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Analysis Tale of Two Cities
Analysis Tale of Two Cities
Analysis Tale of Two Cities
1- Introduction
Theme and Rheme are two terms which represent the way in which
information is distributed in a sentence. The definition of theme given by
Halliday (1994:38) is that theme is given information serving as the
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Rheme
The lion
beat the unicorn all round the town.
All round the town
the lion beat the unicorn.
However, the unicorn
still did not want to bow to the lion.
Would the unicorn
give in to the lion.
When the lion got to the battle field the unicorn was ready for the battle.
The following extracts indicate the structures of themes and rhemes. The
shaded ones are the themes.
"It is enough, my husband," said Madame Defarge. "I have
seen them. We may go." (A Tale of Two Cities,P.272)
"It is a far, far better thing that I do,than I have ever
done, it is a far, far better rest that I go to than I have ever
known." (A Tale of Two Cities,P.382)
It was the rush and roar of rain that he typified, and it
stopped him, for no voice could be heard in it. A memorable
storm of thunder and lightning broke with that sweep of water,
and there was not a moment's interval in crash ,and fire, and rain,
until after the moon rose at midnight. (A Tale of Two Cities,
P.104)
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From the above division of themes and rhemes in the sentences, it' s
possible to see that theme is not equated with the subject of a sentence; nor
is rheme equated with the predicate. However, in the example given above,
two sentences e.g. in the first and fourth sentence, it happens that the Theme
The lion coincides with the grammatical subjects of the sentences. This
kind of theme Halliday (1994:45) calls Unmarked Theme. He states that
unmarked sentences typically have themes that coincide with subjects. On
the other hand, marked sentences often contain a theme that is different
from the subject containing preposed adverbial groups or prepositional
phrases, for example All around the town is a theme in sentence 2 above.
It is necessary that theme may be realized by a nominal group, verbal
group, adverbial group, prepositional phrase or a dependent clause. The
characteristic of these elements is that they appear first in a clause and
represent given information. All the rest of a clause is rheme representing
new information. That is to say, theme is functionally defined , not
positionally (ibid.: 38,56)1. Knowing where to place the theme-rheme
boundary in a more complex sentence requires a careful reading of the
sentence to understand the meaning a writer is communicating.
The initial place has an enormous importance in a clause. Whatever is
chosen to be in the first place will influence a readers interpretation of
everything that comes next. Accordingly, in cohesive writing, given
information in a clause presented in theme position, which acts like a
signpost signaling a reader where the meanings have come from and
where they are going to. The new information located in rheme position.
The balance and movement of a clause between theme and rheme is an
essential component in composing a cohesive text. If a writer fails to
control the flow of information from theme to rheme, his or her text is
difficult for a reader to follow, because there is no clear signpost
directing the reader, who therefore cannot easily follow the progression
of an idea or argument (see Downing, 2001).
The present study deals with patterns of thematic progression in
Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities (1859).Six chapters of Book The
First and ten chapters of Book The Second are chosen as the data of
analysis.
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2- Thematic progression
2.1 Definitions
R1
T2(=R1)
R2
T3 (=R2)
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R3
92 /
Even there are many models for thematic progression, but still F.
Danes is more usable than others2. Danes has claimed that the way in
which lexical strings and reference chains interact with theme is not
random. Rather, the patterns of interaction realize what he refers to as a
text's Thematic Progression (1974:113).Danes'(1974) proposal of four
main types of Thematic Progression constitutes a functional explanation
of the ordering of information in discourse. He claims that the
organization of information in texts is determined by the progression in
the ordering of utterance themes and their rhemes. His spelling out of the
relationship between successive themes and their rhemes would appear
to provide a more satisfactory account of 'the method of development'
of texts. Danes in his treatment of theme identifies it on the basis of the
semantic relations: identical wording (like personal pronouns),
synonymous expressions, paraphrase, and semantic inference. Whereas
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T1 (The littletown)
R1 (hid itself .)
T2 (The beach.)
T3 (the sea)
T4 (what it liked)
R4 (was
destruction)
From the rheme of the first clause (hid itself away from the beach) ,the
theme of the second clause ( The beach.) is derived or provided .The
same successive providing is repeated between the second clause and the
third.
ii- Constant Progression
The item in the theme of the first clause is also selected as the theme of
the following clause, as in:
Monseigneur ,one of the great lords in power at the court, held
his fortnightly reception in his grand hotel in Paris .Monseigneur
was in his inner room, his sanctuary of sanctuaries, the Holiest of
Holiests to the crowd of worshipping in the suite of rooms
without .Monseigneur was about to take his chocolate.
Monseigneur could swallow a great many things with ease, and
was by some few sullen mind suppose to be rather rapidly
swallowing France,. (Book First: Ch. 7:p. 104f)
T1 (Monseigneur)
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T2 (Monseigneur)
T3 (Monseigneur)
R3 (was about)
T4 (Monseigneur)
R4 (could swallow )
The successive sentences in the above example share the same theme
which is (Monseigneur).
He had been some few leagues behind Monseigneur, early in the
afternoon. He had diminished the distance rapidly, but not so
rapidly, as to come up with Monseigneur on the road. He had heard
of Monseigneur ,at the posting houses, as being before him.(Book
Second,Ch.9:P.121)
T1 (He)
R1 (had been )
T2 (He)
R2(had diminished)
T3(He)
R3 (had heard)
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R3
R2
R4
R5
T6(the guard )
R6
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T1
T2 ( = Ri )
T3 (= Rii)
R2
R3
T4 (=Riii)
R4
On this fine Sunday, Mr. Lorry walked towards Soho ,early in the
afternoon, for three reasons of habit. Firstly, because on fine
Sundays, he often walked out, before dinner , with the Doctor and
Luice; secondly, because on unfavourable Sundays, he was
accustomed to be with them at the family friend ,talking, reading,
looking out of windows, and generally getting through the day;
thirdly, because he happened to have his own little shrewd doubts to
solve.
(Book Second, Ch.6: P.92)
T1 (Mr. Lorry)
R2 (walked)
T3 ( = Rii)(secondlyhe)
R3 (was )
T4 ( = Riii) (thirdly..he)
R4(happened )
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Many linguists, including the researcher himself, believe that this type of
progression is a type of derived hyperrtheme progression, and the
diagram just above is somehow similar to that of derived themes. In the
present study splitting will be treated within derived themes, since some
specialists like Downing affirmed the fact of regarding it existent in
academic or scientific texts (Downing,2001; and Eggins,2004:Ch.3).
v- Progression Combination
In examining the other models stated in Abed (2007:Ch.3), there
are some deviations found on the first two types of thematic progression
in Danes' model. These led the researcher to propose these deviations as
a type named progression combination. Here, two types can be stated:
i- Linear- constant progression
Where the starting point is linear then the progression moves to be
constant. The following extracts are some examples:
There was a steaming mist in all the hollows .and it had roamed
in its forlornness up the hill, like an evil spirit, seeking rest and
finding none. A clammy and intensely cold mist, it made its slow way
through the air in ripples that visibly followed and overspread one
another, as the waves of an unwholesome sea might do. It was dense
enough to shut out everything from the light ..(Book
First,Ch.2:P.6f)
T1(There)
T2 (it)
R4 (was.)
87
R3(made its
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the children had ancient faces and grave voices; and upon them,
and upon the grown faces, and ploughed into every furrow of age
and coming up afresh, was the sign, Hunger. It was prevalent
everywhere. Hunger was pushed out of the tall houses, in the
wretched clothing that hung upon poles and lines; Hunger was
patched into them with straw and rag and wood and paper; Hunger
was repeated in every fragment of the small modicum of firewood
that the man sawed off; Hunger stared down from the smokeless
chimneys , and stared up from the filthy street that had no offal,
among in refuse, of anything to eat. Hunger was the inscription on
the baker's shelves... (Book First, Ch.5: P.30)
T1( the children)
T2 (it)
R2(was prevalent )
T3 (Hunger)
R3(was pushed )
T4 (Hunger)
R4 (was patched)
T5(Hunger)
R5(was repeated)
T6( Hunger)
R6(stared down )
T7(Hunger)
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R1(was sure)
R1(rode back )
R2(had eyes..)
R3(were afraid)
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T4 (if they)
T5(They)
R5(had a sinister
iii-Elliptic progression
In addition to the above patterns, it is found that theme progression is
sometimes blocked by the omission of the subject of the next sentence.
By close examination, many will be going-on progressions if elliptic
element is proposed. The two-ended arrow (
) is suggested by the
researcher himself as an elliptic connecting relationship, as in the
following:
"It's the wisest thing to expect , and the likeliest"
(Book Second, Ch. 3 :P78)
T1 ( It )
R1 (the wisest)
T2 ( it )
R2 (the likeliest)
T2 (The shoemaker)
T3(The shoemaker)
R3(looked at ..)
T4(the shoemaker)
R4(looked at..)
T5(the shoemaker)
R5(looked upward)
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Book
Ch
SimpleLinea
Constant
Total
LC
CL
Elliptic
First
17
2.85
First
First
First
First
First
Second
Second
Second
Second
Second
Second
Second
Second
Second
Second
Total
%
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
5
2
8
7
9
9
5
4
3
4
6
3
2
5
4
80
13.44
10
6
35
20
33
26
11
23
14
11
19
14
8
17
13
264
44.36
---2
1
2
1
-1
--1
----9
1.51
4
2
6
6
4
3
3
5
1
1
4
3
1
3
2
50
8.40
2
-3
5
3
-1
8
2
3
3
2
3
3
3
42
7.05
7
8
11
9
13
5
8
14
7
11
11
9
8
11
13
150
25.24
28
18
65
48
64
44
28
55
27
30
45
31
22
39
35
595
100
4.70
3.02
10.96
8.06
10.79
7.39
4.70
9.24
4.53
5.04
7.39
5.21
3.69
6.55
5.88
100
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Progression
No of Thematic
80
60
40
20
0
1
11
13
15
300
Progression
Number of Thematic
200
100
0
1
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This figure shows the differences of use among the types of thematic
progression. Here, splitting progression are left without marking since it
is regarded as a form of derved progression. It is added just to state that
there are seven types: four stated by Danes and three suggested by the
researcher. Also, it is clear how these types of progression can be
arranged according to their existence in the novel, where constant and
elliptic are the first and the second, respectively.
3.3 Discussion
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No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Key Words
Madame
Prisoner
Doctor
Spy
Mender
Citizen
Knit
The
Wine
Patriot
Prison
Chateau
Courtyard
Guillotine
Fountain
Gaoler
tribunal
Tumbrel
Freq
193
169
226
72
48
64
65
8,024
120
33
91
27
36
27
42
23
23
18
%
0.14
0.12
0.16
0.05
0.03
0.05
0.05
5.85
0.09
0.02
0.07
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
No
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
Key Words
Village
Bank
Husband
Jackal
Road
Father
Plane-tree
Shoemaker
flop
citizeness
Passenger
Emigrant
Jury
Business
Stone
Hill
Ladybird
Freq
52
65
99
15
106
197
15
18
15
13
45
23
32
134
74
42
12
%
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.01
0.08
0.14
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.10
0.05
0.03
0.01
Observation of the above table leads us to notice that the words used to
refer to characters are at the head of the list: for example, the word
"madame" for Madame Defarge; "doctor", "father", and "shoemaker" for
Doctor Manette; "prisoner", "emigrant", and "husband" for Dannay;
"ladybird" for Lucie; "spy" for Barsad; "mender" for one of the French
patriots; and "jackal" for Carton. Moreover, the words related to France
and French Revolution also show keyness, for example, "citizen",
"citizeness", "patriot", "republic", "guillotine", "tribunal", "tumbrel", and
so on. These repetitions helped Dickens to focus on constant progression.
Moreover, if the theme is a pronoun, so the other themes in a
thematic progression will be the repetition of the same theme. If a noun
(proper or common), the repetitive themes or rhemes will be either
unmarked or pronouns, as in the following extracts:
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R1(had made)
T2(nobody)
R1 (rose .)
R2( was .)
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R1((was already)
R2 (arranged..)
R3(was spread)
Two other passengers, besides the one, were plodding up hill by the
side of the mail. All three were wrapped to the cheekbones and over
the ears, and wore jack-boots. Not one of the three could have said,
from anything he saw, what either of the other two was like; and
each was hidden under almost as many wrappers from the eyes of
the mind, as from the eyes of the body, of his two companions.(Book
First,Ch.2:P.7)
T1(Two other .)
R1 (were plodding)
T2 (All three)
R2 (were wrapped..)
R4 (was like)
R5 ( was hidden )
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The young lady, to whom all eyes had been turned before, and were
now turned again , stood up where she had sat. Her father rose with
her, and kept her hand drawn through his arm. (Book Second,
Ch.3:P.71)
R1(stood up)
T2 (where she)
R2 (had sat)
T3 (Her father)
R3(rose )
T4 (her father)
The footsteps were incessant, and the hurry of them became more
and more rapid. The corner echoed and reechoed with the tread of
feet; some ,as it seemed under the windows; some as it seemed ,in the
room; some coming, some going, some breaking off, some stopping
altogether; all in the distant streets, and not one within sight. (Book
Second,Ch.6:P.103)
T1(The footsteps)
R1(were incessant)
R2(were more)
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T4 (some)
R4 (as it seemed )
T5(some)
T6 (some)
R6(coming)
T7(some)
R7( going )
T8(some
T9(some)
T10(all)
4- Conclusions
The main findings of the present study are:
1- Dickens adopted constant and elliptic progressions more than
other types. This is directly related to his fond of repetition.
2- Dickens' use of repletion as a stylistic device led him to adopt
identity or identical rewording with co-referentiality as the
dominant semantic (or connecting) relationship among the other
connecting relationships.
3- Dickens used constant and elliptic progressions in description of
his characters, period, time, the two cities (Paris and London),
whereas elliptic progression in recitation of episodes . This gives
the language of Dickens its simplicity.
4- In constant progression, the use of pronouns as themes is more
than that of marked themes.
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Notes
1- This is the theme definition or domain to be adopted in the present
study.
2- There are different approaches to thematic progression, namely,
Danes (1974), Fries (1983), Scinto (1983), Dubois (1987), and others.
All these models are cited in Abed (2007: 31-45).The researcher , like
many others as Downing (2001) and Abed(2007) ,prefers to choose
Danes' model as an approach for the present study because all abovementioned approached tried to reformulate Danes' classification of
thematic progression, by either increasing or decreasing thesis
classification keeping Danes' as the core.
3- In the analysis, both derived and splitting progressions are regarded
one. The splitting progression is mentioned in the table and accompanied
figures just to state that Danes has such type of progression.
References
Abed,Ali,Q.(2007) "Thematic Progression in Selected Short Stories of
Ernest Hemingway". Unpublished M.A. Thesis. Baghdad:
Al-Mustansiriyah University.
Baker,M.,Francis,G. &Tognini-Bonelli,E.(eds.)(1993) Text and
Technology. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Brook,G.l.(1970) The Language of Dickens. London: Andre Deutsch.
Danes,F. (1974)"Functional sentence perspective and the organization
of the text",in Danes,F.(ed.) On Subject and Theme.Pp.10824.
------------- (1974) On Subject and Theme. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins.
Dickens, C.(1989) A Tale of Two Cities .New York: Bantam Dell.
Downing, A.(2001) "Thematic progression as a functional resource in
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