of carbon
monoxide and acetylene are burned. High combustor temperatures are the result. Liquid
fuels with poor atomization qualities will also result in reduced combustor life.
Some fuels have inherently higher emissions levels. Liquids will generally have higher
NOx levels than natural gas. Since temperature of combustion and NOx production are
synonymous, fuels containing significant levels of carbon monoxide and acetylene will
produce more NOx. Atomization ability of liquid fuels will also affect NOx production.
13
Vapor lock with liquid fuels containing high vapor pressures will occur in the fuel
injectors resulting in rough running and nuisance shutdowns.
Fuel System Concerns include the gaseous fuel temperature which may raise
concerns regarding liquid formation, high vapor pressure, high density and high viscosity.
Damage to the materials of construction may also occur with high or low temperature
extremes of the fuel.
Fuel contaminants, additives, as well as some hydrocarbons may corrode or attack
critical fuel system components. Fuels containing water and high hydrogen sulfide
amounts may lead to even more severe corrosion effects. Condensed water or ice will
result in fuel system malfunction causing eventual shutdown. Gaseous fuels temperature
should be maintained at 18F above the dew point of water throughout the fuel system.
Fuel valve limitations affect what fuels can be burned as discussed previously in this
book. Extremely reduced volumetric heating values may not allow full power operation
due to flow control valve limits. Conversely, fuels with too high a heating value may not
be adequately controlled at low power operation.
Capstone incorporates a Rotary Flow Compressor in its Model C-30 which boosts the
inlet gas pressure to required combustion chamber pressure. Any of the excesses listed
above may have an adverse effect on this component causing premature failure. Too low
an inlet pressure may cause air leaking into the gas fuel supply and run the consequent
risk of an explosive mixture. Reduced bearing life in the ball bearing RFC will also occur
with too low an inlet pressure. Since Capstone has introduced the foil bearing RFC, some
of the above concerns no longer exist, but air leakage should still be avoided in the foil
bearing RFC as well as any external fuel gas booster compressors.
With liquid fuels, the deviation of the liquid fuel density from the parameters noted in
the above table may result in incorrect metering of the liquid fuel, and/or other fuel
control issues. High fuel viscosity may result in increased heating of the fuel pump
internal components affecting performance and cold start problems due to its effect on
atomization will also occur. Lower fuel viscosity may result in increased internal leakage
of the fuel pump which may adversely affect the fuel metering accuracy, especially under
low flow conditions.
Further, liquid fuel pump life may be adversely affected by the fuel viscosity, fuel
lubricity, and fuel temperature in addition to any contaminants in the fuel that are outside
of the requirements detailed within this chapter. Water is equally concerned with freezing
causing fuel blockage and shut down as well as biological growth in fuel system
components, especially the fuel filter.
Microturbine Engine Concerns deal with damage to the hot end components caused
by excess fuel contaminants such as sulfur. Liquids found in gaseous fuels can cause
turbine hardware damage. Surge may occur when attempting to burn fuels with low
heating values. Surge is capable of destroying the engine components.
It is notable to observe that the concerns for combustion system and fuel system far
outweigh the concerns for the engine itself. This is a tribute to the ruggedness of a gas
turbine in general and that of the microturbine especially.
Guide to microturbines
14
THE ENGINE
The typical microturbine engine consists of the rotor, the combustion chamber and the
recuperator. The rotor contains the permanent magnet generator which is surrounded by
the stator. Also mounted on the rotor is the compressor wheel and the turbine power
wheel. In the case of many of the microturbines the rotor is supported by air foil bearings
which require no liquid lubrication. An air foil thrust bearing is also used. In the case of
the Capstone microturbine the components are as shown in Figure 2-2.
The one piece rotor as shown in Figure 2-3. is about 18 long and contains all the
dynamic parts of the microturbinethe permanent magnet generator on the right, the
compressor wheel in the center and the power turbine wheel shown on the left. It rotates
at 96,000 rpm at full speed and kilowatt production.
The foil/air bearing is so called because it has air foil shaped segments that lift as air is
introduced into the microturbine upon start up rotation. The shaft is suspended in space
by an air cushion created by the foils. The only time the shaft comes into contact with the
air bearings is when the unit is at rest. Upon shutdown the rotor is grabbed electrically
to prevent coast down of the rotor thereby preventing any rubbing of the shaft on the air
bear-
15
Guide to microturbines
16
17
However, the B3 program continued in house recognizing the symptoms that were
causing the problems were from outside interference. Transients from the grid would
cause the units to just stop. The sensitivity of the system to such transients as well as
lightning storms indicated the system was not robust enough to ignore such transients.
The B3 program added more control logic, improved software and generally beefed up
the hardware to recognize the new power output. The new system was more robust
concluding in the current system of a pure sine wave of power output, total ignorance of
utility or outside influenced transients which resulted in the product todaya totally
reliable power electronics system.
Guide to microturbines
18
Chapter 3
Dual Mode Operation
To BE ABLE TO OPERATE in the stand-alone mode, the microturbine system will need
a voltage and frequency source. Generally, an electric battery provides this source. Since
the battery shall provide energy for the start up as well as handle power transients, the
battery is oversized and used to only 20% of its capacity. The transient capability is
needed since in the stand-alone operation the microturbine must follow the power
demand of the load. This power demand can change faster than the microturbine can
respond. The battery is used to bridge the power demand change with the response time
of the turbine to ramp up or down.
Before understanding the full import of dual mode operation it is incumbent to know
the working of the grid connected system. The microturbine is designed primarily to
safely produce power in parallel with an electric utility. Protective relay functions inside
the microturbine system ensure that power production is possible only if the utility
waveform meets preset standards. A start command is given to the microturbine and this
causes power to be drawn from the utility which starts the turbine engine. The system
then outputs power per the power level setting, synchronized to the utility waveform.
The microturbine can be controlled to follow the demand load by instituting a power
meter device in the control logic. This power meter senses system power needs and
causes the turbine to slow down to meet those needs without exporting power to the grid.
Not only does exported power bring little or no economic benefits, most utilities impose
restrictions on exporting power. The microturbine accepts meter data signals for forward
power flow, a + pulse, and reverse power flow, a pulse at a rate propor-tional to the
power flow at the control point where the meter is attached. Using these signals the
microturbine will dynamically adjust its output power level to insure that no power flows
back to the utility. This application is called Load Following.
Power meters with KYZ outputs are required and are commercially available from
such suppliers as ABB, Schlumberger, GE and Siemens.
Guide to microturbines
20
a battery and battery controller. The battery is used for both starting the microturbine and
supplying transient energy to connected loads.
Often, it is necessary to power some loads prior to the micro turbine reaching the
capability to power external loads. Typically, fuel booster compressors are one such load.
Without the proper fuel pressure to the combustion chamber, the microturbine will not
function and with 55 to 90 psig pressures required, the local gas supplier is loathe to
supply that high pressure into the customers building. Hence, an auxiliary load controller
(ALC) manages segregation of the loads to first start the fuel gas booster compressor and
then the microturbine.
The combination of grid connect and stand-alone modes is called dual mode operation.
This term refers to a microturbines ability to operate both in parallel with the utility or
isolated from the utility in stand-alone mode. Manual transfer between these modes of
operation may be accomplished with a manual switch. However, since transition from
one to the other configuration is most beneficial when this is done automatically, an
automatic dual
21
Since the electric utility wants assurance that a total disconnect has occurred from its
now dead lines, a time delay is necessary when the ADMC senses grid outage and
before the microturbine can come on line under battery influenced power. This time delay
may be anywhere from 30 seconds to 30 minutes. Therefore, an Uninterruptible Power
Supply (UPS) system may be needed to support loads that cannot stand this time
interruption, such as computer systems or safety lighting.
Figure 3-3 shows the complete system when an ADMC is involved. The ADMC
senses grid power outage, the ALC starts the auxiliary load (fuel gas booster compressor)
and the ADMC switches over to battery power to start the microturbine. Note that
multiple microturbines can be controlled from this system.
When multiple turbines are connected to a system, a Power Server device can monitor
load and cause matching of the power demand with the power output from the bank of
turbines. This device can slow the turbines down in unison, or cause one or more turbines
to be shut down completely and re-started when power demand rises. Up to 100
microturbines can be controlled in this fashion.
When grid power is restored, the ADMC senses grid power, and reverses its operation
by shutting down the turbines and then restarting them in grid connect mode. While the
shut down to stand-alone mode time is controlled more by the utility than the
microturbine technology, the re-establishment of turbine power to grid connect mode is
being shortened with the goal of seamless transition. Of course, all of this is predicated
on the turbines being hot during the transition.
Chapter 4
Operational and Environmental
Characteristics
INLET AIR TEMPERATURE CONSIDERATIONS
A MICROTURBINE IS first a gas turbine and therefore follows the laws of physics
where its performance is concerned. Being a mass flow machine as opposed to
reciprocating engines which are volumetric machines, the gas turbine is more susceptible
to changes in air density than the reciprocating engine. The gas turbine industry has set
the inlet air temperature rating at 59F for determining performance. Therefore, when a
microturbine is rated at 60 kWh output it is at 59F inlet air temperature. Variations from
that temperature will cause changes in the power output of the turbine. Figure 4-1 shows
the affect higher inlet air temperatures have on kilowatt output.
Note that the Efficiency curve is the top line while power output is the bottom line. In
this case the Capstone Model C-60 microturbine will continue to put out 60 kWh up to
80F, but the efficiency starts to drop after the 59F rating point. At 100F the power
output of this turbine is at approximately 54 kWh. Below 59F one would expect the
power output to increase beyond 60 kWh since the air is more dense. However, the power
electronics within the turbine prevent more power from being generated. In jet engines,
where power is measured in thrust, the denser the air the more thrust (power) is produced.
Elevation Considerations
Elevation also affects turbine performance since the higher
23
Guide to microturbines
24
The Darcy Equation can be used to estimate friction loss as a function of duct diameter,
duct length and exhaust velocity:
Hf=(f L/D+C)(V/4,005)2
Where
D=
C=
V=
25
premature wear. Therefore, the rotor is stopped electrically before that rubbing contact
can be made.
Environmental Considerations
There are two categories of emissions. The first category is air quality related emissions
which include pollutants such as NOx (nitrogen oxide); SO2 (sulfur dioxide); CO (carbon
monoxide; particulate matter (PM); and volatile organic compounds (VOC).
The other category is emissions related to global warming, i.e. so called greenhouse
gases, which include CO2 (carbon dioxide), CH4 (methane), N2O (nitrous oxide) and the
very powerful greenhouse gases that are not naturally occurring such as SF6 (sulfur
hexafluoride).
Microturbines generally have very favorable air quality related emission
characteristics thanks mainly to the fundamentals of lean-burn concept and relatively low
turbine exhaust tempera-tures which helps control NOx production. These very low
emissions eliminate the need of any catalytic exhaust gas cleaning. This technology has
made the microturbine exempt from air quality permitting in most, if not all, Air Quality
Management Districts in the United States.
Natural gas fired reciprocating engines usually need catalytic exhaust gas cleaning to
meet stringent emission standards. Diesel reciprocating engines need, in addition to
catalytic exhaust gas cleaning, particle traps, but may still come short of meeting the most
rigorous emission standards.
NOx lb/MWh
Comment
3.029.5
1.626
Gas turbine
0.33.8
<0.5
Microturbine, diesel
<.22
Capstone
Engines operating on fossil fuel generate greenhouse gases such as CO2. The key to
minimizing the CO2 emissions is the efficiency of the engine. Microturbines by
themselves are less efficient than reciprocating enginesapproximately 30% vs. 40%
respectively. However, in Combined Heat & Power applications this disparity in
efficiency is mitigated since the lower efficiency of the microturbine will generate more
usable heat than the reciprocating engine. Therefore, the overall amount of CO2
production is virtually equal between the two types of engines.
Methane, CH4, is over 20 times more negative than CO2 as a greenhouse gas.
Consequently, capturing methane from landfills, digesters in waste water treatment
plants, oil field flares, agricultural decomposition, etc., for burning in both microturbines
and reciprocating engines is one method of reducing methane into the atmosphere.
Guide to microturbines
26
Emissions
(ppmV @
15% O2
(ppmV @
18.3% O2
[lb/kW/hr]
HC
3.96
1.77E-04 1.32E-04
0.080
22.29
0.060
CO
40
17.63
13.73E.04 10.24$.04
0.624
173.33
0.467
NOx
3.96
5.07E-04 3.79E-04
0.231
64.07
0.172
NOx+HC
6.84E-04 5.10E-04
0.311
86.36
0.232
CO2
1.69E+00 1.26E+00
766.0 2.13E+05
5.72.0
O2
1.60E+01 1.19E+01
7270.0 2.02E+06
5420.0
27
It is through the acoustic paths that noise is transmitted from its source to the outside
of the microturbine package. The three primary acoustic paths are inlet noise, exhaust
noise and case radiated noise. Capstone has designed and installed inlet hoods to help
attenuate inlet noise and commercially available exhaust silencers can attenuate exhaust
noise. As stated above, case radiated noise is minimal in the Capstone, air bearing
supported turbine.
Noise measurement made on Capstone units shows an average of 65 dba or less on a
10 meter radius. The model C-30 has a high frequency pitch at the very point that is most
sensitive to the human ear, while the C-60 unit has no such frequency anomaly and is
easily incorporated into hospitality sensitive sites.
Chapter 5
Markets for the Microturbine
THE MICROTURBINE has been earmarked as the logical generator for distributed
generation due to its modularity, compact design, low emissions, no vibration, low noise
levels and very low maintenance.
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
If you are in the electric power industry as a utility, equipment supplier or a user of
electricity you have heard the wordsDistributed Generation. What exactly does that
mean? A good definition is, the integrated or stand-alone use of small, modular
electric generators close to the point of consumption.
Thats fine, but is it viable? In other words what do I as a consumer of electricity get if
my electricity comes from a distributed generation module? The integrated part of the
definition usually means the generator is interconnected with the local utility. The standalone part of that definition means that I may not be interconnected with the utility, or, if
I am, I may be able to still have electricity if the utility power should fail. This latter
aspect does give me value in that I will still be able to operate while my neighbors and
competitors may not.
The U.S. electric power system is among the most dependable in the world achieving
over 99% reliability. However, that number can be challenged in the future as
deregulation gains a greater foothold. In a regulated industry the provider is rewarded
with better rates as he spends capital to improve his service. A deregulated company may
not be so prudent especially if he feels there is no competition to drive his customers
elsewhere.
Furthermore, reliability is not just of the generating system, but also the delivery
system. There is a real concern that the distribution lines feeding our homes and factories
are deteriorating faster than they are being upgraded. Reliability to one person is of
marginal concern while to others it is critical. The reliability jargon speaks in terms of
nines. Ninety-nine percent reliability is two nines. What this means is that system that
is 99% reliable suffers 3.7 days/year of down time. To carry that further, three nines
means a downtime of 9 hours/year; four nines53 minutes a year; five nines5
minutes/year; six nines32 seconds per year and seven nines (99.99999%)3
seconds/year.
The cost of an outage to a homestead is not nearly as critical as to an outage to some
companies that depend on usage to earn their income. For instance the following shows
how some types of businesses value their power:
Cellular Phone companies
$72,000/hour
Guide to microturbines
30
Airline Reservations
$90,000/hour
$2,580,000/hour
Brokerage Operations
$6,480,000/hour
Obviously, most of these types of companies have planned back up power to keep their
critical needs operating in the event of a power outage.
So, reliability is the value proposition of the stand-alone capability of distributed
generation. And, Value Proposition is the byword to any cost of implementing distributed
generation. Another value to DG might be a savings in the cost of running transmission
and distribution (T & D) lines to your project if it is not currently served by a utility.
With real estate becoming more scarce in the normal utility service areas your project, be
it a housing development, a new production factory, a golf course, an amusement park or
a shopping arcade, the cost of T & D may be so exorbitant that an on site generation
system may be the best value. In that case not only would the T & D expenses be
deferred and eliminated, but so would the ongoing rates the utility charges for that
electricity. The rub here, however, is that the utilities are in the business of selling
electricity and realize that your project will not forever be the lone tree standing in the
plain, but soon part of a forest of new infrastructure that will easily support the T & D
charges imposed over a greater number of users. Consequently, the utility may lower
those expenses for your project just to insure themselves of customers in the future.
Therefore, it may be that a second value proposition is needed to make your project
work with DG in spite of utility marketing ploys. That second value proposition could be
Combined Heat & Power (CHP). Thomas Edisons first central station generating plant
employed combined heat & power when he built a district heating system to use the
waste heat from his engine to supply heat and hot water to his neighbors. Of course, the
NIMBY process (Not In My Back Yard) precludes central stations from being located in
populated centers, so CHP is rarely found in large central station power plants.
But, in a distributed generation system it is practical and possible to incorporate CHP
which can provide space heating, domestic hot water, and chilled water for air
conditioning to the facility, as well as heating neighborhood or municipal swimming
pools. Since transmission losses in delivering electricity amount to 710% of the
generated power, DG systems avoid those losses. With the conversion of fuel to
electricity being in the 35% area, i.e. 9,700 Btus of fuel to deliver one kilowatt hour of
electricity (3,415 Btus), the value proposition of CHP raises that efficiency to well over
80%. When the cost of heating and air conditioning are intro duced to the value
proposition, distributed generation combined with CHP becomes an instant winner in
returning the investment to such a system.
The technologies of today lend themselves to such systems. Since environmental
concerns will be a factor in implementing DG, the microturbines, small reciprocating
engine driven generators, fuel cells and photovoltaics all meet local air quality
management district requirements, albeit with catalytic conversion systems on the
reciprocating engines. Medium sized gas turbines also show promise in meeting air
quality needs. The microturbine field encompasses proven technology in the 60 to 100
kWh sizes and sizes up to 250 kWh are soon to be marketed. These systems allow for
31
multiple units to be operated under one master control and are ideal for modular clusters
in whatever facility or development is contemplated.
While fuel cells and photovoltaics are still not being mass produced, their costs may
be prohibitive in returning a reasonable investment in all but housing developments
where 20-year paybacks could be tolerated. However, at installed costs of $1200
$1500/kWh for microturbines and packaged reciprocating engine cogeneration systems,
the returns on investment are in the 4-year and less payback arena.
The term spark spread is often employed to determine if an on site generation
system is viable. Thats the spread between the cost of the local utilitys energy and
demand charges vs. the cost of fuel and maintenance to operate an on site system. In
California and the North East, that spread is sufficient to make straight DG viable even in
areas now served by the local public utility.
The discussion on reliability lends itself to DG implementation for not only stand by
power but the combination of full power with standby capability, often referred to as
Dual Mode. In those cases the on site generator would be connected to the grid and a
transfer switch device would sense a grid failure and bring the generator back on line in a
stand-alone mode. There may be a delay in accomplishing this therefore a UPS
(Uninterrupted Power Supply) device may be needed in the form of batteries to allow for
the momentary down time of the generator. This delay is needed in order to confirm to
the utility that the on site generator has been disconnected from the grid. This differs
from pure standby generators that are never connected to the grid, but react to a grid
outage.
That being the case, interconnection agreements are required by the utility. This has
created technical, economic and procedural barriers to a smooth implementation of DG.
Utilities want to be assured that the proper protective relays are in place to prevent a
supposedly dead power line on their system from becoming alive when working on
the line. Most technology manufacturers have these protections and anti-islanding
devices built in to their system electronics. Many have pre-certified their technology with
the local utilities to prevent duplication every time a new system is installed.
The cost of the interconnection agreement is to cover the utilitys time to study the
project and insure the safety and propriety of the system. An on site meter may be
required to measure the output of the generator in order to determine the cost of any
departing load charges or exit feesa charge per kWh that seemingly pays the utility for
the privilege of not supplying electricity but having enough running reserve to back up
the on site generator should it go down. Standby charges are also imposed on the
nameplate rating of the generator. These can range from 1.00/kW per month to as high as
$8.00/kW per month. So, a 300 kW generator may cost the company as much as $2400
per month to be connected to the grid. Many of these barriers are being mitigated by
negotiations as well as legislation in various states.
As late as July, 2003, a new entity was formed in San Diego, CA called Regional
Energy Policy Advisory Council. It was formed by disparate members such as
Qualcomm, a manufacturer of wireless phone technology; Utility Consumers Action
Network, an energy lobby; the City of San Diego and a small business trade association.
The purpose of the group is to investigate and develop a regional energy future different
from the one envisioned by SDG&E the local de-regulated public utility. The council
members have signaled their commitment to break with an energy planning paradigm
Guide to microturbines
32
they say is dominated by a utility with interests that sometimes might not be the same as
the publics. With just one dissenting vote the 13-member panel rejected the option of
becoming an advisory panel to SDG&Ea role favored by the utilityand instead
moved forward with its own regional energy plan.
This Regional Energy Policy Advisory Council would like to see an energy system
based on clean, renewable sources of power, many of which could be built in the county.
The proposed energy authority would function in much the same way as a municipal
utility district. These districts have generally provided lower rates and more reliable
service in recent years than such investor owned utilities as SDG&E, PG&E and
Southern California Edison. The regional power authority would also have the power to
float bonds and construct power projects. It would rival SDG&E and its parent company,
Sempra Energy, which also is planning an array of power projects within the region.
According to the article which was written in the local San Diego paper, the UnionTribune the council has set ambitious energy targets calling for 40% of the regions
energy to come from renewable sources such as wind power and sun by 2030. It also
wants to reduce per capita consumption of natural gas in an effort to break the
dependence on fossil fuels. No mention of cogeneration was made which in itself can be
considered green energy from that portion of the energy created by the waste heat of
combustion. While SDG&E is a member of this new Council, its parent is betting heavily
on a scenario for the future that does not involve renewable energy technologies. SDG&E
is saying that improvements to the transmission lines can boost the regions electric
reliability by allowing the company to tap cheaper electricity generated elsewhere. That
elsewhere may be from their new gasfueled power plants in Mexicali, Mexico;
Bakersfield, CA, and western Arizona.
None of the SDG&E plans appears to favor or include Distributed Generation since
these new plants would transmit power through the existing improved grid.
Conversely, none of the Regional Energy Policy Advisory Council plans specifically
states an inclusion of DG, but its likely some DG would be involved from the early
reports. The Council must believe that between now and 2030 the cost of the wind and
sun powered technologies will compete favorably with more conventional power
generating equipment on a cost/kWh basis, otherwise the goals of the Council will be
hard pressed to demonstrate reduced prices of electricity to consumers.
It is this authors thinking that with such a controversy brewing between the
aforementioned Council and the first de-regulated major utility in the United States that
DG will show its mettle to both sides of this equation and become a major player in
solving this regions cost and reliability issues.
33
Since economics is the driving force behind any project the value proposition of CHP
is excellent. Utilizing the waste heat from the turbine the overall thermal efficiency of the
microturbine CHP system ranges from 75 to 90%meaning that for every Btu of fuel
input to the turbine 75 to 90% of the fuel input will emanate in useful work. The key
factor in any CHP system, therefore, is the ability to utilize the waste heat on site in the
form or hot water, chilled water, hot air, or in some cases, steam.
An example of the overall thermal efficiency attainable using microturbines in a hot
water producing application is:
Produce a net of 348 kWh of electricity using six (6) 60 kilowatt units
Consume 48.24 therms of natural gas to operate the turbines
Produce 29 therms of hot water energy at 120F
Thermal efficiency=Kilowatts of electricity+Useful thermal energy/Fuel
Input
% =348 kWh3415 Btu/kWh/100,000 Btu/therm +29 therms hot water divided by 48.24 therms of
fuel input
% =11.88 therms of electric power +29 therms of hot water
=40.88 therms divided by 48.24 therms of fuel input
% =40.88/48.24=84.74 % thermal efficiency
If this same facility were using utility power which generates one kWh for every 9700
Btus of thermal input, and produced 29 therms of hot water in a hot water heater which
has an efficiency of 75%, the net thermal efficiency would be:
Fuel Input=9700 Btu/kWh348 kWh
=3,375,600 Btus or 33.75 therms
To generate 29 therms of hot water in a heater with 75% efficiency requires 38.67 therms
of energy.
So, the combined thermal input to generate 348 kWh of electricity and 29 therms of
hot water is 72.42 therms (33.75 therms equivalent for electricity +38.67 therms for hot
water).
But, we can generate the same amount of energy in a cogeneration plant that consumes
48.24 therms of energy. The difference in fuel input is 72.4248.24=24.18 therms saved
with a cogeneration plant per hour of operation. Over an 8760-hour year the accumulated
savings in energy is over 211,000 therms per year.
While hot water is a major component of a CHP system, the next universal energy
need besides electricity is chilled water for air conditioning. Using absorber chiller
technology, where a heat source causes the evaporation of a liquid under vacuum
resulting in the evaporation/condensation process, heat is removed from circulating
water. This water, chilled to as low as 41F, is piped to air handlers to provide building
air conditioning. Absorber chillers can use natural gas, hot water, steam, or hot exhaust
gases to create the heat source for the evaporation process.
Microturbines, with an exhaust temperature near 600F, can use that exhaust heat to
power the absorber chiller. For every 60 kWh electrical output, approximately 21 tons of
chilled water at
Guide to microturbines
34
BIO-GAS RECOVERY
Bio-gas is the term used to describe methane production from the decay of organic
material. Typical bio-gas producers are landfills and anaerobic digesters. In the former
case the decomposition of organic matter that has been placed in a mature landfill and
covered with dirt starts to form pockets of methane gas that can be recovered by drilling a
pattern of holes in the landfill and connecting the holes to a piping system connected to a
vacuum system to literally suck the methane out of the landfill. This procedure is often
done to prevent free methane from finding its way to the surface and causing air
pollution. The resultant collected gas is sent to a flare where the methane is burned.
Depending on the efficiency of the flare the destruction may not be complete and the NOx
produced may be a pollutant in itself.
35
Collecting that gas and putting it through a clean-up system to remove moisture,
particulate matter and other contaminants, such as siloxanes, the resultant methane can
then be directed to a combustion engine or turbine to produce electrical energy. The Btu
Guide to microturbines
36
content of landfill collected gas ranges from 300 Btu/cubic foot to 450 Btu/cubic foot.
Carbon dioxide usually makes up the remaining volume of gas possibly mixed with some
hydrogen sulfide and water vapor.
Here, again, the microturbine excels. Just like any gas turbine the microturbine can
tolerate the inferior quality of the gas with more forgiveness than a reciprocating engine.
While hydrogen sulfide up to 7% by volume can be safely burned in a Capstone
microturbine, siloxanes should be removed regardless of whether turbines or
reciprocating engines are incorporated. Siloxanes are the result of silicone materials
decomposing in the landfill. The most common source of those silicones is from the
many cosmetics and beauty products that are discarded. Combined with oxygen, the
silicone turns into siloxane and when burned as part of the methane can form glass like
coatings on the internal parts of the turbine or engine. The recuperator of the turbine is
especially susceptible to such a glass coating as is the leading edge of the turbines power
wheel. Carbon filtration is recommended to re-
37
Guide to microturbines
38
the return on investment is quite a bit higher than that of landfill applications where
cogeneration
39
RESOURCE RECOVERY
Another form of free fuel is in the oil fields where natural gas is often a by product of
oil production. That gas is often flared since no collection system for gathering and
storing the gas was put in place. Since most oil field operations require pump jacks or
downhole pumps to bring the oil to the surface, electricity is used to operate those pumps.
By implementing flare gas burning microturbines to generate electricity, the oil field
pumps can run
Guide to microturbines
40
41
Guide to microturbines
42
PEAK SHAVING
Peak Shaving is the application of on site power production during times of peak power
usage, and therefore higher power costs, in order to alleviate that high cost of power.
Utilities support this type of application in order to weather the high usage periods when
their power grid is operating at its peak power production. This usually occurs in the
summer time when air conditioning loads are high in warm climates and can also occur in
cold climates during peak heating season.
Microturbines lend itself well to Peak Shaving because of their modularity, low
emissions, ease of starting and stopping, and no vibration therefore no extensive
installation requirements.
The value proposition of peak shaving is usually not as great as that of the other
applications mentioned above, but since power reliability is also a consideration during
those periods of high electrical usage, the dual mode facet of microturbines is often
employed to insure a steady and reliable source of power in the event of a rolling
blackout or power outage. This may be considered an insurance policy and therefore the
return on investment is incalculable until a power outage occurs. As discussed in the
distributed generation section, certain industries require this insurance to protect
themselves from severe loss of income.
Chapter 6
Manufacturers of Microturbines
BESIDES CAPSTONE TURBINE CORPORATION there are other significant
manufacturers of microturbines producing these mini power plants. They are:
Bowman Power Systems
Capstone Turbine Corporation
Elliott Energy Systems
Ingersoll-Rand Power Works
Toyota Turbine Systems
Turbec AB
Each will be discussed individually.
Guide to microturbines
44
Manufacturers of microturbines
45
Guide to microturbines
46
Both units are exempt in California from the Air Quality Management Districts
permitting requirements.
Capstone advertises the main features of their microturbines as follows:
Air Bearings requiring no lubrication
Air cooled electronics requiring no water cooling
Ultra low emissions of NOx, CO2, VOC
Pure sine wave power output
Multi-Packing of units up to 200 units
Single rotor design, only one moving part
Table 6-1.
C-30
C-60
30
60
Efficiency (LHV)
26%
28%
13,100 Btu/kWh
12,200 Btu/kWh
Electrical Output
480360
480360
Fuel Usage
433,000 Btu/hr
804,000 Btu/hr
NOx Production
<9ppmV@15% O2
<9ppmV@15% O2
Exhaust Energy
310,000 Btu/hr
541,000 Btu/hr
Noise
65 dba @ 33 feet
70 dba @ 33 feet
Weight
1052 pounds
1671 pounds
Dimensions
28.1"W52.9"D74.8"H
30"W77"D83"H
Dual Mode
Yes
Yes
Liquid Fuels
Yes
No
Bio-Gas
Yes
No
UL Rated
Yes
Yes
IEEE 519
Yes
Yes
Manufacturers of microturbines
47
Guide to microturbines
48
Manufacturers of microturbines
49
Capstone has announced plans to introduce a 200 kWh microturbine in 2004. A $10
million dollar grant from the DOE in 2002 has helped Capstone fund this project. While
no specific details of the larger microturbine have been published, Capstone hopes to
maintain the same benefits and excellent robustness in the 200 kWh unit as exemplified
in its present line up of microturbines.
Guide to microturbines
50
Manufacturers of microturbines
51
Guide to microturbines
52
Specification
70 kW @ 59F
92 kW @ 0F
Voltage
480 VAC
Frequency
60 Hz
Type of Service
*At ISO Conditions (59F @ sea level, 60% RH) unless otherwise noted
Specification
Manufacturers of microturbines
53
Voltage
480 VAC
Frequency
60 Hz
Type of Service
*At ISO Conditions (59F @ sea level, 60% RH) unless otherwise noted
Figure 6-8.
Turbo Alternator Specifications
Performance:
Electrical Output
Cooling System
*
Turndown
100% Inverter
<41 PPM @
15% 02
Oil Cooled
<24 PPM
Volume
Air Cooled
54.1 mg/MJ
Guide to microturbines
Efficiency*
54
52 mg/m3@
15% 02
3,200 CFM
1.49 lbs/MWhr
Fuel Consumption (ISO Rated
Power)
Exhaust System
CNG
Recuperated:
Outlet Size
22 SCFM
0 48 grams Bhp
10
0. 1258
lbs/MMBtu
0 In wc NOx:
<24 PPM @
15% 02
5 In wc
<14 PPM
Volume
51.9 mg/MJ
50 mg/m3@
15% O2
120F/49C
Water Outlet
Temp
140F/60C
Flow
05 PSIG
1.56 lbs/MWhr
00.345
Bar(G)
Total System
Efficiency*
Engine Specifications
Manufacturer
Model
Type
Pressure Ratio
Fuel Type
Elliott Energy
Systems
TA-100 Oil Filter
Recuperated
Gas Turbine
4 to 1
Natural Gas
Flow
1.9 lbs./Sec.
5 US gal(19 L)
Spin On Batteries
Type, 3
Micron
12VDC min.
Manufacturers of microturbines
55
When Elliott first decided to enter the microturbine manufacturing business in 1993 their
first thoughts were for a small gas turbine driving a conventional generator through a
reduction gear. The concept, in their opinion, required many moving parts and did not
take advantage of the low maintenance costs that microturbines were purported to offer.
Consequently, Elliott decided to take advantage of high speed alternator and inverter
technologies to increase the electrical efficiency of the turbine and reduce maintenance
costs.
Note that in the cross section of the Elliott TA-100 the shaft is supported on oil
lubricated bearings requiring oil lubrication with the associated oil supply system.
This configuration is typical of the majority of the microturbine manufacturers i.e. a
single moving part with one shaft supporting the generator, compressor wheel and turbine
power wheel. Elliotts speed is 68,000 rpm vs. Capstones 96,000 rpm. As mentioned in
the treatise on Bowman Power Systems, the Elliott engine is used by Bowman in their
unit with Bowmans power electronics used in the Elliott package.
Guide to microturbines
56
Manufacturers of microturbines
57
Elliott has had many false starts in the marketing of their product. At one time General
Electric had been a partner with Elliott, but due to the inability to bring the unit to
market, that partnership was dissolved and Ebara, who had a small stake in Elliott,
became the full owner of EESI.
TURBEC AB
Turbec, a consortium between Volvo and ABB, builds a 100 kWh, packaged
microturbine with built in hot water heat exchanger for the CHP market.
The development of the Turbec unit was begun within Volvo in the late 1980s when a
40 kW prototype was built. This unit was demonstrated in the hybrid automobile in 1992
with a microturbine-battery system. Within Volvo a 100 kW unit was built for the truck
and bus markets.
Volvo realized that the hybrid vehicle market was somewhat
Guide to microturbines
58
leading to very low emissions for gaseous as well as liquid fuels; and their overall
robustness of the engine. To date, Turbec does not have a unit capable of operating
without grid presence, i.e. stand-alone, since the European market has not called for such
features. Also, due to the overall weather conditions in Northern Europe, the T100 is not
suitable for outdoor application.
While Turbecs advertised NOx emissions of 15 ppm is a bit higher than that quoted
and guaranteed by Capstone and
Manufacturers of microturbines
59
Indoors
Weight:
Gas turbine
Compressor type:
Centrifugal
Turbine type:
Radial
Type of combustor:
Number of combustors;
Pressure in combustor:
Number of shaft;
Nominal speed:
70,000 rpm
Electrical data
Voltage output:
Frequency output:
50 Hz alt. 60 Hz
Fuel requirements
Pressure min/max*:
Temperature min/max*:
0C/60C (32F/140F)
3850 MJ/kg
*without fuel gas compressor
Compressor type:
Scroll compressor
AC power supply
Noise level
Dimensions:
Guide to microturbines
60
105 kW (3)
30% (1)
78% (1)
Fuel consumption:
85C (185F)
50C (122F)
70C (158F)
Noise level:
100% load
Nox
CO:
Maintenance
This simple and rugged design of the T100 power module provides for a durable operation during
many years. Expected lifetimes of main components are listed below:
Gas turbine engine:
>60,000 hrs
Recuperator:
>60,000 hrs
Combustor:
>30,000 hrs
(some parts <30,000 hrs)
Outage (h)
Inspection
6,000
24
Overhaul
30,000
48
Manufacturers of microturbines
61
Chapter 7
Operating Histories
THIS CHAPTER DISCUSSES some of the operating histories in various applications of
microturbine technology. It is not meant to highlight any one manufacturer but to show
the different venues in which microturbines can be deployed.
Operating histories
63
Guide to microturbines
64
GREENHOUSE, SWEDEN
Four million cucumbers per year are the beneficiary of a 100 kilowatt cogeneration
installation at a greenhouse in Sweden. Powered by a Turbec T-100 unit with an
integrated hot water heat exchanger plus an additional heat exchanger to reduce the
exhaust gas temperature before spreading it in the greenhouse, the overall thermal
efficiency is above 90%. Thanks to the heat and the CO2 from the microturbine the
cucumbers grow 30% faster.
Despite relatively low electric prices the combination of increased cucumber
production due to the hot water and CO2, as well as offsetting relatively high natural gas
prices, the system enjoys a 4.2-year payback. It was commissioned in August of 2001.
Operating histories
65
Guide to microturbines
66
Operating histories
67
Guide to microturbines
68
Operating histories
69
Guide to microturbines
70
Operating histories
71
Guide to microturbines
72
HYBRID SYSTEMS
The phrase, hybrid systems is a popular but not completely accurate description of
combined systems with a microturbine and another power generating device. The
purpose, of course, is to achieve a significantly increased electric efficiency. This
application is at an early stage but examples exist where two supposedly different energy
producing technologies are operating together to accomplish the goal. The National Fuels
Research Center in Irvine, CA, is demonstrating a system using a Siemens-Westinghouse
100 kilowatt solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) and an Ingersoll-Rand microturbine. The fuel
cell gives off waste heat that the microturbine uses to generate another 100 kilowatts of
electricity. No internal combustion occurs within the microturbine.
Operating histories
73
Guide to microturbines
74
These combinations of fuel cells and microturbines provide the most common aspect
of hybrid system. They rival the combined cycle gas turbines for efficiency, exceeding
the 55% electric efficiency of those plants. With no internal combustion the cleanliness
of these hybrids is ultra clean meeting any Best Available Control Technology in
existence. Of course, the high cost of the fuel cell is still the major drawback to hybrid
systems. The 200 kilowatt system at the National Fuels Research Center cost over 16
million dollars or over $80,000 per kilowatt, but it was and still is an experimental
system.
Other hybrid configurations are possible with the emanation of heat as the necessary
by-product in order for hybrids to work.
Operating histories
75
is not included in this book since they are not yet in production) to produce a 200
kilowatt unit in Capstones case and the already marketed 250 kilowatt unit in I-Rs case.
Increased efficiency is also being sought with Turbec leading the pack with their T100 exceeding 30% electric efficiency, but the Advanced Microturbine Program funded
by the DOE in 2001 is targeting 40% electric efficiency. If and when that is achieved it
will rival the electric efficiency of the reciprocating engine.
While microturbines now burn most fuels that are commonly found, including the
tough low Btu fuels found in the biogas field, other fuels are being investigated such as
hydrogen and ethanol.
Lower emissions are being sought in order to comply with even more demanding
future standards. Californias 2007 emission standard is very close to a zero emission
level. It will most likely require catalytic combustion techniques although in actual tests
of the current microturbines, less than 3 ppm of NOx is being demonstrated, even though
guarantees of less than 9 ppm are offered. Capstone recently decided not to certify their
C-30 to meet California Air Resources Board (CARB) standards, yet the C-30 was the
very unit that the Air Quality Districts in California exempted from regulation due to its
clean burning aspects.
As these goals are attained and the microturbine market increases, as predicted by
Bowman and Turbec, the cost per kilowatt of these Mighty Minis will come down and
the proliferation of microturbines will meet early predictions in all the applications
discussed here.
Chapter 8
Realism in the Future*
THIS CHAPTER DISCUSSES the use of microturbines to provide a low cost, high
efficiency, precise power system. It should be extremely reliable even though it
eliminates the need for a redundant generator set.
Many devices such as computers cannot tolerate even short interruptions in the supply
of electricity or even slight deviations from rigid quality specifications for power. Many
manufacturing processes such as semiconductor fabrication have similar requirements.
Power interruptions or poor quality power can result in loss of data, computers going offline, damage to hardware, loss of in-process product, delayed product deliveries and other
problems.
The most common solution to providing continuous high quality power is to use a
static uninterruptible power system. Generally, this system rectifies utility power to direct
current and then inverts it back to the required frequency, either 50 Hz. or 60 Hz. Thus
the critical loads are isolated from any transient spikes or problems on the utility buss. A
stored energy source such as batteries float on the dc buss allowing the system to ride
through interruptions for typically five to fifteen minutes. This permits the critical loads
to be shut down in an orderly manner or gives time for standby generator sets to be
started and brought on line
An alternate solution is to dispense with the static system and use generator sets to
provide precise power to the critical loads and only to the critical loads. Thus the critical
buss is isolated from utility problems such as switching transients and lightning strikes as
well as from in-house problems such as power surges or voltage dips caused by motor
starting inrush. Generally this has meant the installation of an n+1 system. In other
words, one more generator set than is necessary to meet the maximum load is installed.
Thus, if a generator set fails, the remaining generator sets can still handle the load.
A major deficiency in n+1 systems is the increase in capital cost due to the
redundant generator set. Thus if two generator sets can handle the load, three must be
installed for roughly a 50% cost increase. A worse case occurs if one generator set can
handle the load. Then the addition of a redundant generator set essentially doubles the
cost of the hardware, the installation and the floor space.
A second deficiency is that the generator sets do not operate at their full rating as they
must always be prepared to increase power to handle the required load when a generator
set fails. Indeed, if one generator set can handle the load and two are installed, the two
generator sets must operate at no more than half of their rating if they are to be able to
pick up the full load when a generator set fails. With conventional single shaft, gas
turbine-driven generator sets, this has meant a dramatic decrease in fuel efficiency.
77
Guide to microturbines
78
79
This would reduce the load on the gas turbine. The gas turbine fuel control would change
from fixed power or grid-parallel mode to stand-alone mode and act as a conventional
generator set does when operating in stand-alone mode and not paralleled with the utility
grid. The only loads on the system would be the critical loads, as the non-critical inverter
would no longer be providing power to the non-critical buss. The gas turbine generator
would then load-follow the critical loads and provide high quality power. When utility
power was restored, the non-critical inverter would parallel with the utility grid using
conventional techniques. The gas turbine fuel control would revert to fixed power and
normal operation would resume.
Guide to microturbines
80
81
be transferred to the grid through the use of a static bypass switch. However, the noncritical inverter is still operational and being fed by the generator set through the power
supply. Therefore, the non-critical inverter would feed the critical load through the
bypass switch. The output of the non-critical inverter would then be isolated from the
grid which would continue to feed the non-critical load.
Figure 8-7 shows the system being bypassed as might be necessary during system
maintenance. Note that during normal operation, the critical inverter would operate in
phantom parallel with the utility grid. In other words, the frequency and phase of the
output of the critical inverter would be identical to that of the utility grid. Thus, in the
event of a complete system failure, the critical loads could be transferred to the utility
grid without interruption. This transfer could be facilitated by the use of static switches in
the bypass.
This system has several advantages over the n+1 system described above. It is less
expensive to buy because one gas turbine is eliminated. It is more fuel-efficient as the gas
turbine operates at higher loads. The utilization is higher because of the additional power
delivered by the non-critical inverter. The power delivered to the non-critical buss
reduces the electric utility bill. Finally, the system offers additional reliability in that it
can operate from either of two energy sourcesfuel from pipelines or storage, or
electricity from the utility.
The above description assumes that the system is based on a single microturbine
powering a single power supply which in turn powers two inverters, one for the critical
load and one for the non-critical buss. However, it should be noted that there are
numerous microturbine installations utilizing multiple microturbines in which the
electrical output from their inverters is paralleled.
Guide to microturbines
82
83
Guide to microturbines
84
85
Guide to microturbines
86
General Electric supposedly has control of the Honeywell microturbine design as part
of the dissolution of the merger talks that occurred between those two companies in 2002.
GE is purported to be looking at coming into the microturbine market either with a
modified Honeywell design, a new design, or an acquisition of an existing microturbine
company. Certainly Capstone, the only stand-alone microturbine company presently in
the market-place, with significant cash in the bank, an enviable history of installations
and 4,000,000 combined hours of field operation would be a perfect target for a company
such as GE to investigate.
The last chapter of microturbine evolution has yet to be written.
Appendices
APPENDIX A: CASE HISTORIES
Included here are actual operating microturbines in a variety of applications which
demonstrates the versatility and markets in which these machines can be used.
1. Plastics Manufacturing Plant
2. Metal Plating Facility
3. Campus Swimming Pool
4. Hotel
5. Supermarket
6. Waste Water Treatment Plant
7. Community Pool
8. Coal mine
9. Landfill Methane Recovery
10. Natural Gas Liquefaction Plant
11. Administration Building
Appendix A
Case Histories
CASE STUDY #1. HARBEC PLASTICS, ONTARIO, NY
Quick Facts
Number of Units:
25 Model C-30, 30 kWh microturbines
Electrical Output750 kW
Heat Output 1.5 MW
Additional Equipment:
Power Server Device to Monitor Electrical Load
Air to Water Heat Exchangers
Absorber Chiller
Installation Purpose:
To provide reliable electric power and eliminate outage costs
To provide thermal output to drive heating and cooling systems
To deliver better total fuel efficiency
To reduce environmental impact
Results:
* Yields 36% net energy cost reduction
* Produces a simple payback of 2.5 years.
YEARS OF INCREASINGLY FREQUENT power problems culminated in a string of
grid outages and other power events that hit this manufacturer hard in 1999. Something
had to be done. Since even a momentary outage was as damaging as a lengthy one,
standby generation alone was not an adequate solution. A battery UPS my have improved
power reliability but would have increased the already high electric costs. The solution
also needed to instantaneously follow the load to meet the facilitys varying needs. Often,
30% swings in power needs would occur. The onsite system must be a continuous source
of quality power to the facility with some level of redundancy.
Since Harbec is an ISO 14001-certified facility, Harbecs president was committed to
designing an environmentally benign onsite system. This commitment led away from
reciprocating engine technologies, even those fired by natural gas, as NOx emissions from
reciprocating engines are many times higher than the best-in-class generating
technologies. Thus Harbec investigated various technologies including wind power, fuel
cells and microturbines.
Harbec wanted a solution that recovered as much of the input energy as possible. They
envisioned a system that would capture exhaust heat and put it to valuable use for space
heating, process drying and power free air conditioning via absorber chilling. While
Appendix A
91
attracted to the renewable energy supply represented by wind and the potential high
efficiency and low emissions of fuel cell prototypes, economic analysis clearly revealed
that microturbines, offered the best up-front and ongoing value for clean, continuous
onsite power. The result was an array of 30 kWh microturbines with air to water heat
exchangers and hot water fired absorber chiller. The array of microturbines and heat
exchangers is shown in Figure A-1. Figure A-2 shows the absorber chiller.
To Generate Chilled Water for Air Conditioning
In this array, 25 microtubines were installed, 20 of which were
Appendix A
92
Appendix A
93
Figure A-3.
CASE STUDY #2. FAITH PLATING, HOLLYWOOD, CA
Quick Facts:
Number of Microturbines
Additional Equipment
One (1) Air to Water Heat Exchanger
Installation Purpose
To offset grid electricity usage and cost
Improve power reliability
To meet stringent emerging and proposed boiler NOx standards
To derive value-added benefits of direct exhaust drying of sludge
Results
Annual estimated savings of over $57,000
Projected 4-year simple payback
Reduction in waste weight and volume as well as savings in drying costs
Appendix A
94
Faith Plating began operations in 1918 in Hollywood, CA. With movies, came cars
and with the most popular models came chrome plated, ornately adorned bumpers and
accessories. Faith Plating emerged as a leader in vehicle related plating.
Appendix A
95
was offering for cogeneration systems. The low emissions of the microturbines reduced
Faith overall NOx emissions to comply with the stiffer EPA requirements. The savings in
emission controls that would have been required on Faiths boilers are not accounted for
in the overall savings.
Appendix A
96
Appendix A
97
Appendix A
98
Appendix A
99
needs of food services, showers and a Zamboni room The electricity goes to the Campus
Centre, which houses a hockey rink, sport courts and a weight room offsetting energy
SAIT would otherwise have to buy from the grid.
Although the purpose of the project was to reduce energy costs, reduction of cost
volatility was a key component of the decision according to officials at SAIT. Because
approximately 65% of the fuel used in the system would have been burned in SAITs
boilers, the value of the power is effectively 65% hedged against future fuel price
fluctuations.
Appendix A
100
Appendix A
101
Appendix A
102
Appendix A
103
Appendix A
104
Appendix A
105
Qualified for State grant money by producing clean, onsite power via cogeneration
In December of 2000, the San Elijo Joint Power Authority Water Reclamation Facility
saw energy costs triple in a single month. This led to the investigation of onsite power
production by utilizing the waste methane gas that is produced as a byproduct of
anaerobic digestion. While reciprocating engines were proven in this field, the Facility
felt that the higher cost of maintenance for that technology indicated looking for a better
way to proceed. Microturbines provided that better way. The lower emission levels of
microturbines were a plus.
Digesters use heated tanks that use microorganisms to break down waste solids and
create biogas. San Elijo had been flaring this biogas and since the primary component of
this gas is methane it can be readily used as a fuel. Allowing any methane to escape into
the atmosphere can be ruinous as methane is 20 times as destructive as carbon dioxide as
a greenhouse gas.
Biogas is generally wet and potentially has contaminants that can pose a problem to
fuel gas booster compressors as well as the generators themselves, be they reciprocating
engines or microturbines. Hence, adequate clean up equipment is needed to remove
moisture and contaminants such as siloxanes that are commonly found in digester gas.
Siloxanes are compounds of silica that find their way into sewage via discarded cosmetic
products and other commonly used household products. Those silica compounds, when
exposed to the heat of combustion in an engine using this gas for fuel, can form glass like
coatings on the internal components of the engine. Over time, those coatings will
drastically impede the performance of the enginereciprocating or microturbine. Other
contaminants such as hydrogen sulfide are tolerated by the microturbine up to 7% by
volume and pose no operational problems.
Three (3) 30 kWh microturbine units were chosen for the job as an optimum match for
the biogas being generated, the power generated and for the heat needed in the digesters
themselves.
Since the biogas is generated at low pressure, basically atmospheric, and the turbines
need 70 to 90 psig combustion chamber pressure, fuel gas boosters are needed to
compress the digester gas to
Appendix A
106
Appendix A
107
The facility is experiencing savings in electricity costs of $4,000 to $5,000 per month
according to the Facilitys plant manager with a payback of capital costs, including the
clean up gas treatment equipment, of three to four years.
Appendix A
108
Appendix A
109
Appendix A
110
Figure A-19.
Appendix A
111
globe scores of such sites have switched from flaring to combusting their waste methane
with microturbines, which eliminates the gas with far fewer emissions than flaring. The
waste gas becomes fuel for the microturbine system, eliminating the methane far more
effectively and creating two other valuable dividendscreation of electricity and heat
without using any commercial fuel. In other wordscogeneration.
Sumitomo created a closed loop system that eliminates the maximum amount of
coal mine gas with the lowest possible emissions of methane, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen oxides.
The five (5) microturbine array takes in 30% of the mines total methane discharge.
Electricity from the microturbines powers a series of pumps and blowers that extracts
methane gas from the mine. Surplus power is exported to a nearby factory. The methane
travels to a pumping and compression plant before going to the microturbines. Exhaust
from the five microturbines is collected in a common manifold and driven down the shaft
via a dedicated system of fans and ducts. Carbon emissions from the exhaust are
permanently sequestered in remaining coal seams, releasing more methane as the mineral
pores preferentially take up the CO2. This is the final step in the closed loop process,
liberating more methane to maintain the continuum.
Sumitomo Coal Mining is considering this closed loop approach for other locations,
multiplying the possible revenue and tangible environmental benefits on a wider scale.
Appendix A
112
fifty (50) microturbines were installed at the landfill to use the generated methane as a
fuel to produce 1.3 MW of electricity which LADWP distributes throughout its
marketing area.
Landfill gas is low in methane contentabout 300400 Btu/cubic foot, compared to
1,000 Btu/cubic foot for natural gas. Further, it has moisture and contaminants in the gas
that require significant gas pretreatment before going to the microturbines for
combustion. Moisture removal is accomplished via refrigerated air dryers chilling the gas
to 40F and condensate removal systems, while the more severe contaminants such as
siloxanes are removed via carbon granule filtration. After moisture removal the gas is
heated to 18F above its dew point to prevent any further moisture condensation. All
other gaseous components are destroyed in the microturbines combustion chamber.
Microturbines are proving to be a practical and cost-effective technology for biogas
applications from landfills to anaerobic digesters at waste water treatment plants and
agricultural/livestock facilities. Microturbines offer vastly reduced scheduled
maintenance compared to conventional reciprocating engine driven generators, they are
designed to operate 24 hours per day, 7 days per week at full load and produce 95% less
contaminants to the atmosphere. This latter statistic is what won particular favor for the
SCAQMD, the worlds most stringent air quality management organization.
Appendix A
113
Quick Facts:
Number of Microturbines
Two (2) Units, one 60 kW unit and one 30 kW unit
One (1) Air to Water Heat Exchanger
One (1) Desiccant Wheel Dehumidifier
Electrical Output90 kW @ ISO
Heat Recovery58 kW or 200,000 Btu/hr from 30 kW unit.
Installation Purpose
To reduce electric grid demand through peak shaving
To create non-electric air conditioning through CHP
Results
Produced more than 19,000 hours of highly reliable service
Reduced energy cost by offsetting grid purchased power
Reduced maintenance cost versus other generator technologies
Reduced emissions versus other generator technologies
Located 10 miles south of Minneapolis, Minnegascos Dakota Station liquefies and
stores natural gas during spring and summer off-peak months when commodity gas prices
are lower. The station buys electricity under an energy and demand rate schedule. The 30
kW unit, with heat recovery and desiccant dehumidification, produces space beating in
the winter and reduces cooling needs in the summer via the desiccant wheel by removing
moisture from the air. The 30 kWh unit was installed in load following, grid connect
mode and produces virtually all the electrical needs for the facility during three quarters
of the year.
The 60 kWh unit was brought on line to provide standby power for the stations
propane refrigeration system, keeping 6,000,000 gallons of propane at 50F. This unit
has logged more than 8,000 hours of runtime.
Appendix A
114
The 60 kW unit employs the Time of Use feature which programs the microturbine
to run during the day when electric rates are higher and to shut down at night when the
rates are lower.
Management at the plant comment that this system is an amazing combination of great
design, good economics, high reliability and environmental sensibility. It certainly assists
in the bottom line of controlling our costs of operation. The public expects Minnegasco to
stand for energy efficiency and we put our technology where our mouth is.
Appendix A
115
Appendix B
Installation Standards for Microturbines
U.S. INSTALLATION, OPERATION, AND PERFORMANCE
STANDARDS FOR MICROTURBINE GENERATOR SETS
A.-M.Borbely-Bartis
J.G.DeSteese
S.Somasundaram
August 2000
Prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract DE-AC0676RL01830
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Richland, Washington 99352
DISCLAIMER
This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United
States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor
Battelle Memorial Institute, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or
implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or
usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that
its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific
commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or
otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or
favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof, or Battelle Memorial
Institute. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or
reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
As the nature of energy and electricity demand changes in the post-internet economy,
demand for a variety of distributed energy resources (DER) growsnatural-gas fired
microturbines are just one of a suite of new power generation products entering (or soon
to be) the U.S. marketplace. Developing an environmentally benign, efficient and costeffective technology is paramount for all DER developers. But without the
manufacturing, performance, installation and operation codes & standards necessary to
support that technology, deploymentand ultimately financial successmay be delayed
for years.
Microturbines are typically single shaft machines (one company is developing a twinshaft) with the compressor and turbine mounted on the same shaft as the electrical
generator. It therefore consists of only one rotating part, eliminating the gearbox and
Appendix B
118
associated moving parts. This direct-drive, high-speed design has enabled manufacturers
to create a more reliable compact power plant than traditional engine generator sets.
Codes and standards that regulate the safe performance of microturbine generators in
or near buildings outside traditional utility jurisdiction will fall into one of three realms,
and have been separated into chapters within this report.
Manufacturing Standards involve the materials, design and construction of a single
unit, commonly referred to in the C&S industry as the box. Microturbines do not
currently have a manufacturing or performance standard by which each unit can be
evaluated. Underwriters Laboratories has listed one companys product under UL 2200,
Stationary Engine Generator Assemblies. The standard is under review for
modifications to include microturbines by reference.
Installation and Operation Standards address electrical- and fire-safety, and lifesafety requirements such as emergency backup systems for life-support operations or
mission-critical systems. UL 2200 is most relevant here, as is EGSA 101, NFPA 37, 101
or 110, IEEE 519 (harmonic distortion) or ASME B133.8 (noise emissions).
Interactions Between the MT Unit and Other Building Systems include fire
protection, egress, ventilation, electrical shock protection, and fuel supply. The building
code official will want to see sufficient space around, access to, and protection of the MT
unit to ensure public safety under all conditions. Historically, wide-scale power
generation technologies have been owned and operated by regulated utilities and have not
been subject to local code requirements. However, in 2000, the International Building
Code declared that utility-operated facilities not owned byand dedicated tothe utility
will fall under local code jurisdiction. Currently, no technology-specific code structure
exists for the installation and base load operation of microturbines by private nonutility
parties in commercial or residential buildings.
In such cases when a technology is not specifically referenced in the applicable code
documents, code officials may disallow the installation and operation of that unit.
Building officials may require specific tests to demonstrate alternative compliance;
performing the necessary site-specific studiespossibly requiring modifications to the
installationcan increase the installed cost of a unit beyond any reasonable expectation
for return on investment. Further, with 44,000 state and local code jurisdictions in the
United States, the absence of any reference in the national code bodies may kill
altogether the early prospects for the mass deployment of a new energy technology such
as microturbines.
This report reviews the codes and standards applicable to the safe installation and
operation of microturbines in commercial and residential buildings. It provides an
overview of potential regulatory roadblocks, as well as recommendations for further
action that may be undertaken by the U.S. microturbine community
This report does not attempt to provide a technical review of any manufacturers
product, nor does it involve any technology-specific analysis (i.e., comparing the output
current grounding design of one manufacturer, against UL 2200 requirements for
Stationary Engine Generator Assemblies).
This study did not find that additional standards are required for building code
officials to accept microturbine installations when external to a commercial or industrial
facility. However, a general lack of education among code officials on the differences
between DER installations and traditional backup generators, is in fact hampering the
Appendix B
119
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Codes and standards that regulate the safe performance of microturbine generators in or
near buildings outside traditional utility jurisdiction will fall into one of three realms:
manufacturing specifications and design requirements of the unit or system (i.e., the
box)
installation and operation
interactions between the microturbine unit and other building systems, structures, or
life-safety issues.
Historically, wide-scale power-generation technologies have been owned and operated by
regulated utilities and have not been subject to local code requirements. However, in
2000, the International Building Code declared that utility-operated facilities not owned
byand dedicated tothe utility will fall under local code jurisdiction. Currently, no
technology-specific code structure exists for the installation and baseload operation of
microturbines by private nonutility parties in commercial or residential buildings.
In such cases when a technology is not specifically referenced in the applicable code
documents, code officials may disallow the installation and operation of that unit.
Building officials may require specific tests to demonstrate alternative compliance;
performing the necessary site-specific studies-possibly requiring modifications to the
installationcan increase the installed cost of a unit beyond any reasonable expectation
for return-on-investment. Further, with 44,000 state and local code jurisdictions in the
United States, the absence of any reference in the national code bodies may kill
altogether the early prospects for the deployment of a new technology.
1.1 MicroturbineDefinitions
Microturbines are typically single-shaft machines (one company is developing a twinshaft) with the compressor and turbine mounted on the same shaft as the electrical
generator. It therefore consists of only one rotating part, eliminating the gearbox and
associated moving parts. This direct drive high-speed design has enabled manufacturers
to create a more reliable compact power plant than traditional engine generator sets.
The fuel of choice is natural gas delivered at pressures exceeding 55 psi (this
requirement may go as high as 90 psi), although low-pressure gas can be boosted with
centrifugal or scroll-type compressors. Systems can operate on propane as well, which
requires on-site fuel storage.
Virtually all MTs are installed with recuperators to achieve 2830% electrical
efficiency. Unrecuperated MTs generally run at 1417% efficiency (LHV). The
recuperator is a heat exchanger, transferring heat from the exhaust gas to the discharge
air. Before it enters the combustor, the exhaust gas is reduced to near compressor
Appendix B
120
discharge temperature and the compressor discharge air is heated to near turbine exhaust
gas temperature. The heat added to the air reduces the amount of fuel required to raise the
temperature to that required by the turbine.
The electrical output is a high-frequency AC (15004000 Hz, 3-phase). The voltage is
rectified and inverted to a normal 3-phase 50 or 60 Hz. In most systems, the power
inverter and the alternator are used as the turbine starting system. In some cases two 12volt batteries provide system power; those without black start capability (e.g., capable
of starting independently) require AC power from the grid for their initial starting
operation.
1.2 Methodology
This report was prepared by analyzing manufacturers specifications against the most
common industry sources for design, manufacturing, performance, installation and
operation standards for electrical equipment installed in the United States. The following
agencies provided primary or secondary information in this report:
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc. (ASHRAE)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
Electrical Generating Systems Association (EGSA)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE)
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
National Evaluation Service (NES)
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
Appendix B
121
Where there is no clear direction from codes and standards, there is potential for
differing interpretations. These differing interpretations lead to differing installation
requirements that can significantly impact both costs and length of time between
purchase and operation. In evaluating a proposed installation design, particularly when
submitted under the code provision alternative methods and materials, a code official
may require that the design undergo extensive engineering analysis and specialized
testing before granting approval.
For the various codes and standards to formally mention DG products, the lag-time is
approximately three years. Most national model codes operate under a three-year revised
publication cycle. To avoid future code-related conflicts, changes proposed for a specific
code must be fully integrated and coordinated with other codes. Where possible, code
change proposals should address the full range of DG products. Uniform requirements for
grid interconnection for all DG products would be preferable to requirements that vary by
product. DG manufacturers, utilities, and others should work together on codes and
standards issues to develop code change proposals for uniform requirements that will be
adopted by the national model code agencies. The alternative could be a maze of
requirements that serves as another barrier for design professionals, contractors, utilities,
and code officials. Collaboration and cooperation can produce uniform code requirements
that expedite the installation of DG products.
This chapter provides an overview of the U.S. standards and codes most likely to be
relevant to microturbine technologies. Voluntary consensus standards are summarized in
Section 2.1; model codes are discussed in Section 2.2.
2.1 Voluntary Consensus Standards
Voluntary consensus standards are documents that can be used or referenced to ensure
uniformity in the testing, rating, evaluation, or design of products, materials, and other
items. The term consensus is used to describe general agreement but not necessarily
unanimity on a particular issue. Standards generally are referenced or transcribed within
model codes. Standards also usually are focused on a specific aspect of the subject of
interest.
2.1.1 Types of Standards
Product testing standards or test methods provide for the uniform testing and
evaluation of a product or material. One example is a test to determine the combustion
characteristics of various building materials (rate of flame spread, smoke emission
profile, etc.). Although other documents establish the maximum acceptable values for
these effects, a uniform test is necessary to determine these numbers irrespective of
material, so different materials/products can be compared fairly.
Rating standards address the performance of a specific product or material. An
example of a rating standard is one for air-source heat pumps developed by the Air
Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI). Such a standard allows all such
equipment to be tested and rated so the output at various input and ambient conditions
can be measured and results equitably compared from manufacturer to manufacturer.
Appendix B
122
Other examples in this category include tensile strength and/or flexibility of a stated
material (concrete).
Minimum acceptable design or construction standards typically do not involve
testing or rating a specific product, but rather the attributes required in a specific building
design. For this reason the systems interacting within-and reacting tothat design may
prove to be difficult to quantify. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.(ASHRAE) Standard 90.1 consumed a decade of
analysis, debate and open meetings before establishing criteria to represent an energyefficient commercial building.
Voluntary consensus or industry standards are neither legislation nor regulations.
However, these standards might be adopted into law by federal, state, or local agencies.
Until adopted, they are as the name impliesvoluntary. As new technologies, products,
or processes are developed, new standards typically rise to cover testing, rating, and
design.
Circular A119 of the U.S. Office of Management and Budget requires federal
government agencies to use voluntary standards for regulatory and procurement
purposes, when appropriate.
2.1.2 Standards Developers
The following paragraphs provide brief descriptions of organizations most involved in
the development of standards related to the power generation industry. These
organizations do not write the standards but provide the protocols and process support for
standards development. While staff members provide the necessary support functions, the
actual development and maintenance of a given standard and technical interaction with
those who comment on that standard are performed by volunteers who represent a broad
range of interests.
Although the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) coordinates standards
initiatives within the United States, there are those who do not use ANSI processes. In
addition, there are standards 2.3 initiatives in many other countries as well as at the
international level. These may be known to ANSI, especially where the U.S. has some
involvement in the international level activities. If information on standards development
is desired, ANSI should be contacted first, followed by a contact to the likely standards
generating organization, trade association representing the technology or issue in
question, and manufacturers or others involved with the subject area. The National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is another source of information on
standards.
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
ANSI is the dominant developer of consensus standards in the United States today, with
over 13,000 consensus-based national standards in existence. ANSI is the sole U.S.
representative of the two major non-treaty international standards organizations, the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), and, via the U.S. National
Committee (USNC), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). ANSI is also
one of five permanent members to the governing ISO Council, and one of four permanent
Appendix B
123
members of ISOs Technical Management Board. Through its ISO representation, ANSI
has the authority to vest Technical Committees (TCs) in concert with international
standards-making bodies.
U.S. standards are frequently presented for consideration (through ANSI) to the ISO
or IEC where they are adopted in whole or in part as international standards.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE)
The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc.(ASHRAE) is a 50,000-member international organization with chapters throughout
the world. The society is organized for the sole purpose of advancing the arts and
sciences of heating, ventilation, air conditioning and refrigeration for the publics benefit
through research, standards writing, continuing education and publications.
Through its membership, ASHRAE writes standards that set uniform methods of
testing and rating equipment and establish accepted practices for the heating, ventilation,
air-conditioning, and refrigeration (HVAC&R) industry worldwide, such as the design of
energy-efficient buildings. The Societys research program, currently more than 100
research projects worth nearly $8 million, investigates issues such as identifying
environmentally benign refrigerants. ASHRAE organizes broad-based technical programs
for presentation at its semiannual meetings and co-sponsors the International AirConditioning, Heating, Refrigerating Exposition, the largest HVAC&R trade show in
North America.
ASHRAE writes standards and guidelines in its fields of expertise to guide industry in
the delivery of goods and services to the public. ASHRAE standards and guidelines
include uniform methods of testing for rating purposes, describe recommended practices
in designing and installing equipment, and provide other information to guide the
industry. ASHRAE has some 87 active standards and guideline project committees,
addressing such broad areas as indoor air quality, thermal comfort, energy conservation
in buildings, reducing refrigerant emissions, and the designation and safety classification
of refrigerants.
Of most importance to the microturbine development community, ASHRAE
Technical Committee 9.5 is currently studying the possibility of developing a standard
for cogeneration systems. It is vital that the microturbine community be involved in this
effort.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME International) has been involved
in the development of codes, standards, and conformity assessment programs since 1884.
The organization maintains and distributes 600 codes and standards used around the
world for the design, manufacturing, and installation of mechanical devices.
ASME B133 is the ASTM-referenced standard for gas turbine procurement; included
within this family of standards are subcommittees on fuels, performance, controls and
auxiliary equipment, maintenance and reliability, and sound emissions. These standards
were developed in the 1980s and have not been updated to include microturbines.
Appendix B
124
Appendix B
125
insulating materials
lighting equipment
power equipment
wire and cable products
NEMA standards are commonly cited in DOD regulations, the National Electrical Code,
UL standards, and DOE standards for electric motors. NEMA is also a founding member
of CANENA (Council for the Harmonization of Electrotechnical Standards of North
America), a trinational organization devoted to harmonizing NAFTA-member standards
for electrical equipment.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is an international, nonprofit,
membership organization founded in 1896 to protect people, their property and the
environment from destructive fire.
The NFPA publishes the National Electrical Code, the Life Safety Code, the Fire
Prevention Code, the National Fuel Gas Code, and the National Fire Alarm Code. The
organization operates in 100 countries with 65,000 volunteers and staff.
NFPA codes most commonly referenced by local code officials include
NFPA 1, Fire Prevention Code
NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems
NFPA 54, National Fuel Gas Code
NFPA 58, Standard for the Storage and Handling of Liquefied Petroleum Gases
NFPA 70, National Electrical Code
NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code
NFPA 101, Life Safety Code
Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) is an independent, not-for-profit product safety
testing and certification organization. Founded in 1894, UL has five testing laboratories
in the United States and subsidiaries in Mexico, Denmark, England, Italy, India,
Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Japan. The organization also has numerous
international, affiliate, and representative offices, as well as field representatives located
throughout the world. Most significant for the microturbine community, UL 2200 is the
product standard by which microturbines are currently being rated.
UL-Canada Mark
Through the provisions of agreements between UL and Canadian certification
organizations, UL clients can receive UL and Canadian certifications with one submittal.
These agreements provide for the reciprocal acceptance of test results and cover a wide
range of products.
UL has been granted Certification Organization (CO) and Testing Organization (TO)
accreditations for Canada by the Standards Council of Canada (SCC). ULs CO
Appendix B
126
accreditation encompasses all of its facilities that handle both certification and testing,
and all of its product categories and programs. By virtue of this accreditation, UL can
evaluate products intended for the Canadian marketplace to Canadian National Standards
and Codes, and authorize clients to label those products with the UL Mark for Canada.
2.1.3 Consensus Standard Development Process
A new technology, government directive, or other phenomenon may create the need to
test, rate, or otherwise evaluate something that has not been addressed previously. An
example is the development of ASHRAE Standard 90 dealing with building energy
efficiency in 1975. This was a direct response to the Energy Crisis and the need
expressed by some states for criteria on energy conservation that could be incorporated
into their building codes.
Once the need is identified (and a draft standard developed by some interested entity
as a strawman), the individual or organization with the greatest desire for
standardization will seek out a standards developer and request the developer to initiate
standards development. In the case of ASHRAE, the organizations Standards Committee
makes the decision to establish new Standards Project Committees/ Within the NFPA,
the Standards Council makes the decisions on new projects.
The standards developer, typically with help from the standards instigator, will draft a
title, purpose, and scope (TP&S)for the standard. These establish the framework for the
standards project. This document, along with an expression of the need for the standard,
is then considered by the committee that has such approval authority (Standards
Committee, Standards Council, and so on). These committees may also consider conflicts
with other existing standards and the scope of the project as it relates to the goals and
objectives of their organization.
2.2 Model Codes
Model codes are just as the name impliesmodels of a code that anyone (typically
federal, state, or local agencies) can adopt to address design, construction, and operation
of buildings and facilities. Without a model code, each adopting entity would have to
develop its own unique criteriaa costly, time-consuming, and easily outdated process.
Model codes are written in enforceable language that meets the needs of the enforcement
community. Model codes are written in a prescriptive manner so that the requirements are
easily understood. Model codes usually present detailed prescriptive criteria and then
allow alternative materials, methods or equipment based on performance equivalency.
They contain minimum requirements that are needed to protect the health, life-safety,
and welfare of the public. Issues such as carpet quality would not be addressed within a
model code, although the fire characteristics of the carpet would be addressed.
Model codes are not legislation or regulations, nor are they standards as described in
Section 2.1., but when formally adopted, they do become enforceable law. Model codes
rely on standards developed by others and refer to them as needed. A model code
provides the regulatory framework under which a standard can be referenced.
Model codes offer an equal opportunity to all to participate in the development and
revision process. Anyone can submit a code change; publication of code changes is
Appendix B
127
available to all who request copies and open hearings are held, in which the merits of
each proposed change are debated. The code officials vote on what they consider
acceptable changes, based on oral and written testimony, and changes are finalized every
year. This contrasts with the standards development process, in which it is possible to
intervene in the process of development and publication through numerous comment and
appeal processes.
Within each of the model codes, numerous subject areas are covered. And revisions to
one subject area may impact (or be affected by) other areas. For example, studies have
shown that energy could be conserved in some climatic locations if cathedral ceilings did
not have to be ventilated. The building code mandates such ventilation and overrides the
energy code. The use of photovoltaic shingles may be impacted by provisions in the
building code for roof coverings. The mechanical code contains provisions for the safe
installation of ground source heat pumps, which could adversely affect the deployment of
that equipment. The fuel gas code has, in some instances, precluded the installation of
high-efficiency gas heating equipment because it did not meet the venting requirements
contained in the code.
The national model building codes generally incorporate by reference other model
codes and standards as establishing the requirements for specific equipment installations
or systems such as electrical, fuel gas, mechanical plumbing, and fire protection.
Provisions of the building codes apply to the construction, alteration, moving, demolition,
repair, maintenance, and use of any building or structure. State and local amendments
may expand the scope of the national models to include such specific issues as emissions,
air quality, noise levels, and other siting concerns.
Model codes are important because they form the basis for the vast majority of federal,
state, and local building construction regulations in the U.S. New York state and city,
Wisconsin, Chicago, and Dade and Broward Counties in Florida are a few government
entities that continue to write their own codes. There are over 44,000 jurisdictions
(county, city) in the U.S. that could adopt and enforce codes. Even at the state level
(about 25 states have statewide codes) writing and maintaining a building code is a timeconsuming process. The model codes provide efficiency and uniformity for these
potential customers.
A code mandate to install specific devices (i.e., smoke detectors) can have a profound
impact on product sales for a particular industry. Conversely, excessive installation and
test criteria within a code, for certain products or equipment, can have the opposite
negative impact on an industry.
2.2.1 Types of Model Codes
Building construction regulations provide the minimum requirements that a building
and its systems, materials, and equipment must meet, and may vary by county, state or
federal jurisdiction. The charter of building codes is to safeguard life or limb, health
(occasionally property), and public welfare by regulating and controlling the design,
construction, quality of materials, use and occupancy location and maintenance of all
buildings and structures and certain equipment specifically regulated [Uniform Building
Code (ICBO), International Conference of Building Officials (1997)].
Appendix B
128
Appendix B
129
Appendix B
130
the construction safety and performance safety of a fuel cell power plant using natural gas
or liquified petroleum (LP) gasjeanIn addition, fuel cell installations now are referenced
in the National Fire Code.
PTC 50, Fuel Cell Power Systems Performance, contains methods and procedures for
conducting and reporting fuel cell system testing, instrumentation to be used, testing
techniques, and methods for calculating and reporting results.
3.1 ASME/ANSI B133, Gas Turbine Procurement
This suite of standards deal with procurement standards for gas turbines in industrial
marine and stationary power applications. They are not currently considered applicable to
microturbines.
3.2 UL 2200, Stationary Engine Generator Assemblies
This is the standard currently used by third-party testing organizations to list
microturbines, although it is not an ASME- or IEEE-equivalent manufacturing or
performance standard. It deals almost exclusively with electrical safety
issuesjeanCurrently microturbines are not referenced by name; however, UL is reviewing
their work performed for manufacturers to identify which sections will require revision to
make allowance for microturbine systems.
As currently written, UL 2200 covers stationary engine generator assemblies rated 600
volts or less installed and operated in non-hazardous locations in accordance with NFPA37, Standard for the Installation and Use of Stationary Combustion Engines and Gas
Turbines; NFPA 99, Standard for Health Care Facilities; and NFPA 110, Standard for
Emergency and Standby Power Systems.
Because UL 2200 is essentially a safety standard, it contains practi-cal requirements
for the design, construction and installation of any engine- or turbine-generator
assemblyjeanNone of the basic performance data given for the microturbine designs
being considered in this review is in direct conflict or in direct violation of this standards
requirementsjeanHowever, sections that address the prime mover (historically an IC
engine) will require a comprehensive review for microturbine combustors, inlet
temperatures and gas pressure, electrical output, etc. Please see chapter 4 for additional
information on UL 2200 as a safety standard.
Appendix B
131
This standard deals almost exclusively with safety issues in relation to electrified
equipment. It does not cover any mechanical performance standards of the prime mover
and ancillary equipment. Currently microturbines are not referenced by name in the
standard, although this is the central document by which third-party testing organizations
are listing microturbine products as safe for operation.
The requirements spelled out in this standard cover stationary engine generator
assemblies rated 600 volts or less that are intended for installation and use in ordinary
locations in accordance with the National Electrical Code, NFPA-70; the Standard for the
installation and Use of Stationary Combustion Engines and Gas Turbines, NFPA-37; the
Standard for Health Care Facilities, NFPA-99; and the Standard for Emergency and
Standby Power Systems, NFPA-110.
These requirements do not cover 1) generators for use in hazardous (classified)
locations; 2) uninterruptible power source (UPS) equipment; or 3) generators for marine
use.
The contents of UL 2200 are in terms of the following sections:
Construction of the UnitConsists of essential features for general protection,
controls, accessible circuits, and other mechanical and electri-cal subassemblies. Section
34 at the end of this part deals with requirements for Protection of Service Personnel.
This part of the standard mandates, among other requirements, a minimum thickness of
the cast metal enclosures and sheet metal enclosures of the generator assemblies; a
minimum thickness for nonmetallic enclosures (UL 746C); flammability limits (UL 94);
and minimum thickness and maximum area requirements for glass-covered openings.
Mechanical SystemsConstructionDeals mainly with fuel systems and exhaust
systems.
Mechanical SystemsPerformanceDeals with several testing requirements,
including tests for harmonic distortion, voltage and frequency fluctuation, salt sprays,
grounding impedance, overcurrent protection calibration, and impacts, among others.
Markingdetails and instruction manual
Manufacturing and Production TestsProduction-Line Dielectric VoltageWithstand Test
Outdoor-Use UnitsRequirements for these units supplement and, in some cases,
modify the general requirements given above.
Standards for ComponentsLists the UL standards with which components of the
generator sets must comply.
Because UL 2200 is essentially a safety standard, it contains requirements primarily
focused on electrical output safety performance measures that are mandatory for the
design, construction and installation of any engine- or turbine-generator assembly. None
of the basic performance data given for the microturbine designs being considered in this
review is in direct conflict or in direct violation of this standards requirements.
4.2 EGSA 101P-1995, Performance Standard for Engine Driven
Generator Sets
The requirements defined in 101P were compared with specifications of a manufacturers
turbo alternators, either available or planned, with nominal outputs in the 45-kW to 200kW range, and also with specifications for a 30-kW device.
Appendix B
132
Appendix B
133
Appendix B
134
Appendix B
135
The previous 7500-horsepower limitation in the scope of the standard has been removed.
There is no minimal horsepower threshold for engines or gas turbines so microturbines
would be subject to the requirements set forth in this standard.
This standard applies to fire safety for the installation and operation of stationary
combustion engines and gas turbines. It also applies to portable engines that remain
connected for use in the same location for a period of one week or more and that are used
instead of or to supplement stationary engines. For engines used in essential electrical
systems in health care facilities, also see NFPA 99, Standard for Health Care Facilities.
For engines used in emergency power supplies, also see NFPA 110, Standard for
Emergency and Standby Power Systems.
The term combustion gas turbine as used is inclusive of microturbines and, therefore,
the standards requirements apply to microturbines. The standard does not address the
electric generating component of the microturbine generator unit.
Chapter 3 of the standard addresses general requirements for engine locations (in, on,
and outdoors near buildings), electrical installations in rooms containing engines (NFPA
70 by reference), engine wiring, and other general installation requirements (reference to
applicable NFPA codes and standards), and to those portions of existing equipment and
installations that are changed or modified establishes requirements for locating
microturbine engines in, on, or near buildings.
Chapter 4 addresses gas piping and references NFPA 54 for systems at service
pressures of 125 psig and less and NFPA 58 for LP-gas systems. It prescribes the
minimal components of a gas train for engines as containing a manual shutoff valve,
regulator, low-pressure switch, automatic safety shutoff valve, automatic control valve,
manual leak test valve, and high-pressure manual reset switch with exceptions. Boosters
or compressors, if used, shall be approved for the service intended and receivers, if used,
must be stamped as complying with the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
Chapter 5 addresses Class 1 liquid fuels such as gasoline, gasohol, and alcohol, and
liquid fuels other than Class 1 such as diesel fuel, fuel oils, jet fuel, and kerosene. The
only microturbine concern in this chapter is a statement that LP-gas systems in the liquid
phase must be installed per NFPA 58.
Chapter 6 presents general requirements related to lubricating systems and some
requirements specific to gas turbine oil reservoirs. Technologies not employing
lubricating oil reservoirs would have no interest in this chapter.
Chapter 7 addresses engine exhaust systems and clearances to combustible materials
for exhaust gas temperatures less than 1400F that would apply to microturbine
installations.
Section 4 of Chapter 8 imposes control and instrumentation requirements on gas
turbines. Each engine must be equipped with an automatic engine speed control, an
automatic main speed control and overspeed shutdown control, a backup overspeed
shutdown control that is independent from the main control, an automatic engine
shutdown device for low-lubricating oil pressure (with exception), provisions for shutting
down the engine from a remote location, provisions for shutting down, from a remote
location, lubricating oil pumps not directly driven by the engine, an automatic engine
shutdown device for high exhaust temperatures (with exception), and a means of
automatically shutting off the fuel supply in the event of a flameout. The starting
sequence must include a purge cycle.
Appendix B
136
Appendix B
137
5.0 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN MICROTURBINE GENERATORSETS AND OTHER BUILDING SYSTEMS, STRUCTURES, OR
SAFETY ISSUES
Issues that may attract the attention of local building permit authorities include fire
protection, egress, ventilation, electrical shock protection, and fuel supply. The principal
codes that apply are outlined in this chapter. Figure 5.1 presents the most common
installation requirements a microturbine generator set may be subject to in a commercial
setting.
5.1 NFPA 7099, National Electrical Code
The purpose of the National Electrical Code (NEC) is the practical safeguarding of
persons and property from hazards arising from the use of electricity. It covers
installations of electric conductors and equipment within or on public and private
buildings or other structures and conductors and equipment that connect to the supply of
electricity. Historically, it has not controlled installations under the exclusive control of
electric utilities for the purpose of communications, metering, generation, control,
transformation, transmission, or distribution of electric energy. Such installations shall be
located in buildings used exclusively by utilities for such purposes, outdoor on property
owned or leased by the utility, on or along public highways, streets, roads, or outdoors on
private property by established rights such as easements.
Many NEC requirements, important to on-site power, lie buried in articles not obvious
by their titles to have relationship to generators. The
Appendix B
138
Appendix B
139
5. All fuel gas systems utilizing service pressures under 125 psig must be
installed and operated in accordance with NFPA 54, the National Fuel
Gas Code. Fuel piping must be steel or other metal, and in compliance
with NFPA 30, Flammable and
Combustible Liquids Code. Piping protection is outlined in MSS
SP-69, Pipe Hangers & SupportsSelection and Application.
6. All pressure-boosting equipment must be certified (by stamp) for
design, construction and testing according to ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division I.
7. NFPA 37, section 35.3.13, all wiring and batteries must be protected
from arcing and shorting. Note: all wires, with the exception of ignition
or microprocessor wiring and thermocouples, must be stranded
annealed copper.
8. Enclosurealthough NFPA 37 does not specifically address
enclosures, the local building inspector will probably require (1) the
cabinet to meet NEMA standards for explosion-proof enclosures, and
(2) the integrated unit (prime mover, generator, pipes and wires and all
controls & valves) to be protected from natural elements (wind, sun,
precipitation, detritus) and vehicular impact.
9. NFPA 37, section 31.4.1 (outdoor installations): unit must be a
minimum of 5 ft. from any combustible walls and bldg. openings. Also
NFPA 37 section 32, foundation to be made of non-combustible
materials.
10. NFPA 37, section 31.3.1, same minimum space (5 ft.) and foundation
requirements as outdoor installations.
11. ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals (1993) is recommended
reference for design of exhaust air discharge system.
12. All LP gas systems (liquid or vapor phase) must be installed in
accordance with NFPA 58, Standard for the Storage and Handling of
Liquid Petroleum Gases. The Flammable and Combustible Liquids
Code, API (American Petroleum Institute) 620, Design and
Construction of Large Welded Low-pressure Storage Tanks, may also
apply.
13. Grid Interconnection (standard currently under development by IEEE
SC 21, Richard DeBlasio, chair)
14. Local zoning ordinances (definition of hazardous materials and
relation to residential zones, distance to property line and rights-ofway, access by local fire and safety authorities, etc) may need to be
consulted in some areas.
15. Fire ProtectionLocal building inspectors will require a fire risk
evaluation be performed for each installation with respect to design,
layout, and operating conditions of the unit. From that analysis the
inspector may require any or several of a variety of fire protection
systems (portable vs. fixed systems, foam or gaseous extinguishers,
automatic sprinklers or dry chemical fire suppression systems).
Appendix B
140
NEC does not have an article on portable power sources, yet requirements exist in
Articles 210-Branch Circuits, 230-Services, 240-Overcurrent Protection, 250-Grounding
and 305-Temporary Wiring. Article 517 has important requirements for emergency
systems in health care facilities.
Because on-site power must be compatible with utility-furnished power, many of the
requirements of other articles also apply to on-site power. For example, Article 2505
tells what systems must be grounded. These requirements apply, with certain listed
exceptions, regardless of the ownership of the power-generation unit.
5.1.1 Article 700, Emergency Systems A
Article 700 has five parts. Most important to the emergency power source are Parts A,
General, and C, Sources of Power. The following items are of particular importance to
onsite generators:
Article 700 covers emergency systems that are legally required and classed as
emergency by the governmental agency having jurisdiction or by other codes
(hospitals, public facilities, missioncritical infrastructure such as air traffic control
towers, etc.)
Tests at maximum anticipated load must be witnessed, performed periodically, and a
written record maintained.
Other loads (including peak shaving) can be served if an automatic load management
system ensures adequate emergency power.
Automatic transfer switches must prevent inadvertent interconnection of normal and
emergency sources (but can be bypassed).
Audible and visual signals must indicate (1) any disturbance of the emergency power
source, (2) that the battery is carrying load, (3) that the charger is not functioning, or
(4) that a ground fault exists. 5.4
In the event of an emergency, current must recommence within 10 seconds and can be
from storage battery, generator set, uninterruptible power supply (UPS) system, a
separate service, or individual equipment for emergency illumination.
A generator set driven by a prime mover must have automatic or black start capability
with a minimum of 2 hours full-load fuel supply on-site, unless there is a low
probability of simultaneous failure of both the fuel delivery system and the electric
utility.
A starting battery must have an automatic charger independent of the generator set. A
15-minute time delay is required before shutdown of the set.
5.1.2 Article 701, Legally Required Standby Systems
Article 701 refers to applications less critical to life, such as heating and refrigeration
systems, communications systems, and industrial processes. The NEC itself does not
require standby systems, but outlines the requirements should some other authority
specify one. This generally includes illumination and/or power. The requirements are
somewhat less stringent than those for Article 700.
A major difference between Article 700 and 701 is that 701 does not require standby
circuits to be in separate raceways. It does not require any indication for ground faults,
Appendix B
141
and it allows 60 seconds to start the standby power system, rather than the 10 seconds
required by 7002.
5.1.3 Article 702, Optional Standby Systems
Article 702 briefly addresses standby systems intended to protect private property, where
life safety does not depend upon the performance of the system. Typical installations
include industrial and commercial buildings, farms and residences. The note specifically
mentions heating and refrigeration, data processing and communication systems, and
industrial processes. Only permanently installed equipment applies; it does not apply to
portable generator sets.
The equipment is required to simply have sufficient capacity to supply the loads
intended for simultaneous operation. It does require a transfer switch. Signals are
required, where practicable, for showing derangement of the source and the successful
assumption of the load. Article 702 does not require any testing or keeping of records at
installation or periodically afterward.
5.1.4 Article 705, Interconnected Electric Power Production Sources
Article 705 covers installation of one or more electric power production sources in
parallel with a primary source of electricity such as a utility or on-site electric power
source. The code addresses some issues related to grid-connection but these requirements
were not developed around microturbine technology and cogeneration applications.
Efforts to establish uniform and consistent requirements for protective features specific to
microturbine and other DG technologies that electric utilities would accept should focus
on this code.
70512, Point of Connection Requires interconnection at the service disconnecting
means. Two exceptions apply. One, if the system qualifies as an integrated electric
system and complies with all provisions of Article 685. Two, if the system non-utility
sources total more than 100kW or more than 1000 volts. The second exception also
requires assured maintenance and supervision and protective safeguards.
70522, Disconnect Device Requires an accessible disconnecting means for each
power source. (Utilities may require that this device be accessible to linemen and may
require that the on-off position of the device be visibly verifiable.)
70540, Loss of Primary Source Requires that upon loss of the primary power source
the on-site source automatically disconnect from the primary source. It shall also not
reconnect until the primary source returns.
5.1.5 Article 445, Generators
Article 445 has few if any requirements that most generator manufacturers do not meet
with a standard product. It has the usual requirements for enclosure, protection of live
parts and nameplate markings. It does require over current protection but allows a wide
choice of methods including inherent protection.
5.1.6 Other Articles
Appendix B
142
Appendix B
143
Appendix B
144
hours to disconnect, and, in the case of immediate danger to life or property, the code
official can immediately disconnect without prior notice.
Section 304, Combustion, Ventilation and Dilution Air Applies when 1) gas-fueled
equipment is installed inside a building, and 2) the equipment requires air for
combustion, ventilation or dilution of flue gasses from within the building. Direct venting
to the outside overrides this section.
Chapter 4, Gas Piping Installations Chapter 4 establishes criteria for the
minimum/maximum pipeline sizes for a given appliance, construction materials, shut-off
valve locations, metering devices, etc. There is nothing in this section that specifically
prohibits the installation of a microturbine unit.
Chapter 5, Chimneys and Vents This section covers the installation, maintenance,
repair, and approval of factory-built chimneys, chimney liners, vents, connectors, and
masonry chimneys. Every fuel-burning appliance is required to discharge all combustion
products to the outdoors. Section 501.8 lists exempted equipment, of which microturbine
units do not qualify (e.g., clothes dryers, cooking ranges, refrigerators, counter
appliances, etc.)
Microturbines, if subjected to this section, will be declared a category III or IV
appliance. In residential applications, the venting system would default to the
manufacturers listed equipment. In commercial or industrial applications, a chimney,
ventilating hood, and exhaust system all would be required.
Chapter 6, Specific Appliances
Section 615.1, Engine and Gas Turbine-Powered Equipment, requires that
permanently installed equipment powered by internal combustion engines and turbines be
installed in accordance with the manufacturers installation instructions and in
accordance with NFPA 37 (Stationary Combustion Engines and Gas Turbines).
5.3.2 NFPA 54, National Fuel Gas Code
This is the governing code used by many local gas utilities and officials of federal, state,
and local governments to judge the acceptability of fuel-gas installations. Many appliance
manufacturers as part of their certified installation instructions also reference the code.
5.3.3 NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, and
NFPA 58, LP-Gas Code
These two standards address the storage and handling of fuel liquids and, as such, do not
impact the first-generation microturbine products.
5.3.4 International Mechanical Code2000
The International Mechanical Code regulates and controls the design, construction,
quality of materials, erection, installation, alteration, repair, location, relocation,
replacement, addition to, use, or maintenance of mechanical systems that are permanently
installed and utilized to provide control of environmental conditions and related
processes within buildings. The owner or agent shall be responsible for maintenance of
mechanical systems. To determine compliance with this provision, the code official shall
Appendix B
145
have the authority to require a mechanical system to be reinspected. Code officials should
be educated on microturbine application and operation to minimize re-inspections.
Section 920 requires that gas turbines, including fuel storage and piping, meet the
requirements of NFPA 37. Permanently installed equipment powered by the turbine must
be installed in accordance with the manufacturers installation instructions and in
accordance with NFPA 37.
Chapter 12 provides requirements for hydronic piping systems that are a part of a
heating system and requires that potable hot water systems meet the plumbing code.
Certain CHP installations may involve these requirements. Chapter 13 governs the
installation, modification, and maintenance of fuel-gas piping systems. The applicability
of this code to piping systems extends from the point of delivery to the connections with
each utilization device and includes the design, materials, components, fabrication,
assembly, installation, testing, inspection, operation, and maintenance of such piping
systems. NFPA 54 is referenced for testing, inspecting, and purging gas piping systems.
Appendix B
146
CSA International representative then prepares the Certification Report and issues the
Certification Letter.
Model CertificationManufacturer sends product samples to CSA International for
testing at its laboratory. CSA International then writes the Certification Report and, if the
product qualifies, issues the certification.
6.2 Intertek Testing Services
Intertek Testing Services Scania, formerly known as the Electrical Testing Laboratory,
provides independent third-party commodity sampling, inspection, testing,and related
marine surveying services to the petrochemical, fertilizer, coal, mineral, agricultural, and
related industries.
ITS Quality Systems tests electrical and electronic goods from toys to telephones to
appliances and medical equipment for product safety, electromagnetic compatibility, and
both absolute and relative product performance. ITS also inspects and tests textiles,
clothing, carpets, and consumer. The lab also provides assessment and registration
services to the ISO-9000, QS-9000 (automotive), and the ISO-14000 (environmental)
standards.
6.3 Hartford Steam Boiler
The Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company (HSB) is the worlds
oldest (circa 1866) and largest insurer of power, process, and production equipment. The
organization provides the following services:
ASME Code Inspection ServicesAn Authorized Inspection Agency (AIA)
accredited by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) for the inspection
of boilers, pressure vessels, nuclear components and process and power plants. Services
also include Pressure Vessel and Piping Design, Finite Element Analysis, and Quality
Assurance Program Development.
Department of Transportation ServicesHSB offers assistance in complying with
U.S. Department of Transportation and Canadian Transport Commission regulations for
tank trucks and other devices/cylinders used in over-the-road and rail transportation.
International Codes and Standards ServicesBoth local and international codes
and standards consulting, including inspection and technical training services.
Third-Party Inspection ServicesHSBs Technical Resource Support Group
ensures that the manufacture and/or installation of equipment by vendors meets the
appropriate standards and specifications.
Pressurized Equipment TestingHSBs Pressure Equipment Technologies provide
inspection surveys, testing, and condition evaluation of critical powerhouse equipment
including boilers, deaerators, and pressure vessels. The surveys evaluate the physical
conditions of the equipment and provide a detailed report with outlined recommendations
for corrective actions and life-expectancy projections.
6.4 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Appendix B
147
Services available from Underwriters Laboratories Inc. are detailed in Chapter 2 of this
report.
6.5 National Evaluation Service
The National Evaluation Service, Inc. (NES) is an independent, not-for-profit
organization that conducts a voluntary program of evaluation for building materials,
products and systems. NES produces technical reports that describe a building
construction material or product, together with a list of conditions necessary for
compliance with each of the model codes, as promulgated by Building Officials and Code
Administrators International, Inc. (BOCA), International Conference of Building
Officials (ICBO), and Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc. (SBCCI) as
well as the International Codes of the International Code Council (ICC).
The National Evaluation Service is a member of the World Federa-tion of Technical
Assessment Organizations (WFTAO), founded to accelerate the dissemination of
technical information regarding performance testing and certification of new
technologies. The organizations members represent 14 countries, including Australia,
Brazil, Canada, Denmark, France, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, South
Africa, Spain, the United Kingdom and the United States.
Appendix B
148
lead
In general, the responsibility for reducing air pollution levels has been assigned to the
states. Each state is required to develop a State Implementation Plan (SIP) providing for
the implementation, maintenance, and enforcement of measures to attain the ambient air
standards by the deadlines prescribed by the Clean Air Authority (CAA). The EPA has
oversight authority for each states SIP and may direct a state to revise its SIP if
necessary.
Two elements that a SIP must contain are federal New Source Performance Standards
(NSPS) and New Source Review (NSR) rules. The NSPS specify maximum pollutant
emission rates for various processes, including combustion equipment. The EPA has
assigned such performance standards for SO2, NOX, and PM. NSPS are based on the
level of control that can be achieved by the best demonstrated technology. NSR rules
govern the permitting of new emissions sources and are triggered if a new source emits or
has the potential to emit at an annual rate specified by the NSPS.
NSR rules distinguish between attainment and nonattainment areas with less stringent
Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) rules applying to attainment areas. The
trigger for PSD rules is 250 tons/year for any regulated pollutant. Nonattainment areas
are differentiated in classes based on severity of ambient pollutant concentrations:
marginal, moderate, serious, extreme, and severe. NSR thresholds for nonattainment
areas are indicated in Table 7.1.
To construct and operate a new power plant or DG facility (or to make major
modifications to an existing plant) within a nonattainment area, the owner needs to obtain
a permit from the state environmental agency if NSR levels are exceeded. The NSR
process requires the owner to analyze alternative locations, sizes, production processes,
and control techniques, and to demonstrate that the plant benefits outweigh its
environmental and social costs. Facilities also are required to have control technology
that meets the standard for lowest achievable emission rate (LAER). The control
technology required to meet LAER is established by each state on a case-by-case basis
for each emission source as it is permitted.
Furthermore, the owner of the plant is required to purchase offsets for each criterion
pollutant that is in nonattainment. The EPA requires that emission offsets provide a
positive air quality benefit to the area. Owners are therefore required to obtain more than
one offset for each unit of pollutant emitted. The offset ratio depends upon the extent to
which the region is in nonattainment. This offset requirement has promoted the
establishment and trading of emission reduction credits for NOX and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) among industries in 12 states.
The process for reviewing new facilities is slightly different in attainment areas. In
these areas, owners also are required to obtain a permit to construct and operate new
plants (or to make major modifications to existing plants), to ensure that new pollution
sources do not make the region slip into nonattainment. These PSD permits require a
review of the air quality impacts of the proposed facility.
Area
Appendix B
149
Designation
Year)
Marginal
100
Serious
50
Severe
25
Moderate
100
Carbon Monoxide
Serious
70
Any nonattainment
area
100
New plants are required to install best available control technology (BACT) for all
pollutants regulated under the CAA. The control technology required to meet BACT is
established by each state on a case-by-case basis for each emission source.
Historically, less stringent controls apply to existing electric utility facilities in
attainment areas due to grandfathering statutes. This provides clear advantages when
competing with new sources that require specific emission controls as specified by NSPS
(Biewald et al. 1998). This situation may be changing as a host of new regulatory
initiatives could result in more stringent controls for existing facilities, especially coalfired facilities. These controls could have a significant influence on the cost of power
from coal-fired facilities, making them less attractive in a competitive marketplace.
A DG project, particularly one based upon hydrocarbon combustion such as a
microturbine, could be impacted by a suite of other federal laws, including
Clean Water Act (1987)
Resource, Conservation and Recovery Act (1976)
Occupational Safety and Health Act (1970)
Toxic Substances Control Act (1976)
Endangered Species Act (1973)
Coastal Zone Management Act (1972)
Historic Sites Act.
7.1.2 State Regulations
Each state is responsible for implementing programs that conform to the mandates of the
federal CAA and associated amendments. Progressive states with areas experiencing
severe air quality problems (e.g., Los Angeles) have implemented even more stringent air
quality standards than current federal mandates. Regardless of the criteria, the
responsibility for implementation and enforcement falls on air pollution control officials
at the local level.
The potential for diverse state requirements can lead to inconsistent requirements that
pose barriers or opportunities for microturbines. Differing requirements could allow more
centralized power generation technologies (combined-cycle gas turbines) to choose
which state had the least stringent requirements, while the power could be transmitted to
the demand location. Conversely, inconsistent or uncertain requirements might be an
Appendix B
150
added incentive for construction of distributed generation capacity that has low air
contaminant signatures (renewables, fuel cells) not subject to state permitting regulations.
7.1.3 Local Environmental Regulations
Based on the projected emission signatures of microturbines, it is anticipated that federal
regulatory requirements for NSR will not be triggered; local agencies will therefore be
the primary regulatory authority overseeing microturbine installations relative to
environmental concerns. Depending on the attainment status of the local area, permitting
thresholds specified by Air Pollution Control Districts (APCDs) may limit the operating
schedule or emission limits of a microturbine if a predetermined power rating is
exceeded. In addition, control technologies may be required. If the permit thresholds are
not triggered, microturbines will be exempt from local air quality regulations. It is likely
that permitting requirements will change over the next several years. However, these
changes may broaden the regulatory envelope to include microturbines.
7.1.4 Emission Signature of Microturbines
Of the different air and liquid (e.g., contaminated cooling water, oil seepage) emissions
associated with microturbines, air emissions will have the greatest influence on a
projects permitting. NOX and CO2 emissions are the critical emission categories, given
their magnitude for conventional electric generation technologies. Although SO2 also is
an important emission category for traditional electric utilities, SO2 emissions are
expected to be negligible in microturbines.
The air emission signatures of selected DG technologies are shown in Table 7.2. These
values are based on theoretical calculations or laboratory source testing (Cler and
Lenssen 1997; NREL 1995). The actual emission signature for each technology is designspecific and dependent upon various locational criteria.
Fuel cells, with their electrochemical process of producing electricity, have the
cleanest emissions profile, followed by microturbines and reciprocating engines,
respectively. With the exception of CO2, microturbines also exhibit generally low
emissions for all classes of regulated pollutants.
CO2
CO
SO2
0.40.21
119
0.11
0.0006
3.1
110
0.79
0.015
2.8
150
1.5
0.3
0.003
0.0204
Microturbine
Fuel Cell
Source: NREL (1995); Cler and Lenssen (1997)
Appendix B
151
Appendix B
152
health, safety, and general welfare of the inhabitants of a given municipality, or protect
and conserve the value of the property within that city. For this purpose, the height,
number of stories, size of buildings and structures, size and width of lots, the percentage
of lot that may be occupied, the size of yards, courts and other open spaces, parking
structures, the density of population and the location and use of buildings, structures and
land for trade, marine business, industry, agriculture, residence, or other purposes may be
regulated.
Although zoning ordinances generally do not address either standby or continuousduty powergeneration systems in residential or commercial districts, it is possible that the
advent of widespread DG systems in residential zones will require a review of the zoning
literature, particularly what constitutes a prohibited use (any use which is injurious,
noxious or offensive by reason of the emission of odor, fumes, dust, smoke, vibration,
noise, lighting or other cause). Some local zoning ordinances are much more intimately
involved in local building codes, including egress and fire protection measures. For this
reason, it is possible that municipal planning departments will perceive the DG unit as a
substantial alteration or addition to the existing use of a build-ing, and require a zoning
review as part of the permitting process.
The Building Codes Assistance Project (BCAP) has created an online forum for
discussion of residential and commercial model energy codes. The purpose is to facilitate
exchanges of information relating to energy codes. To subscribe, send an email to:
[email protected]. with the word SUBSCRIBE in the body of your
message.
7.4 Noise Level
Noise level is a municipal issue and varies by jurisdiction. In general, this should not
present a hurdle for microturbines. As an example, Capstones Model 330 is rated at 65
dBA at 10 meters, while many outdoor sections of air conditioners and heat pumps are
rated at 78 to 82 dBA.
Appendix B
153
Appendix B
154
Appendix B
155
Appendix B
156
Appendix B
157
Appendix C
Microturbine Power Conversion Technology
Review
R.H.Staunton
B.Ozpineci
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
1. INTRODUCTION
In this study, the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) is performing a technology
review to assess the market for commercially available power electronic converters that
can be used to connect microturbines to either the electric grid or local loads. The intent
of the review is to facilitate an assessment of the present status of marketed power
conversion technology to determine how versatile the designs are for potentially
providing different services to the grid based on changes in market direction, new
industry standards, and the critical needs of the local service provider. The project
includes data gathering efforts and documentation of the state-of-the-art design
approaches that are being used by microturbine manufacturers in their power conversion
electronics development and refinement. This project task entails a review of power
converters used in microturbines sized between 20 kW and 1 MW.
The power converters permit microturbine generators, with their non-synchronous,
high frequency output, to interface with the grid or local loads. The power converters
produce 50- to 60-Hz power that can be used for local loads or, using interface
electronics, synchronized for connection to the local feeder and/or microgrid. The power
electronics enable operation in a stand-alone mode as a voltage source or in gridconnect
mode as a current source. Some microturbines are designed to automatically switch
between the two modes.
The information obtained in this data gathering effort will provide a basis for
determining how close the microturbine industry is to provid-ing services such as voltage
regulation, combined control of both voltage and current, fast/seamless mode transfers,
enhanced reliability, reduced cost converters, reactive power supply, power quality, and
other ancillary services. Some power quality improvements will require the addition of
storage devices; therefore, the task should also determine what must be done to enable
the power conversion circuits to accept a varying dc voltage source. The study will also
look at technical issues pertaining to the interconnection and coordinated/compatible
operation of multiple microturbines.
It is important to know today if modifications to provide improved operation and
additional services will entail complete redesign, selected component changes, software
modifications, or the addition of power storage devices. This project is designed to
Appendix C
159
provide a strong technical foundation for determining present technical needs and
identifying recommendations for future work.
Appendix C
160
Appendix C
161
Appendix C
162
of
available
features,
and
the
Appendix C
163
Appendix C
164
Appendix C
165
Appendix C
166
Appendix C
167
Appendix C
168
Product or Development
Activity
Producer of
power
convertersa
Notes
Ballard
Bowman Power
Systems
Turbogen family of
microturbines ranging from 25
kWe to 80 kWe
Yes
Supplies converters to
Elliot Energy Systems,
Inc.
Capstone Turbine
Corporation
30 kW and 60 kW
microturbines (200 kW
microturbine under
development)
Yes
Cummins
30 kW and 60 kW
microturbines
No
Basic microturbine
systems are obtained
from Capstone
Elliott Energy
Systems, Inc. owned
by the Ebara
Corporation (Japan)
No
Supplies mechanical
microturbine systems to
Bowman Power
Systems
NA (see text)
DOE-AND participant,
gearbox is used to
reduce rpm and to
facilitate use of low
speed generator.
Yes
For other
generation
No present microturbine
applications
Appendix C
169
Appendix C
170
microturbine power converters, most appear to be quite notable for the high degree of
innovation they are using to attain versatile, new products.
Table C-3 provides the Internet addresses for the full list of vendors presented in this
section.
3.3 Data Provided by Manufacturers
This section provides information on power converters provided by five primary
manufacturers of power converters. The information will include a summary of general
features, operating parameters, ancillary services, special features, power quality, circuit
topology, and other circuit details including component types and thermal specifications.
A short summary of industry needs is also provided. The second subsection will consider
important companies also meriting special consideration because of the unique features
of their design and/or because they offer an alternative design approach.
3.3.1 Primary manufacturers
Based on the information presented in Section 3.2, the final list of companies in the U.S.
market who are presently producing and marketing power converters suitable for
distributed generation (i.e., not just microturbines) is quite small. It includes the
following:
Ballard (provided power converters for Honeywell microturbines in 1998)
Bowman Power Systems
Capstone Turbine Corporation
Xantrex (no presently marketed microturbine application)
General Electric (GE), which is well along in their development of a relatively large
microturbine, was also helpful in providing information and is included in this data
summary. Ballard has developed a 110 kVA microturbine system (i.e., power converter
system) that the company says is capable of operating in grid and stand-alone mode with
all the grid connect and retry strategies in accordance with IEEE 1547.* Xantrex, which
has developed a wide range of power converters that can be used
*IEEE 1547 is the Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power
Systems (See Sect. 4.1.2.)
Product or Development
Activity
AeroVironment
Producer of
power
convertersa
Yes
Notes
Appendix C
171
DTE Energy
Technologies
No
General Electric,
Global Research
Center & GE
Industrial
Yes
DOE-AMP participant
Northern Power
Systems
SatCon Power
Systems
Turbo Genset
Developing a 50 kW
microturbine and power
converter system
Plans to
Nothing announced yet
produce power to industry prior to
converters
completing work on
patents.
Unknown
Yes
Microturbine will be
sold to DTE Energy
(a) Indicates whether the power converters are a product of their in-house design efforts.
(b) DOE-AMP=Department of Energys Advanced Microturbine Program, not all participants are
involved in development of power electronics and therefore not all are listed.
Internet URL
Ballard
http://www.ballard.com/
Bowman Power
http://www.bowmanpower.com/
http://www.microturbine.com/
http://www.cumminsnorthwest.com/PowerGen/Microturbine.asp
http://www.dtetech.com/
http://www.elliott-turbo.com/new/products-microturbines.html
http://www.eren.doe.gov/der/microturbines/pdfs/geslide.pdf
http://205.147.212.185/
http://www.northernpower.com/
http://www.inverpower.com/products/alten/alten.html
http://www.turbec.com/
Turbo Genset
http://www.turbogenset.com/
Xantrex
http://www.xantrex.com/Products/index.asp
Appendix C
172
Ballard
Bowman and
Elliott*
Capstone General
Turbine
Electric
Corporation
Xantrex
Type of
Synchronous
generator
used in
microturbine
Synchronous
Synchronous
permanent
magnet
generator
Synchronous
permanent
magnet
May be used
with
synchronous or
nonsynchronous
Integral
Integral
Power
Not currently
Appendix C
overall unit
173
packaging
packaging
converter in
integrated in
nearby cabinet package
Turbine
speed range
Customer
dependent
68,000 rpm
(normal)
45K96K
rpm
12K50K rpm
NA
Power
converter
switching
frequency
48 kHz
8 kHz
Unknown
=8 kHz
rectifier,
=5 kHz
inverter
218 Ez
depending on
power level
Modes of
Operation
and
seamlessness
of transfer
Stand-alone &
grid-connect
(seamless
switching
possible)
Stand-alone
& gridconnect with
autoswitching
(see text)
Grid connect
only
Stand-alone &
grid-connect
(interruption
only when grid
V drops)
Type of
digital
control
Microprocessor
Microprocessor
Digital signal Flash-based
Digital signal
(reprogrammable) (reprogrammable) processor
microprocessor processor by
Texas
Instruments
Accessories Unknown
for operation
in different
modes
Battery
required for
stand-alone
mode and
black start
(see text for
other
accessories)
NA
Uninterruptible
power supply
required for
black start of
microturbine
30 kW and
60 kW (200
kW future)
175 kW @
40C
Power
converters
from 5 kW to 1
MW
Manufacturer
of
mechanical
portion
Elliot Energy
Systems
Capstone
General
Electric
No
microturbine
product or
application at
present
Bowman Power
Systems
Capstone
General
Electric
Xantrex
Cost of
Depends on
power
application
converter
and/or
microturbine
~$30,000 for
the 30kW
model
microturbine
TBD when
product is
introduced into
market
$70/kW to $
1,000/kW for
power
converters
depending on
application
No microturbine
product or
application at
present
Appendix C
174
Ballard
Voltage sag
support
Yes
Static VAR
compensation
Yes
Bowman and
Elliott*
Xantrex
Possible
Yes
Possible
Yes
power
factor
control
only
Yes
Appendix C
Load following
175
Yes
Operating reserve
(spinning or nonspinning)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Backup supply
Yes
Blackstart
capability
(without external
grid)
Yes
Greystart available
provided gas is
present and oil is
warm
Yes
Yes
Remote
controllability
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Communication
(operation in
parallel with other
units)
Yeshas
multi-unit
capability
for up to 10
units in
parallel.
Yes
Yes
Reverse power
protection (in Elliot
microturbine
therefore an
assumed feature of
Bowman)
Peak shaving,
Reverse power
protection, and
auto-restart
(following a fault)
Others
Ballard, which uses liquid cooling). Certain topics, such as how close the switching
devices operate to their maximum ratings, proved to be too sensitive to result in any
significant response from the companies. The filtering referred to in the bottom two rows
of the table has proved effective for all manufacturers in producing an output waveform
that does not produce EMI, sinusoidal in shape, and often with lower harmonic distortion
than found on the local grid.
Regarding the type of circuit topology, GE provided additional details regarding their
175 kW power converter. The 3-phase, two-level active IGBT power electronic bridge
converts the 3-phase, high-frequency generator voltage to dc. The voltage on the dc link
is regulated by the active rectifier and it feeds a 480V, 3-phase, IGBT inverter. The dc
link voltage is also monitored so that turbine loading/speed can be adjusted according to
the apparent inverter loading of the dc link. 15
GE also supplied additional details regarding how close the switching devices operate
to their maximum ratings. Obviously, this depends on the output voltage of the generator
and other factors such as load and speed. GE follows general design rules of 10% voltage
margin for the main power electronics. This may seem to be a tight margin but, in reality,
how appropriate it is can be determined only from the design details.* GE is still
developing the overall circuit control strategy and will be operating the power conversion
electronics for the first time in the spring of 2003. GE will be assessing device stress as
well as other system operating points, and their test results will determine whether the
Appendix C
176
bridge is correctly used and rated. GE states that sophisticated junction temperature
techniques are used to maintain device temperatures within published limits.
The final question asked of manufacturers was what they would
*GE is currently using 1400V parts with about a 900V dc Link. GE attempts to apply 10% extra
margin after all worst case control and transient effects have been accounted for. Hence, device
switching transients will be added to the 900V link voltage before the margin is applied. The
switching transients can be controlled by altering the gate drive characteristics and stray bus
inductance.
It is possible to require less margin if higher performance bridge topologies (buswork) and controls
are used. Manufacturers apply margin based on their experiences, control complexity and response
(i.e., ability to control the dc Link Voltage during input/ output transients) and power electronic
bridge design. It is very advantageous for an equipment manufacturer to achieve a higher rating or
extra performance over a competitors product by developing their own philosophy for rating and
application capability
Ballard
General
Electric
Xantrex
Identify circuit
topology
DC link
converter
DC link
converter
DC link
converter
(current
regulated)
DC link
converter (see
details in text)
Voltage
source dc:
link
converter
PWM
PWM
PWM
High
frequency
sine
triangle
PWM
IGBTs or
intelligent
power
modules
(IPM) by
Semikron/IR
IPM using
IGBTs
IGBTs
manufactured
by Powerex
IGBTs or
IPM by
Eupec,
Powerex
Switching
devices operate
how close to
maximum
ratings?
No
information
provided
Confidential
No information
provided
Dependent on No
factors such as information
load and speed provided
(see text)
Maximum
ambient T
40C
45C
50C
40C without
derating
45C (min. is
20C)
Maximum
Unknown
150C
115C
125C
150C (not
Appendix C
177
device junction
temperature
Method of
cooling of
power
switching
components
operated
above
110C)
Water/liquid
cooling
Force air
cooling with
heatsink
Force air
cooling with
heatsink
Force air
cooling with
heatpipe
heatsink
Force air
cooling with
heatsink or
water cooled
300% of peak
rated for 2
cycles
This design
parameter is
TBD
Depends on
application
Filtering and
shielding
Filtering
included for
harmonics and
EMI
Both may be
used
Power quality
considerations
No EMI or
harmonic
distortion
problems
No EMI or
Harmonic
No EMI or
harmonic
levels will
harmonic
distortion
meet IEEE 519 distortion
problems.
problems
Harmonics well
below IEEE 519
limits.
Permissible
No
overload current information
provided
No EMI or
harmonic
distortion
problems
like to see from the Government or industry (e.g., product, component) that would be of
help to them. The responses shown in Table C-7 were obtained from Ballard, GE,
Capstone, and Bowman Power Systems.
Ballard
Ballard states that they would like to see funding for high-voltage/current
silicon carbide diode development.
Bowman and
Elliott
Capstone Turbine
Corporation
Capstone indicated that they would like to see continued development and
adoption of interconnection standards.
General Electric
GE stated that they would like to see the implementation of codes and
standards to improve and accelerate technology acceptance.
Appendix C
Xantrex
178
No response
Appendix C
179
Appendix C
180
The power to the control circuitry of the GridGateway system comes from both the
generator and the grid; therefore, if either of them fails, the unit will continue to function.
The system can operate in four states, utility only, no connection, distributed generator
only, or parallel operation. When it is turned on, the distributed generator switch is open,
isolating the generator from the load and the grid. However, the grid switch starts in the
state it was last in, before power was turned off.
According to the manufacturer, EPRI-PEAC, this interconnection system can be
connected to the power meter and will be ready to operate in half an hour because of its
plug-and-play capability.
The GridGateway technology uses relays instead of solid state devices. A concern
with relays is that they could potentially get stuck, which may cause undesirable
problems to the generator, the load, or the grid. Tests need to be done in order to evaluate
system performance and whether the reliability of the relays is adequate without
additional protection in case of failures. If this system passes the tests fundamentally
intact, it could be used as a transfer switch complementing the utility interface converter.
Appendix C
181
Appendix C
182
Appendix C
183
below.
The first Capstone control system is the Capstone Remote Monitoring System
(CRMS). The CRMS allows you to communicate locally with up to 40 microturbines.
The microturbines are daisy chained together using their serial ports and an RS 232
ethernet connection. One turbine is the master and the rest are in the slave mode. Data
provided from each microturbine includes control panels, strip charts, trend graphs, event
alarms and automation panels. The load cycle and scheduler automatically starts, stops,
and commands power to the micro turbines locally or remotely. The event monitor logs
starts, stops, and faults. The turbines can be controlled to provide a set power level or to
load follow. If they are load following, a compatible power meter must be purchased
which provides a pulse count. The CRMS will load the turbines for the maximum fuel
efficiency point. If a site has several Capstone turbines, the only additional need is for the
software to run them with the CRMS.
The second system offered by Capstone is the Power Server CPS 100. The CPS 100
integrates up to 100 turbines into a single generation system with one point of control.
The CPS100 contains a microprocessor which provides high speed networking via one
RS-232 connection or a modem. There is also internet command via TCP/IP. There is an
interface to the power meter so that control can be load following/peak shaving and dual
mode (grid connect/stand alone). The CPS100 will load the turbines for the maximum
fuel efficiency point. The CPS100 will also balance runtime so that all turbines are run at
the same number of hours over time. There are also analog and discrete inputs for
communications from other plant equipment.
4.1.4 Proposed requirements for ancillary services
As can be observed from the vendor data summarized in this report, there is not a
standard on what electrical services the manufacturers provide. The analysts of this study
believe that some of these services should be provided without extra accessories and
others made available as options. Initially, manufacturers should be encouraged to make
various services available. This may quickly lead to those same services being expected
by potential customers.
Recommended or required services:
1. Stand-alone and grid-connect operation modes and seamless switching between them
in subcycles without voltage interruption.
Appendix C
184
2. Blackstart capability to start the microturbine without the external grid and whenever
needed.
3. Remote controllability, so that the microturbine system can be controlled and
monitored by a computer or a control panel without the need of actually being
physically next to the system. This also brings the possibility of internet monitoring
and control. It can also give access to the utility to control the system to prevent
antiislanding and to de-energize it remotely for maintenance and repair.
4. Onboard, reprogrammable microprocessors, so that the firmware can be upgraded
easily, maybe even by the user, remotely.
5. Communication or the ability to operate with others so that numerous microturbines
from the same or different manufacturers can be connected to each other and
controlled by the master unit (one of the microturbines). As an extension to this point,
with the cooperation of the converter manufacturers for other alternate energy sources,
microturbine systems should be able to communicate with the other alternate energy
systems.
6. Modularity or flexibility to add any additional hardware for optional services without
taking everything apart.
Optional Services:
1. Voltage sag support
2. Static VAR compensation
3. Load following
4. Backup supply
5. Operating reserve (spinning or nonspinning)
The reason for including voltage sag support and static VAR compensation at an option
level is that not all applications need these services; however, it is strongly recommended
that these services be included since they can be implemented with just some additional
software code and, if needed, they could contribute even with the microturbine off.
Especially, considering the predicted possible increased importance of non-active power
in the near future, static VAR compensation would be crucial option to have.
4.2 System Reliability in an Emerging Industry
This section provides an early assessment of reliability in domestic microturbines. This
assessment cannot yet be based on any type of quantitative evaluation, but rather, based
loosely on certain industry events and product operating conditions that seem to be
creating clear signals that are relevant to reliability.
4.2.1 Reliability issues
The microturbine industry is essentially new, where manufacturers are either marketing
their products as of the last few years, are taking orders for soon-to-be introduced
products, or are strictly in the development stage of new products. Even the oldest
Appendix C
185
manufacturers are just beginning to see their products arrive at the first major overhaul
point.
At best, the reliability calculations for microturbines and the associated power
converters are now becoming less theoretical and more based on actual in-service data.
However, a more realistic perspective shows subassembly designs that have been
corrected for design weaknesses, often more than once, and field upgrades that alter any
attempts at accurately tracking performance of the affected subassemblies.
Although this study was not intended to explore failures, multiple reports were heard
concerning failures of power converters, EMI filters, and other systems. There are also
many reports of aggressive actions taken by the manufacturers to correct problems in the
field to maintain the highest degree of customer satisfaction and keep company reputation
untarnished. The failures, the redesign process, and aggressive implementation of
upgrades are all typical processes that take place when technologically complex products
are introduced into the market.
Section 4.2.2 will explore some possible root causes for some of the failures that have
been experienced in the microturbine industry to date.
4.2.2 Operating environment
In the course of this study, it was observed that the present micro turbine manufacturers
and vendors market their product to be located in outdoor locations where the
microturbine cabinet and internal packaging (if any) are the only type of protection that
the electronics have from the outside weather conditions.
The power converter electronics in the Capstone microturbines are packaged in a
ventilated metal box located under the mechanical portion of the microturbine. The metal
box is enclosed in the main cabinet of the microturbine. Air enters through a filter at the
lower portion of the cabinet front through horizontal slits and travels a short distance
before entering into the power converter box. The air is forced through the box with fans
and exits at the opposite end. Some air flow can occur through these openings even when
the microturbine is shut down. Such air flow would be partially impeded only by one or
more air filters depending on the microturbine design. The Elliott microturbine design
does not include the box located internal to the cabinet thus providing even less
protection to the converter circuit.
The power converter electronics and digital control circuitry used for microturbines
are both quite elaborate and sophisticated. It is unusual to see this type of electronics
located in a semi-open cabinet located outdoors in the open because of how this might
impact reliability. It is always a significant design challenge to have complex circuitry
located in an uncontrolled, outdoor environment operate reliably. Looking throughout
industry, examples of electronics routinely used in outdoor ambient conditions protected
only by a cabinet/enclosure are few:
Electronics used in vehicles
Traffic light controls
A portion of the electronics operated by electric utilities
Portable electronics such as for communications
Appendix C
186
Although the above electronics are specifically designed to operate in severe ambient
conditions, they are not fully valid comparisons. Many of these are better protected than
in the microturbine example given above. For instance, a computer in an automobile may
be enclosed in a nearly air-tight enclosure that would reduce the potential for
condensation. Similarly, traffic control electronics may be enclosed in a box designed
with a rubber seal. In these cases, the potential for condensation due to daily
environmental cycles is significantly reduced.
In situations where microturbines are frequently shut down, left idle for hours or
longer, and started up, there could be a potential for condensation inside the cabinet
depending on changes in the ambient temperatures and humidity levels (e.g., daytime
conditions vs. night conditions). Long idle periods during humid weather could cause
moisture to be absorbed in certain components degrading insulating materials. In
addition, some components (e.g., screw-down wire terminals) or cabinet surfaces may
experience corrosion or become tarnished due to moisture.
The microturbine industry is not oblivious to these concerns. As indicated in Section
3.3, Turbec ABs T100 microturbine is designed for indoor installations only. Although it
takes its air from an outdoor intake, that occurs only when the unit is operating (i.e., the
power electronics would be warm precluding condensation). Additional design work and
careful testing over time would be required to permit outdoor installations with greater
exposure to the elements.
The fact that the microturbines are generally operated continuously outdoors is helpful
from a reliability standpoint since component heating tends to keep surfaces dry and the
ventilation prevents excess heat. The main concern during operating periods may be
unusually hot, humid summer days; however, the use of conservative design margins and
built-in thermal protection should prevent failures from occurring.
Appendix C
187
The following topical discussions provide examples of useful re-search and critically
needed tests that ORNL strongly recommends in support of the emerging microturbine
industry. The following discussions offer strong technical justification for believing that
these projects, if pursued, would provide significant cost savings and benefits to the
manufacturers of power electronics.
1. Control of real and reactive power in grid connect or stand alone mode.
At the present time, power electronic converters used on microturbines operate in either
voltage mode or current mode. Voltage mode is used when the microturbine is in stand
alone, not grid connected, and the voltage level is set by the user. Current mode is used
when the microturbine is grid connected. The current level and the power factor (for
some manufacturers) are set by the user. As discussed above, it is desirable that the
power electronics be capable of controlling both the real and reactive power. Voltage
regulation cannot be provided without this capability, and reactive power will circulate
among generators in a small-stand alone grid unless the reactive power is controlled.
One approach to resolving this issue would be to develop an enhancement to an
existing power converter system so that it is capable of controlling voltage magnitude and
phase angle (real and reactive power) in both the stand-alone mode and the grid
connected mode. A project could be designed to evaluate the ability of the powerconditioning unit to enable real and reactive power sharing and to perform voltage
regulation. The goal would be for voltage regulation to be provided in both the standalone and gridconnected modes. A project could be designed to test a power conditioning
unit installed on a microturbine that has connections to both a local load and the
distribution system. The work would evaluate, verify, and characterize the ability to
perform voltage regulation under both operating modes.
2. Seamless transition from grid-connect to stand-alone mode in subcycles
In grid-connect mode, the utility interface works in current control, but in stand-alone
mode it works in voltage control. To switch from one mode to the other, the microturbine
and the interface could be shut down and then started in the other mode. This causes an
undesirable voltage outage or brief fluctuation. A better alternative is a seamless
transition without interrupting voltage production. Many manufacturers 26 offer
seamless transition in their products but, in reality, it occurs in a few cycles causing
voltage fluctuations. In some products, the transitions range from a few seconds to a few
minutes.
The goal should be that the seamless transition from grid-connect to stand-alone
modes and vice versa occur in a short, sub-cycle time. For this reason, research is
required to come up with an algorithm to decrease the seamless transition time with
minimum voltage distortion.
One approach would be to develop an enhancement to the existing Bowman powerconditioning unit so that it is capable of synchronizing frequency with the distribution
system and changing control modes seamlessly. A project could be designed to test the
device on a group of power sources and loads with a distribution system connection. The
work would evaluate, verify, and characterize the ability to do a seamless transfer.
3. Ganging microturbines with other microturbines and different energy sources:
Appendix C
188
In many applications, microturbines in the field will be required to work in parallel with
other microturbines or different energy sources such as fuel cells, diesel generators,
photovoltaic systems, batteries, etc. Presently, only a few commercially available utility
interfaces for microturbines, such as Capstone units, have a feature for connecting several
microturbines together (other energy sources not included), and these mostly require
extra accessories. However, this feature should be a standard built-in function of a
general utility interface, and it should also include the ability to be ganged with other
energy sources.
Three approaches are possible for the ganging of different energy sources. In the first
approach, the output voltage of each energy source is converted to dc or high frequency
ac. Then, these outputs are connected in series or parallel as required and converted to
60Hz with a dc link converter to be connected with the grid and/or to feed loads.
In the second approach, the output voltages of each energy sources are converted to dc
and are connected to a multilevel inverter again to be connected to feed loads or directly
to the utility grid.
In the third approach, each microturbine connects to the grid separately from the
others relying wholly on their grid- or load-connect interface electronics. However, this is
inconsistent with the approach we envision to enable the supply of ancillary services.
Further enhancements are desirable where grid and/or load connection is coordinated
instead of relying on multiple independent connections.
More research is required to evaluate the pros and cons of these approaches and to
investigate the possibility of alternative solutions for ganging microturbines and other
distributed energy resources.
Additional insight into solutions for the above issues can be gained by leveraging on
other research being performed at ORNL on several different power electronics
applications. The results of the following projects can be directly or indirectly applied to
the microturbine power converters:
1. Integrating numerous solid oxide fuel cell modules: This project focuses on ways to
connect fuel cell modules for higher power generation.
2. Military generator sets: This project is for the analysis, design, and building of
mobile military generator sets for the Army.
3. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV): Several projects are ongoing in the research and
development of new power converter topologies, novel electrical machines, and
their control. This also includes a system-level study of the benefits of SiC-based
power devices on hybrid electric vehicle applications.
The experience gained from all these projects will be useful in microturbine applications.
For example, the first project will provide answers to the similar problem of paralleling
microturbines with each other and with other distributed generators. Additionally,
experience from military generator sets and HEV power converters and electrical
machines will be directly applicable to microturbine systems.
4. Ability to interface with energy storage devices.
The existing power converters from various manufacturers are capable of accepting a
constant dc input. However, the voltage from many dc sources is variable such as from a
fuel cell or an energy storage device (e.g., battery or ultra-capacitor). A dc-to-dc
Appendix C
189
converter is needed. If the energy storage capability was available, the power converter
could provide very high, short-duration power to start motors and supply fault current.
This would make small systems much more viable and practical when operating in a
stand-alone mode.
One approach to developing a dc interface would be to enhance an existing power
converter so that it is capable of accepting a variable dc voltage input. A project could be
designed to test the device on a group of power sources and loads to evaluate the ability
to start motors, provide fault current, and regulate voltage during normal system
operation.
5. Silicon Carbide switching devices
Recently, silicon carbide- (SiC-) based power devices have been drawing increasing
attention because of their superior characteristics compared with silicon- (Si-) based
power devices. SiC-based power devices possess the features of high voltage, high
power, high frequency, and high temperature operation in a smaller package. A SiCbased power converter would have the benefits of reduced losses, higher efficiency, up to
2/3 reduction in the heatsink size, smaller passive components, and less susceptibility to
extreme ambient heat. Microturbine power converters would certainly benefit from
utilizing SiC-power devices. The response from Ballard regarding what they would like
to see from the Government or industry that would be of help to them was, Funding for
High-voltage/Current Silicon Carbide diodes. This response provides strong
confirmation of the importance of SiC in this industry.
Further work is required to demonstrate the system-level benefits of SiC devices on
microturbine power converter applications.
Index
A
absorber chillers 48, 50, 51, 52, 53
air bearings 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 66, 68
Allied Signal 5, 9, 10, 12, 108
Allison 4
ALM 106, 107, 108
ANSI 152, 162
AQMD 36, 66
ASHRAE 153
ASME 154, 162, 168, 172
ASTM 154
auxiliary load controller (ALC) 28
B
Ballards 210, 211
bio-gas 15, 50, 86
BOCA 160
Boeing 3, 4, 9
Bowman 12, 63, 64, 65, 66, 76, 78, 84, 96, 208
Brayton cycle 6
C
Capstone Turbine Corporation 1, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 24, 26, 31, 33, 37, 39, 63, 66,
67, 68, 69, 76, 78, 83, 88, 89, 90, 91, 96, 108, 109, 208, 210
CARB 11
catalytic gas cleaning 36
Caterpillar 4
Combined Heat & Power (CHP) 36, 43, 47, 49, 50, 79
COP 10
D
Darcy Equation 33
digesters 14, 15, 16, 36, 55, 57, 58
Distributed Generation (DG) 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 79
dual mode operation 26, Ch 3, 44, 62, 83, 119
E
Ebara Corporation 72, 208
EGSA 154, 164
Elliott 12, 63, 66, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 208
emissions 38
Index
191
F
Faith Plating 116, 117, 118, 119, 120
Ford 4, 5, 11
Fuel Cell Energy 95
fuel cells 44, 93
G
Garrett 1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 108
General Electric 9, 96, 109, 211
General Motors 4
H
Harbec 113, 114, 115, 116
Holiday Inn 122, 123, 124
Honeywell 5, 12, 108, 109
hybrid electric vehicles 92, 94
hybrid systems 93, 95
hydrogen sulfide 15, 37, 52, 88
I
ICBO 160
ICC 160
IEEE 155
Ingersoll-Rand 12, 25, 36, 63, 69, 70, 71, 72, 86, 87, 93, 96, 108, 201
inverter 25, 26
J
Jim Noe 1, 9, 10, 11, 108
L
landfills 14, 15, 36, 59, 86, 87
liquid fuels 16, 18, 19
Lopez Canyon 136, 137, 138n
M
mini turbine 2
N
National Fuel Research Center 93, 95
natural gas liquefication 138, 139, 140
NEMA 155
Netherlands 131, 132, 133
NFPA 155, 168, 169, 170, 172
nitrogen oxide 19, 35, 36
noise 37
NoMac 1, 10, 11
North American Cogeneration 1
Index
P
Parallon 9, 12
peak shaving 62, 92
PG&E 46
photo voltaics 44
power quality 91, 94
Pratt & Whitney 1
precise power 97
R
recuperator 4, 6, 9, 20, 23, 52, 68, 69
regenerated electricity 59
regenerator 4, 5
Regional Energy Policy Advisory Council 45, 46
reliability in nines 42
resource recovery 58, 60, 61, 62, 88
Robin McKay 1, 9, 10, 97, 108
rotary flow compressor 19, 20
Rover 4
S
San Diego Gas & Electric 46, 86
SBCCI 160
Sempra Energy 46
siloxanes 15, 16, 50, 52, 55
South Alberta Institute Technology 120, 121, 122
Southern Cal Edison 11, 46
Southern California Gas Company 4
standby charges 45
Sumitomo Mining 134, 135, 136
T
thermal efficiency 47, 48, 85
Tokyo, Japan 125, 126, 127
Toyota 63, 81, 82, 108
tri-generation 55
Turbec 12, 63, 77, 78, 80, 81, 85, 96, 108, 208
U
UL 156, 163
UPS 29, 44
V
VAR 91
W
Waste water treatment 128, 129, 130
192