Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Perspectives On Activity Theory
Perspectives On Activity Theory
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Learning in doing:
Social, cognitive, and computational perspectives
General Editors
ROY P E A , SRI International, Center for Technology in Learning
J O H N S E E L Y B R O W N , Xerox Palo Alto Research Center
J A N H A W K I N S , Center for Children and Technology, New York
Computation and Human Experience
PHILIP E. AGRE
The Computer as Medium
PETER BOGH ANDERSEN, BERIT HOLMQVIST, and JENS F. JENSEN (eds.)
Understanding Practice: Perspectives on Activity and Context
SETH CHAIKLIN and JEAN LAVE (eds.)
Situated Cognition: On Human Knowledge and Computer Representations
WILLIAM J. CLANCEY
Cognition and Tool Use: The Blacksmith at Work
CHARLES M. KELLER and JANET DIXON KELLER
Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation
JEAN LAVE and ETIENNE WENGER
Sociocultural Psychology: Theory and Practice of Doing and Knowing
LAURA M. W. MARTIN, KATHERINE NELSON, and ETHEL TOBACH (eds.)
The Construction Zone: Working for Cognitive Change in School
DENIS NEWMAN, PEG GRIFFIN, and MICHAEL COLE
Street Mathematics and School Mathematics
TEREZINHA NUNES, DAVID WILLIAM CARRAHER, and
ANALUCIA DIAS SCHLIEMANN
Distributed Cognitions: Psychological and Educational Considerations
GAVRIEL SALOMON (ed.)
Learning in Likely Places: Varieties of Apprenticeship in Japan
JOHN SINGLETON (ed.)
Plans and Situated Actions:
The Problem of HumanMachine Communication
LUCY A. SUCHMAN
Mind and Social Practice: Selected Writings by Sylvia Scribner
ETHEL TOBACH, RACHEL JOFFEE FALMAGNE, MARY B. PARLEE,
LAURA M. W. MARTIN, and AGGIE KAPELMAN (eds.)
Sociocultural Studies of Mind
JAMES V. WERTSCH, PABLO DEL RIO, and AMELIA ALVAREZ (eds.)
Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity
ETIENNE WENGER
Perspectives on
activity theory
Edited by
YRJO E N G E S T R O M
REIJOMIETTINEN
RAIJA-LEENA PUNAMAKI
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Contents
List of contributors
Series foreword
page x
xiii
System A M S - T E X
[FH]
Introduction
Yrjo Engestrom and Reijo Miettinen
Part I
Theoretical issues
19
39
53
65
70
87
107
H->
133
Contents
10
11
12
13
Contents
22
165
23
183
24
206
25
15
17
18
19
20
231
26
250
264
282
298
314
325
347
360
377
Part V
14
16
21
Part III
Part IV
147
IX
407
419
435
Author index
Subject index
445
452
Contributors
xi
Contributors
Series foreword
Xlll
Introduction
Yrjd Engestrom and Reijo Miettinen
the readers. To this day, its rich texture remains a well-kept secret to the
Western scientific community.
Although we cannot claim to offer a complete overview, we at least
want to pull aside the curtain of secrecy that has covered much of activity
theory. This volume is the first attempt to present a somewhat balanced
variety of the theoretical views and practical applications of activity the
ory currently developed by researchers in different parts of the world.
In 1986, the First International Congress for Research on Activity The
ory was organized in Berlin. In 1987, an international scientific society
for research based on activity theory (ISCRAT) was founded. In 1990,
the Second International Congress for Research on Activity Theory was
held in Lahti, Finland. The third congress was held in Moscow in 1995.
The chapters in this volume originate mainly from selected contributions
to the second congress. These chapters are authored by scholars from 10
countries.
In the post-World War II decades, activity theory was mostly developed within the psychology ofj^aj^learmng, cognition, ang^cJuld-iieveL
opment. It was applied in research on language acquisition and experi
mental development of instruction, mainly in the context of schools and
other educational institutions. Although these domains continue to be
central, activity-theoretical research has become broader in the 1980s and
1990s. It now encompasses such topics as development of work activities,
implementation of new cultural tools such as computer technologies, and
issues of therapy.
It is important to point out the nondogmatic nature of the current phase
of discussion and collaboration in activity theory. A prominent feature of
the chapters in this book is their multifaceted search for connections and
hybrids between activity theory and other related traditions. Examples
include Stephen Toulmin discussing the relationship between Vygotsky
and Wittgenstein (Chapter 3), MjcjraeiJIole Jiscu^s|ngjhe relationship
between activity theory and cultural psychology (Chapter 6), Ethel Tobach discussing the relationship between activity theory and the theory
of integrative levels (Chapter 9), Fi^^escF3oJo_C^ucci discussing the
relationship between Leont'ev and Gramsci (Chapter 10), and Anthony
Ryle discussing the relationship between psycEbanalytic object relations.
theory and activity theory (Chapter 24) - to name just a few. Such par
allels andTiytrrids make the implications and potentials of activity theory
more accessible in multiple fields of research and practice without com
promising the search for and elaboration of a common conceptual and
methodological core?
Introduction
The first is the use and making of tools. "Labour," Engels said, "begins with the making
of tools."
The second feature of the labour process is that it is performed in conditions of joint,
collective activity, so that man functions in this process not only in a certain relationship
with nature but also to other people, members of a given society. Only through a relation
with other people does man relate to nature itself, which means that labour appears from
the very beginning as a process mediated by tools (in the broad sense) and at the same
time mediated socially. (Leont'ev, 1981, p. 208)
This distinction between activity and action became the basis of Leont'ev's thr-ee-levet mocfeTof aetmtyTT he~uppermostTevel of collective ac
tivity is driven by an object-related motive; the middle level of individual
(or group) action is driven by a goal; and the bottom level of automatic
operations is driven by the conditions and tools of action at hand.
It has become commonplace to omit Marx as an essential theoretical
source from discussions of activity theory, in particular in assessments
of Vygotsky's work. This omission occurs largely for political and ideo
logical reasons. However, the appropriation and creative development
Introduction
Most of the works of Marx developed the idea of alienated labor, work
under the specific circumstances of capitalism. The idea of total subjnajssion of concrete work to abstract work and production of surplus yalufi,
combined with a weak empirical analysis of the creation and uses of tech
nologies, makes much of his analysis of the effects of labor on humans
a somewhat abstract and exaggerated history of ever-increasing misery
and exploitation. That is also why the creative and dynamic potential of
concrete worLprocess and technologies remains, underdeveloped in his, .
work. This dilemma is unfortunately repeated in much of the modern
Marxist literature on work (e.g., Braverman, 1974).
However, Marx's analysis of capitalism includes invaluable analytical
instruments, above all the rancepXofjiQnjjriodity as a contradictory unity
of use value and exchange value. This dialectical concept is crucial for
any serious analysis of the contradictory motives of human activities and
human psyche in capitalist society. As Leont'ev (1981, p. 255) put it, "to
ignore these peculiarities and remove them from the context of psycho
logical research is to deprive psychology of historical concreteness, con
verting it into a science solely of the psyche of an abstract man, of 'man
in general'."
Many of the ideas of pragmatism have common features with activity
theory. The program of "transcending the dualisms" between thought
and activity, theory and practice, facts and values has much in common
with the theoretical aims of activity theory. John Dewey and George Her
bert Mead developed conceptions of action, of practice, and at times even
These ideas are fully viable from the point of view of current epistemological debates in social sciences. They also have a family relationship
to Leont'ev's ideas of object and motive construction as central mecha
nisms of transformation of activity.
Thus, the object of activity is twofold: first, in its independent existence as subordinating
to itself and transforming the activity of the subject; second, as an image of the object, as
a product of its property of psychological reflection that is realized as an activity of the
subject and cannot exist otherwise. (Leont'ev, 1978, p. 52)
Introduction
Introduction
through which the order of space and time has been reshuffled. To be human requires
sharing with nonhumans. (Latour, 1994, p. 51)
10
Introduction
11
of reification). But it is not product of the latter (the error of voluntarism). (Bhaskar,
1989, p. xx)
y " g r i g 3 r d P t h f r r i i l f j i r ^ ai^ifW-tc
" "*\
/
( ^
\
12
Introduction
13
should self-consciously examine and exploit this history, they also need
to face the exciting new challenges and opportunities for collaboration.
Structure and contents of the book
In Part I of this volume, central theoretical issues of activity
theory are discussed from multiple points of view. In Chapter 1, Yrjo
Engestrom identifies six conceptual dilemmas facing activity theory and
suggests ways to tackle those dilemmas based on the idea of mediation
as the "germ cell" of the activity approach. In Chapter 2, Vassily Davydov, a leading contemporary Russian activity theorist, continues with the
same theme, identifying central priciples of activity theory and challeng
ing problems facing it.
In Chapter 3, Stephen Toulmin takes up the theory of knowledge in
herent in activity theory. He compares the epistemological ideas of Vygotsky and Wittgenstein, finding rather surprising commonalities between
them. In Chapter 4, Vladimir Lektorsky continues the epistemological
theme, outlining a dialogical rationality as the basis of activity theory in
the postcold war era.
In Chapter 5, Charles Tolman takes up the notion of context and the
specific form of contextualism represented by activity theory. In Chap
ter 6, Michael Cole introduces the dimension of culture into the discourse
of activity theory. He weaves together methodological principles of the
cultural-historical tradition and current methodological concerns of in
terventionist research involving participants in different social systems
and activity settings trying to coordinate and communicate with each
other. In Chapter 7, Antti Eskola continues the methodological theme,
arguing for a reconceptualization of the meaning of lawfulness and free
dom in research based on activity theory.
In Chapter 8, Yrjo-Paavo Hayrynen employs concepts from activity
theory, life-span developmental psychology, and Bourdieu's sociology in
an analysis of psychological change associated with the transformation
of Europe after the fall of the socialist regimes. In Chapter 9, Ethel Tobach focuses on the relationship between biological and cultural factors
in activity, discussing in particular the complementary conceptual frame
works of activity theory and Schneirla's theory of integrative levels of
evolution. In Chapter 10, Francesco Paolo Colucci discusses Antonio
Gramsci's ideas of common sense, relating them to Leont'ev's concepts
of sense and meaning.
14
Introduction
15
References
Bakhtin, M. M. (1982). The dialogic imagination. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Bhaskar, R. (1989). Reclaiming reality. A critical introduction to contemporary philosophy.
London: Verso.
Bhattacharya, N. (1978). Psychology and rationality: The structure of Mead's problem.
The Philosophical Forum, 10(1), 112-138.
Bijker, W. E., Hughes, T. P., & Pinch, T. (Eds.). (1987). The social construction oftechnological systems: New directions in the sociology and history of technology. Cambridge,
MA: M I T Press.
Braverman, H. (1974). Labor and monopoly capital. New York: Monthly Review Press.
Burke, K. (1962). A grammar of motives. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Chaiklin, S., & Lave, J. (Eds.). (1993). Understanding practice: Perspectives on activity and
context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cole, M., & Engestrom, Y. (1993). A cultural-historical approach to distributed cogni
tion. In G. Salomon (Ed.), Distributed cognitions: Psychological and educational
considerations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dewey, J. (1916). Essays on experimental logic. New York: Dover.
Dewey, J. (1922). Human nature and conduct: An introduction to social psychology. London:
George Allen & Unwin.
Engestrom, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding. An activity-theoretical approach to develop
mental research. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit.
Freeman, C. (1994). T h e economics of technical change. Cambridge Journal of Economics,
18, 463-514.
Fujimura, J. (1992). Crafting science: Standardized packages, boundary objects, and
"translations." In A. Pickering (Ed.), Science as practice and culture. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Henderson, K. (1991). Flexible sketches and inflexible data bases - visual communica
tion, conscription devices, and boundary objects in design engineering. Science,
Technology and Human Values, 16(4), 448-273.
Hickman, L. A. (1990). John Dewey's pragmatic technology. Bloomington: Indiana Uni
versity Press.
Latour, B. (1994) We have never been modern. Hertfordshire: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cam
bridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lektorsky,V. A. (Ed.). (1990). Activity: Theories, methodology and problems. Orlando: Paul
M. Deutsch Press.
16
Parti
Theoretical issues
Introduction
The internationalization of activity theory in the 1980s and 1990s
has taken place in the midst of sweeping changes in the political and eco
nomic systems of our planet. During a few months, the Berlin Wall came
down and Nelson Mandela was freed from prison. Those were only two
among the visible symbols of the transformations that continue to amaze
the most sophisticated observers.
Many of the current changes share two fundamental features. First,
they are manifestations of activities from below, not just outcomes of tra
ditional maneuvering among the elite of political decision makers. Sec
ond, they are unexpected or at least very sudden and rapidly escalat
ing. These two features pose a serious challenge to behavioral and social
sciences.
<^~\
The behavioral and social sciences have cherished a division of labor
/
that separates the study of socioeconomic structures from the study of in
dividual behavior and human agency. In this traditional framework, the /
socioeconomic structures look stable, all-powerful, and self-sufficient. iv
The individual may be seen as ariacting subject. wiHiJbaxns_ajid_deyel\
ops, but somehow the actions of the individual do not seem to have any J
impact on the surrounding structures.
This traditional dualistTcTramework does not help us to understand
today's deep social transformations. More-lhau sa&x before, there isLa
need for an approach that can dialectically link the individual and the so
cial structure. From its very beginnings, the cultural-historical theory of
activity has been elaborated with this task in mind.
Activity theory: What kind of theory?
Activity theory has its threefold historical origins in classical
German philosophy (from Kant to Hegel), in the writings of Marx and
19
20
Yrjd Engestrdm
Engels, and in the Soviet Russian cultural-historical psychology of Vygotsky, Leont'ev, and Luria. Today activity theory is transcending its own
origins: It is becoming truly international and multidisciplinary. This
process entails the discovery of new and old related approaches, discus
sion partners, and allies, from American pragmatism and Wittgenstein to
ethnomethodology and theories of self-organizing systems.
This expansion is not unproblematic. Some may fear that activity the
ory will turn into an eclectic combination of ideas before it has a chance
to redefine its own core. Although I realize that such a possibility exists,
I anticipate that the current expansive reconstruction of activity theory
will actually lead to a new type of theory. Essential to this emerging the
ory is multivoicedness coexisting with monism. This may sound like a
contradiction, and that is exactly what it is.
In dialectical philosophy, monism is understood as a principle accord
ing to which it is possible to develop any whole theory and its multiple
concepts consistently on the basis of one initial idea or cell (see Davydov, 1990). If such monism is combined with the standard realistic notion
of theory, the whole endeavor will easily lead to single-minded elabora
tion of a closed, artificially static system of logically interlocking concepts
(Jensen, 1989).
If anything, the current societal transformations should teach us that
closed systems of thought do not work. But monism does not have to be
interpreted that way. Human activity is endlessly multifaceted, mobile,
and rich in variations of content and form. It is perfectly understand
able and probably necessary that the theory of activity should reflect that
richness and mobility. Such a multivoiced theory should not regard in
ternal contradictions and debates as signs of weakness; rather, they are
an essential feature of the theory. However, this requires at least a shared
understanding of the character of the initial cell and a continuous collec
tive attempt to elucidate that cell, as well as the multiple mediating steps
from the cell to specific concepts.
Can activity theory develop as such a self-organizing system of interact
ing subjects? Obviously we are here dealing with a tension between two
forces, or directions of development. One force pulls researchers toward
individual applications and separate variations of certain general, often
vague ideas. The other force pulls researchers toward learning from each
other, questioning and contesting each other's ideas and applications,
making explicit claims about the theoretical core of the activity approach.
The key issue seems to be: Can we have sufficient shared understanding
of the idea of activity to make it the cell of an evolving multivoiced activitv theorv?
21
In the following sections, I discuss six themes that may help us narrow
down and define key dimensions of the very idea of activity. These themes
emerged as I went through a number of recent publications containing
critical debates on the concept of activity. The publications range from
the materials of the First International Congress on Activity Theory
(Hildebrand-Nilshon & Ruckriem, 1988) and subsequent articles pub
lished in the Multidisciplinary Newsletter for Activity Theory and also as
translations in the journal Soviet Psychology (now Russian and East Eu
ropean Psychology), to recent edited collections published in Denmark
(Hedegaard, Hansen, & Thyssen, 1989), Germany (Holodynski & Jantzen 1989), and Russia (Lektorsky, 1990), and to contributions that have
appeared in an ongoing international electronic mail discussion on activ
ity theory, coordinated by the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cog
nition in San Diego. I present each theme in the form of a dichotomy or
two opposing standpoints. That is the form that often emerges in heated
discussions.
After identifying the themes of debate, I try to delineate ways to over
come and transcend those dichotomies - possible elements toward a dy
namically evolving cell concept of activity.
Dichotomies
/. Psychic process versus object-related activity
One of the basic issues concerning activity theory is the relation
ship between activeness (as opposed to passivity) as a general description
of animal and human forms of life and the more specific idea of activity
as an object-oriented and cultural formation that has its own structure.
It has been argued that the English term activity is unable to carry the
deeper philosophical meaning of the original German concept of Tdtigkeit
(Schurig, 1988).
With due respect to original philosophical terms, I cannot see how
insistence on a term could prevent conceptual blurring. Actually there
seems to exist a widespread awareness of the fundamental difference be
tween activeness and activity. But there is a theoretically much more inter
esting disagreement that concerns the relationship between object-related
activity and psychic process. This distinction stems from the theoretical
tradition of S. L. Rubinstein and is championed today by A. V. Brushlin
sky, among others.
Brushlinsky (1990; see also Brushlinsky, 1987) argues that the psyche
acts objectively first and foremost as a process, always uninterrupted, live,
22
Yrjii Engestrom
23
24
Yrjo Engestrom
suppressed in this version of activity theory. There are at least two ver
sions of essentially the same criticism. One version (e.g., Kozulin, 1984;
Valsiner, 1988) portrays Leont'ev's work as a suppression of the origi
nal Vygotskian idea of semiotic mediation. Another version (e.g., Lomov,
1980) accuses activity theory of attempting to subsume everything un
der one concept and presents communication as the parallel or alternative
fundamental idea of psychology.
These criticisms lead to a twofold opposition. First, mediation by signs
is opposed to mediation by tools. Second, subject-subject relations are
opposed to subject-object relations. At a more general level, we may
identify a third opposition, namely, that between expressive or commu
nicative action and instrumental or productive activity. This latter oppo
sition figures prominently in the work of Habermas (1984), for example.
A careful reading of Leont'ev's work reveals that both mediation by
signs and subject-subject relations do play an important role in his the
ory. Proponents of the cultural-historical school repeatedly point out
that communication is an inherent aspect of all object-related activities.
Leont'ev's (1981, pp. 219220) account of the emergence of speech and
language emphasizes the original unity of labor actions and social inter
course. And in his famous study of the emergence of consciousness in
deaf and blind children, Meshcheryakov (1979) puts such a strong em
phasis on this unity that he chooses to call his unit of analysis shared
object action.
It is somewhat ironic that at the same time that the concept of objectrelated activity is criticized by some psychologists and philosophers for
neglect of sign mediation, language, and communication, some promi
nent linguists are finding the same concept of activity increasingly attrac
tive as a means of conceptualizing the interface between the sociocultural
and linguistic realms. The following quotation from Elinor Ochs is a case
in point.
First, language activities are at the same time linguistic and sociocultural phenomena.
They are structured by linguistic and sociocultural principles. Second, the sociocultural
contexts that language activities engender or reflect become part of the pragmatic or social
meaning of particular linguistic structures carrying out these tasks. This idea is rooted in
the work of Vygotsky (1962; 1978), Leontyev (1981), and Wittgenstein (1958). Drawing on
Marx, Leontyev used the notion of "objectivization," that objects (and hence words) take
their meanings from the variety of activities in which they participate. (Ochs, 1988, p. 17)
of
26
Yrjo Engestrom
seriously analyzing the historical development that has led to those dif
ferences. The underlying relativistic notion is that we should not make
value judgments concerning whose cognition is better or more advanced that all kinds of thinking and practice are equally valuable. Although this
liberal stance may be a comfortable basis for academic discourse, it ig
nores the reality that in all domains of societal practice value judgments
and decisions have to be made every day. People have to decide where
they want to go, which way is up. If behavioral and social sciences want
to avoid that issue, they will be unable to work out useful yet theoret
ically ambitious intellectual tools for practitioners making those crucial
decisions.
The less obvious reason for the neglect of history has to do with the
point I mentioned earlier, namely, the underdevelopment of models of
the structure of an activity system. Historical analyses must be focused
on units of manageable size. If the unit is the individual or the individu
ally constructed situation, history is reduced to ontogeny or biography. If
the unit is the culture or the society, history becomes very general or end
lessly complex. If a collective activity system is taken as the unit, history
may become manageable, and yet it steps beyond the confines of individ
ual biography.
5. Internalization versus creation and externalization
Both in the East and in the West, it has been almost a truism
that internalization is the key psychological mechanism discovered by
the cultural-historical school. When internalization is, in turn, reduced
to children's learning of skills and knowledge in interaction with adults
and more experienced peers, we get a version of Vygotskian research that
looks very much like social learning theory flavored with fashionable ter
minology. Symptomatically, Vygotsky's writings that deal with creation
and externalization, especially The Psychology of Art (1971), have received
very little attention. And it seems to be all but forgotten that the early
studies led by Vygotsky, Leont'ev, and Luria not only examined the role
of given artifacts as mediators of cognition but were also interested in how
children created artifacts of their own in order to facilitate their perfor
mance (see Luria, 1979).
In a Russian collection on the concept of activity edited by Lektorsky
(1990), this emphasis was suddenly almost turned around. Nearly all au
thors emphasized that the most important aspect of human activity is
its creativity and its ability to exceed or transcend given constraints and
27
Here we are dealing with the heavy ballast of the "grand theories" type
of thinking and writing, often attributed to activity theory by its critics.
However, a look at the works of Vygotsky, Leont'ev, and Luria reveals that
these scholars were primarily and consistently interested in real human
28
Yrjo Engestrom
29
lifeline throughout the works of Vygotsky, Leont'ev, Luria, and the other
important representatives of the Soviet cultural-historical school, mak
ing attempts to prove "theoretical oppositions" between these scholars
look more like trickery than serious and original analysis.
Mediation by tools and signs is not merely a psychological idea. It is
an idea that breaks down the Cartesian walls that isolate the individual
mind from the culture and the society.
This expansive potential is evident if we look at the notion of con
trol. The traditional division between social sciences and psychology has
created the still prevalent dichotomous notion according to which hu
mans are controlled either from the outside by society or from the inside
by themselves. In the former case, the possibility of human agency and
transformation of social structures from below becomes an unexplained
mystery. In the latter case, the origins of individual self-determination
are attributed to the equally mysterious sources of biological urges or in
herent free will. When Vygotsky formulated his idea of mediation, he
was very conscious of the revolutionary implications concerning control.
Calling the mediating artifact auxiliary stimulus, he wrote:
Because this auxiliary stimulus possesses the specific function of reverse action, it trans
fers the psychological operation to higher and qualitatively new forms and permits the
humans, by the aid of extrinsic stimuli, to control their behaviorfrom the outside. (Vygotsky,
1978, p. 40; italics in the original)
The idea is that humans can control their own behavior - not "from
the inside," on the basis of biological urges, but "from the outside," using
and creating artifacts. This perspective is not only optimistic concerning
human self-determination, it is an invitation to serious study of artifacts
as integral and inseparable components of human functioning. As Marx
Wartofsky (1979, p. 205) put it, "the artifact is to cultural evolution what
the gene is to biological evolution." It is no accident that some of the
most creative researchers in cognitive science - Donald Norman and Ed
Hutchins, for example - are today focusing their research on the role of
artifacts in cognition (see Norman, 1988; Hutchins, 1990). Activity the
ory has the conceptual and methodological potential to be a pathbreaker
in studies that help humans gain control over their own artifacts and thus
over their future.
Modeling the activity system
I am convinced that in order to transcend the oppositions between
activity and process, activity and action, and activity and communication,
30
Yrjo Engestrom
Mediating Artifacts:
Works of Vygotsky, Luria, Leont'ev, etc.
Congress and newsletter
Mediating Artifacts:
Literature
Subject:
Me
Object:
^ Central issues of
Activity Theory
Subject:
Outcome:
Text
Object:
*^ Consciousness of the
central issues among
congress participants
Group of scholars
organizing 'ISCRA1
Rules:
Conventions of
scientific collaboration,
statutes of 'ISCRAT'
Mediating Artifacts:
Written and spoken text
Subject:
Me
31
Outcome:
Debate, reflection
Object:
_^.
Central issues of
/ * \ * A c t i v i t y Theory
Community:
Colleagues inspired
by Activity Theory
worldwide
Outcome:
New intellectual tools
and patterns of
collaboration
Division of Labor
Compartmentalization
based on disciplines,
nationalities, languages,
'schools'
32
Yrjo Engestrom
34
Yrjo Engestrom
35
EXTERNALIZATION
INTERNALIZATION
36
Yrjo Engestrom
37
M (1988). Cross-cultural research in the socio-historical tradition. In M. Hildebrand-Nilshon & G. Rtickriem (Eds.), Activity theory: A look into a multidiscMinary research area. Proceedings of the 1st International Congress on Activity
Theory (Vol. 1). West Berlin: System Druck.
r 1 M & Griffin, P. (1980). Cultural amplifiers reconsidered. In D. R. Olson (Ed.),
The social foundations of language and thought. New York: Norton.
Cranach M. (1988). Panel discussion "Activity - Action - Operation." In M.
Hildebrand-Nilshon & G. Ruckriem (Eds.), Activity theory in movement - dis
cussions and controversies. Proceedings of the 1st International Congress on Activity
Theory (Vol. 4.1). West Berlin: System Druck.
on Cranach M., & Harre, R. (Eds.). (1982). The analysis of action: Recent theoretical and
empirical advances. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Davydov, V. V. (1990). Problems of activity as a mode of human existence and the prin
ciple of monism. In V. A. Lektorsky (Ed.), Activity: Theories, methodology and
problems. Orlando: Paul M. Deutsch Press.
Engestrom Y. (1987). Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to develop
mental research. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit.
Engestrom, Y (1990). Learning, working and imagining: Twelve studies in activity theory.
Helsiniki: Orienta-Konsultit.
Fielding, N. G. (Ed.). (1988). Actions and structure: Research methods and social theory.
London: Sage.
Frese, M., & Sabini, J. (Eds.). (1985). Goal-directed behavior: The concept of action in psy
chology. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Giddens, A. (1984). The constitution of society: Outline of the theory ofstructuration. Berke
ley: University of California Press.
Ginsburg, G. P., Brenner, M., & von Cranach, M. (Eds.). (1985). Discovery strategies in
the psychology of action. London: Academic Press.
Gould, S. J. (1987). Time's arrow; time's cycle: Myth and metaphor in the discovery of geo
graphical time. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Habermas, J. (1984). Reason and the rationalization of society: Vol. 1. Theory of commu
nicative action. Boston: Beacon Press.
Hacker, W., Volpert, W., & von Cranach, M. (Eds.). (1982). Cognitive and motivational
aspects of action. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Hedegaard, M., Hansen, V. R., & Thyssen, S. (Eds.). (1989). Et virksomt liv: Udforskning
afvirksomhedsteorienspraksis. Aarhus: Aarhus Universitetsforlag.
Hildebrand-Nilshon, M., & Ruckriem, G. (Eds.). (1988). Proceedings of the 1st Interna
tional Congress on Activity Theory (Vols. 1-4). West Berlin: System Druck.
Holodynski, M., & Jantzen, W (Eds.). (1989). Personlicher Sinn als gesellschaftliches Prob
lem. Studien zur Tdtigkeitstheorie 5. Bielefeld: Universitat Bielefeld.
Hutchins, E. (1990). The technology of team navigation. In J. Galegher, R. E. Kraut,
& C. Egido (Eds.), Intellectual teamwork: Social and technological foundations of
cooperative work. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
H'enkov, E. V. (1982). The dialectics of the abstract and the concrete in Marx's Capital.
Moscow: Progress.
Jensen, U. J. (1989). Den kulturhistoriske psykologi. Ideologisk metafysik eller objectiv
teori? In M. Hedegaard, V. R. Hansen, & S. Thyssen (Eds.), Et virksomt liv:
Udforskning afvirksomhedsteorienspraksis. Aarhus: Aarhus Universitesforlag.
38
Yrjo Engestrom
John-Steiner, V. (1985). Notebooks of the mind: Explorations of thinking. New York: Harper
&Row.
Kozulin, A. (1984). Psychology in Utopia: Toward a social history of Soviet psychology. Cam
bridge, MA: M I T Press.
Lektorsky, V. A. (1990). By way of conclusion. In V. A. Lektorsky (Ed.), Activity: Theo
ries, methodology and problems. Orlando: Paul M. Deutsch Press.
Lektorsky, V. A. (Ed.) (1990). Activity: Theories, methodology and problems. Orlando: Paul
M. Deutsch Press.
Leont'ev, A. N. (1978). Activity, consciousness, and personality. Englewood Cliffs: PrenticeHall.
Leontyev, A. N. (1981). Problems of the development of the mind. Moscow: Progress.
Lomov, B. F. (1980). Die Kategorien Kommunikation und Tatigkeit in der Psychologic
Sowjetwissenschaft/Gesellschaftswissenschaftliche Beitrdge, 33, 536551.
Luria, A. R. (1976). Cognitive development: Its cultural and social foundations. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
Luria, A. R. (1979). The making of mind: A personal account of Soviet psychology. Cam
bridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Norman, D. A. (1988). The psychology of everyday things. New York: Basic Books.
Ochs, E. (1988). Culture and language development: Language acquisition and language so
cialization in a Samoan village. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Prigogine, I., & Stengers, I. (1984). Order out of chaos: Man's new dialogue with nature.
London: Fontana.
Schurig, V. (1988). "Tatigkeit" or "activity"? T h e limits of translating key psychological
concepts into other languages. Multidisciplinary Newsletter for Activity Theory,
1, 3-5.
Scribner, S. (1985). Vygotsky's uses of history. I n J . V. Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, communi
cation, and cognition: Vygotskian perspectives. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Shchedrovitskii, G. P. (1988). Basic principles of analyzing instruction and development
from the perspective of the theory of activity. Soviet Psychology, XXVI(A): 5 41.
Suchman, L. A. (1987). Plans and situated actions: The problem of humanmachine commu
nication. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tikhomirov, O. K. (1988). The psychology of thinking. Moscow: Progress.
Valsiner, J. (1988). Developmental psychology in the Soviet Union. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: M I T Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1971). The psychology of art. Cambridge, MA: M I T Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wartofsky, M. (1979). Models: Representation and scientific understanding. Dordrecht: Reidel.
Wittgenstein, L. (1958). Philosophical investigations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Yudin, E. G. (1978). Sistemnyipodhod iprintsip deyatel'nosti. Moscow: IPL.
Zerubavel, E. (1979). Patterns of time in hospital life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Zerubavel, E. (1981). Hidden rhythms: Schedules and calendars in social life. Chicago: Uni
versity of Chicago Press.
Introduction
All the humanities have for their subjects different aspects of
human activity. At present they have to face a great number of acute un
solved problems. But before stating those problems and looking for ways
to solve them, it is important to explain the basic concept of activity as
formulated by the followers of activity theory.
Activity is ajspecific form of the societal existence of humans consist
ing of purposeful changing of natural and sociajreality. In contrast to the
laws of nature, societal Jaws manifest themselves only through human ac
tivity that constructs new forms and features of reality, thus turning the
initial material into products. Any activity carried out by a subject in
cludes goals, means, the process of molding the object, and the results.
In fulfilling the activity, the subjects also change and develop themselves.
The goals of activity manifest themselves as images of the foreseen re
sult of the creative effort. The transforming^and purposeful character of
activity allows the subject to step beyond the frames of a given situation
and to see it in a wider historical and societal context. It makes it possible
for the subject to find means that go beyond the given possibilities. Activ
ity permanently and limitlessly overcomes all the "programs" on which
n is based. That is why it cannot be limited to changing reality according
to the stable cultural norms. Activity is, in principle, open and universal;
it should be taken as the form of historical and cultural creativity. The
formation of human activity is also the beginning of personality.
~~~'
Notions of activity were elaborated by important idealist philosophers
su
ch as Kant, Fichte, and Hegel. The basis of a dialectical-materialist
concept of activity was created by Marx, whose works drew on the
achievements of classical German philosophy. The concept of activity
formulated by Marx remains significant today. Here I review its content,
taking into account that Marx's philosophical and sociological concepts
39
40
Vassily V. Davydov
should be kept separate from his more specific economic and politi-,
cal views.
Basic contents of the concept of activity
In describing general characteristics of human labor, Marx de- ;
picts it, first, as human activity that changes nature. Human activity uses
features of one natural object as tools for acting on other objects, thus!
turning the former into an organ of activity. Exerting influence on na-*
ture, human beings change their own nature at the same time (Marx &?
Engels, 1960, Vol. 23, p. 188). According to Marx, "labor is positive ere-1
ative activity" (Marx & Engels, 1968, Vol. 46, Part II, p. 113) fulfilled
within definite societal relations. In contrast to the one-sided production .
carried out by animals, the human being produces universally, recon
structs nature, and produces according to the measures of any kind and
everywhere (Marx & Engels, 1974, Vol. 42, pp. 93-94).
In the framework of materialist dialectics, the notion of activity is an
initial abstraction. Its concretization makes it possible to produce a gen
eral theory of development of social existence and its specific aspects. ;
The initial form of activity is the production of material tools that help
people produce objects satisfying their vital needs. Material production,
or labor, has a universal character because it can produce any tools and
objects. Such production is achieved in definite social relations. In the
course of historical development of material production and social rela
tions, spiritual production appeared and became relatively independent.
But even in this sphere of labor, one can find the main properties of ma
terial production: its universal, transforming, and social character.
The process of material and spiritual activity is closely connected to
people's ideal images that make it possible to foresee the product. Marx
pointed out that "at the end of the process of labor one gets the result
that existed in the notion, i.e., ideally" (Marx & Engels, 1960, Vol. 23,
p. 189). Besides, if "production produces the object of consumption in
its external form,.. . consumption considers the object in an ideal form, ,
as an internal image, as a need, as an attraction and as a goal" (Marx &
Engels, 1968, Vol. 46, Part I, p. 28).
Human notions considered as internal images, need and goal, different;
as they seem to be, can be united in the concept of an ideal. By means o
this concept, one can understand the aspect of human activity that antift,,
ipates the production of an object.
s"
Human^ictivity is conscious. In order to reveal the sense of the notiO"*
consciousness, one should take into account the social character of humi
41
42
Vassily V. Davydov
43
et
44
Vassily V. Davydov
45
and in what ways does it differ from personality? What can be defined as
the personal level of realizing individual activity?
These questions still have no concrete answers. That is why appropri
ate research is necessary. And while launching this work, it is important
to take into account the theoretical conceptions that were formulated in
the works of Durkheim, Blondel, Levy-Briihl, and their followers.
3. Structure and components of activity
The third problem concerns the difficulties of defining the gen
eral structure of activity. According to A. N. Leont'ev (1978), the struc
ture of activity includes such components as needs, motives, goals, ac
tions, and operations. If we examine this structure, we notice the absence
of the means of solving a problem. It seems clear that this component
should be added.
But the main question is how to relate this general activity structure
to such traditional psychic processes as perception, imagination, mem
ory, thinking, feelings, and will. Can these be considered as components
of the general structure of activity, along with motives, problems, and ac
tions? Or should they be considered as independent kinds of activity?
If the latter thesis is accepted, we must admit the existence of sensoric,
mnemonic, and thinking activity, and even of activity of feelings and ac
tivity of will.
It must be emphasized that at present in different sciences, and es
pecially in psychology, these psychological processes are frequently re
garded as particular kinds of activity. For example, human thinking is
spoken of as thinking activity.
In my opinion, it is not correct to consider traditional cognitive pro
cesses as different forms of activity. They are no more than specific com
ponents of a general activity structure that promote the realization of its
other components. For example, perception and thinking help a person
to single out and concretize the conditions in which a sensory or cogni
tive problem can be solved and to choose the methods of its solution. But
the problem itself is a component of some integral activity, for example,
play, art, or learning.
4. Different kinds of activity
This question leads us to the fourth problem - that of classifi
cation of different kinds of activity. This problem is complicated by the
46
Vassily V. Davydov
47
The seventh problem of activity theory has to do with underanding the relationship between the biological and the social in human
48
Vassily V. Davydov
49
Thus the natural and the corporeal in a human being cannot be simply
acterized as the biological. The natural and the corporeal may more
adequately be labeled as the organic.
pointed out earlier, the biological mode of existence, characteristic
f animals, has a very important characteristic: a unity between organic
eds and innate mechanisms of satisfying them. This unity constitutes
the basis of instincts inherent in animal behavior. In the process of hu
man anthropogenesis, a break occurred between organic needs and the
means of satisfying them, that is, human beings lost their instincts. The
organic needs that constitute human needs are still preserved, but the in
nate mechanisms of satisfying them have disappeared (Gal'perin, 1976).
The organic needs of a human being become satisfied by the forms of
activity acquired during one's lifetime. In this sense, the organics, cor
poreality, and "naturalism" of human beings remain, but the biological
as the mode of animal existence has been lost.
In my view, the problems of biosocial human nature can be concretely
resolved only in the course of interdisciplinary studies of the peculiarities
of animal instincts and their disappearance during human anthropoge
nesis, as well as the origin of the relationship between the organic and
nonorganic bodies of humans.
8. Organizing interdisciplinarity
The eighth problem concerns the methods of organizing the in
terdisciplinary study of human activity. Today separate disciplines gen
erally study activity independently. Only in theoretical discussions may
one see psychologists using conclusions made by a philosopher or a soci
ologist, or vice versa.
Very few experimental investigations are conducted in which rep
resentatives of different disciplines - logicians, sociologists, educators,
psychologists, physiologists - participate. In our own experience, the
organization of such studies requires considerable expenses and special
conditions. But precisely this sort of research is of great importance today.
Four stages in the study of activity
u
50
Vassily V. Davydov
each specific activity has definite needs, motives, tasks, and goals as its
contents. The objective of the first stage of the study of activity consists
in identifying the object content of each type of activity. Only after this
is done can one classify a particular psychological formation being ob
served as a concrete type of activity.
The second stage of studying activity consists of defining the object
content and structure of its collective form, the interrelations of its con
stituents, the methods of their exchange, their various transformations,
and the conditions and regularities of the emergence of individual activ
ity. Although human activity in both collective and individual forms is
conscious, the process of emergence of consciousness and its functions in
activity are very difficult to analyze. There is a great need for a prelimi
nary "morphological picture" of the two activity forms and their genetic
interrelations.
The third stage of investigating activity concerns the study of the emer
gence of its ideal plane. In psychology this problem has been given very
little attention, whereas in philosophy a number of serious works have
dealt with it. In my opinion, the most promising approach to the problem
of the ideal can be found in Il'enkov's (1977a, 1977b) writings. Il'enkov
showed that the ideal is revealed in the human capacity to reproduce or
re-create a material object resting on a word, a draft, or a model. The
ideal exists in constant intertransitions of the activity elements according
to the following scheme: objectaction-word-actionobject. The ideal
is the existence of an object in the phase of its formation, in the subject's
activity manifesting itself as a need and a goal.
At the third stage of investigating activity, one can study the genesis
of its ideal components (needs, goals, and notions that precede achieve
ment of its results), observing the special role of language, drafts, and
various models in the process of their objectification and acquisition of
corresponding social form. In the long run, at this stage, one can reveal
conditions and regularities forming the human capacity to produce and
re-create objects with joint activity. The ideal manifests itself in the real
ization of this particular capacity.
At the fourth stage of investigating activity, one may begin to study
significant features of activity such as awareness. The ideal as the basis of
consciousness is closely connected to the system of linguistic meanings.
As to language, according to Marx, it exists practically for others, and for
this reason, it also exists for my own self as real consciousness. Speech is
a social event of verbal interaction. When producing an utterance, each
*
51
person tries to take into consideration the listener's views, beliefs, likes,
and dislikes.
In the consciousness of an individual there are ideally represented the
needs, interests, and positions of other people involved in certain social
relations and participating together with this individual in some kind of
joint activity (in which individuals carry out various types of material and
verbal communication). An individual's own activity is also ideally repre
sented in his or her consciousness, so that it can be evaluated and planned
in accordance with other people's positions.
These four stages of investigating activity are aimed at revealing its
content and structure together with such fundamental characteristics as
consciousness and the ideal. In the process of creating an interdisci
plinary theory of activity, a number of problems emerge. I have identified
only a few of them. Without persistent attempts to solve them, it may be
impossible to work out theoretical approaches to practical improvement
of human life.
References
Davydov, V. V. (1982). The psychological structure and contents of learning activity in
school children. In R. Glaser & J. Lompscher (Eds.), Cognitive and motiva
tional aspects of instruction. Berlin: Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften.
Davydov, V. V. (1988). About the concept of personality in modern psychology. Psikhologicheskii Zhurnal, 9(4), 22-32 (in Russian).
Dewey, J. (1910). How me think. Boston: D. C. Heath.
Engestrom, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to develop
mental research. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit.
Gaidenko, P. P. (1991). T h e problem of rationality in the beginning of the 20th century.
Voprossy Filosofii, 6, 314 (in Russian).
Gal'perin, P. la. (1976). Introduction to psychology. Moscow: Izd. M G U (in Russian).
IPenkov, E. V. (1977a). Dialectical logic: Essays in its history and theory. Moscow: Progress.
Il'enkov, E. V. (1977b). T h e concept of the ideal. In Philosophy in the USSR: Problems of
dialectical materialism. Moscow: Progress.
Lektorsky, V. A. (1984). Subject, object, cognition. Moscow: Progress.
Lektorsky, V. A. (Ed.). (1990). Activity: Theories, methodology and problems. Orlando: Paul
M. Deutsch Press.
Leont'ev, A. N. (1978). Activity, consciousness, and personality. Englewood Cliffs: PrenticeHall.
Levada, Yu. A. (1984). Play structures in the system of social actions. In Sistemnye issledovaniya. Moscow: Nauka (in Russian).
Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1958). Collected works (Vol. 12). Moscow: Gosudarstvennoje
Izdatelstvo Politicheskoi Literatury (in Russian).
52
Vassily V. Davydov
Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1960). Collected works (Vol. 23). Moscow: Gosudarstvennoje
Izdatelstvo Politicheskoi Literatury (in Russian).
Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1968). Collected works (Vol. 46, Part I). Moscow: Gosudarstven
noje Izdatelstvo Politicheskoi Literatury (in Russian).
Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1969). Collected works (Vol. 46, Part II) Moscow: Gosudarstven
noje Izdatelstvo Politicheskoi Literatury (in Russian).
Marx, K., & Engels, F (1974). Collected works (Vol. 42). Moscow: Gosudarstvennoje
Izdatelstvo Politicheskoi Literatury (in Russian).
Perret-Clermont, A, N. (1980). Social interaction and cognitive development in children.
London: Academic Press.
Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York: International Universi
ties Press.
Rubtsov, V. V. (1987). Organization and development of children's joint actions in the teachinglearning process. Moscow: Pedagogika (in Russian).
Voronovic, B. A., & Pletnikov, Y. K. (1975). The category of activity in historical material
ism. Moscow: Znan'e (in Russian).
Weber, M. (1978). Economy and society. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Toulmin
Introduction
Most of the chapters in this volume are concerned with applying
activity theory to different aspects of individual development and social
transformation. From that point of view, the subject of this chapter (the
relevance of L. S. Vygotsky's ideas to the philosophical theory of knowl
edge) may be peripheral. Still, something is gained if, for once, we stand
back and view activity theory itself against its larger background in intel
lectual history. The questions to be raised here, then, have to do with the
history of Western epistemology, and with the ways in which the work
of Vygotsky and his successors helps throw light on current problems in
this area.
To explain my personal interest in this subject: I have admired the
work of Vygotsky and A. R. Luria for more than 20 years, having come
to their writings through the American clinical neuroanatomist Norman
Geschwind (1974). Geschwind's work on the aphasias and apraxias was
closely related to the neurological work that Luria did during and after
World War II. As Geschwind saw it, Luria's approach opened a new di
rection of attack on the cerebral localization of higher mental functions,
and so on our whole understanding of sensory and cognitive systems
(Luria, 1973). But that is not all: Going beyond neurology and psychol
ogy (he thought), Luria also suggested new ways of resolving other larger,
more long-standing issues in the tradition of Western epistemology.
What is knowledge
How do human beings - how can they - come to know anything
about the world?
What, if anything, do they (can they) know for certain, either one
at a time, as individuals, or collectively, for example, as mem
bers of a profession?
S3
54
Stephen Toulmin
Throughout the 20th century, there has been a deep crisis in this branch
of philosophy. Edmund Husserl (1962) set out to locate this crisis early
in the century. In the 1920s, John Dewey (1929) defined the intellectual
confusion underlying the "quest for certainty" embodied in the agenda
of 17th-century philosophy. In the 1930s and 1940s, this critique broad
ened into a more general philosophical skepticism through the later work
of Ludwig Wittgenstein (1953). And, taken together, as Rorty (1989) has
argued, the work of these writers, among others, finally destroyed the
program for finding "unshakeable foundations" for human knowledge,
which was dreamed up, from the 1630s on, by Rene Descartes (1968) and
his successors. That program having run into the sand, the whole epistemological agenda now needs to be reformulated.
The present chapter has two aims. First, it attempts to indicate how
the ideas of Vygotsky, Luria, and their associates help to point a way out
of this epistemological crisis and define a more constructive way of mov
ing ahead. Second, it considers on what conditions and in what ways
a collaboration between philosophers concerned with the problems of
knowledge, on the one hand, and human scientists engaged in studying
"activity," on the other hand, may be profitable for both sides.
The roots of the 20th-century crisis
During the 350 years since Rene Descartes published his Medi
tations and Discourse, epistemology has gone through two distinct cycles
of development. The first began with Descartes, was carried further by
Leibniz and Locke, Berkeley and Hume, and culminated in Kant's (1976)
Critique of Pure Reason. The second, briefer recapitulation began in the
1880s with the work of Ernst Mach, was carried further by Bertrand Rus
sell and G. E. Moore, Moritz Schlick and Rudolf Car nap, and culminated
in the later teachings of Ludwig Wittgenstein.
In both phases, the discussion began promisingly, was undertaken with
vigor and self-confidence, but shipwrecked in the end for reasons that
sprang from the excessively individualistic - if not narcissistic - nature
of the philosophers' agenda. For Descartes and Locke as for Mach and
Russell, the problem is how each human, as an individual, can arrive at
any well-founded, even certain, knowledge about the world. From our
standpoint, however, none of these writers gives a convincing account
of the relationship between "knowledge" as the possession of individuals
and "knowledge" as the collective property of communities of "knowers,"
for example, professional scientists. Descartes stated his initial question,
"What if anything can I, Rene Descartes, know for certain?" in terms that
55
invite the reader to slide into solipsism or, at least, into a belief that dif
ferent individuals' personal experiences are hermetically sealed off from
each other. Given this starting point, a miracle is required to guaran
tee that the "clear and distinct ideas" that gave Descartes a personal
assurance of knowledge were available to other reflective and rational be
ings as well.
Nor, despite his best efforts, was the basic situation any better for John
Locke (1959). He saw the "ideas of reflection" {concepts) available to any
individual as produced by repeated experience of similar "ideas of sense"
{percepts); but he had no way to demonstrate that different individuals
placed in a sequence of similar situations would always, or necessarily,
form identical concepts. In fact, we find out only as we go along how
far concept acquisition has the same outcomes in different people; so, no
certainty attaches to the resulting collective knowledge. (This difficulty
arose once again, in the second phase, from Ernst Mach in the 1880s up
to Bertrand Russell in 1912.)
At least Kant tried to make the crucial move when he denied that an in
telligible account can be given of intellectual activities if we begin from so
personal or individual an origin. Every cognitive judgment, even a direct
report of perception, is in Kant's view "intersubjective." Still, his insis
tence that all cognitive achievements are, in principle at least, shared by
all rational thinkers went hardly any further than this. He left it unclear
just how, during their lifetimes, different individuals come to partici
pate in this shared repertory of concepts and judgments. In this respect,
the climax of the second phase (exemplified in the writings of Ludwig
Wittgenstein and Ludvik Fleck) represents a true advance.
On the one hand, Wittgenstein's (1953) arguments not merely re
jected but discredited the ideas and impressions that were the starting
point of 17th-century epistemology, both rationalist and empiricist. If all
our knowledge, concepts, and judgments are in principle intersubjective,
there is a reason. All such units of understanding obtain their meaning
by entering language not via the minds of single individuals but within
"forms of life" {Lebensformen) that are essentially collective. As a result,
the origin of any individual's questions and judgments is defined by the
current state of the art in the relevant field of inquiry, what Fleck (1981)
calls the Wissensstand. So, at the end of the second phase, we find our
selves facing an important scientific question: "How is it, then, that in
dividuals can be successfully socialized, or enculturated, into the shared
Wissensstand of any particular culture or profession?"
The individualism of 17th-century epistemology is, however, only part
of the problem that led to the early-20th-century crisis. True, it is a
56
Stephen Toulmin
Figure 3.1. Traditional model of the internal sensorium as the locus of all
perception.
Where exactly did the natural philosophers assume that the human
sensorium was located? For lack of evidence, few of them hazarded more
than a guess. Descartes leaned toward the pineal gland at the base of the
brain - it had no other known function - but his successors placed it,
vaguely, in or around the cerebral cortex. The crucial element of their
theory was that the supposed interiority of mental life is an inescapable
feature of the natural processes in our brain and central nervous sys
tem. If our mental lives are trapped within our brains, they are thus
trapped there from birth. As Jean Paul Sartre's (1962) title suggests, our
minds live the lives of prisoners who are born, live, and die in permanent
deadlock.
The inner-outer problem, as it arises in cognitive psychology and epistemology, is thus a by-product of basic assumptions in 17th-century me
chanical theory; and so it remains today, even though physics itself has
long since abandoned so mechanical an account of the natural world. We
find a particularly striking expression of this 17th-century model in one of
the essays in T H. Huxley's book Science and Culture (1881): this speaks
of our sense organs not as instruments that help us to acquire knowledge
of the world, but as obstacles that need to be penetrated or surmounted if
we are to establish any connections between the inner mental life of the
knower and the outer physical objects known about.
The underlying theoretical model can conveniently be represented in a
diagram (Figure 3.1). Here the sensory nerves act as intermediate tubes,
58
Stephen Toulmin
59
60
Stephen Toulmin
"Playing baseball" is the form of life that provides the background against
which the word strike has this meaning. To put the point more generally,
the shared intelligibility of any utterance requires it to have a standard
place in a specific practical context: In the jargon of activity theory, this
meaning is determined by its place in a given typified action sequence.
These four points imply several other conclusions. First, there is no
single, universal solution to the inside-outside problem. We acquire (and
handle) knowledge of people and things in everyday life in ways that are
in part culturally universal and spontaneous, in part the result of the indi
vidual's internalizing of his or her own native culture. Paul Ekman's (1982)
studies on the facial expression of emotions, for instance, carry further
research started by Charles Darwin a century ago: Ekman shows that our
ability to recognize, say, shame, joy, or curiosity in other people's faces
is a spontaneous skill and does not need to be learned, yet it remains the
case that the exact ways in which we put this innate capacity to work de
pend strongly on what culture we grow up in.
Hence, we face an important scientific question: namely, "Which as
pects of our experience and abilities are universal and transcultural and
which are products of enculturation?" Only when we have a full answer
to that question can we go on to address the underlying question, at once
scientific and philosophical: "How far are Lehensformen and Sprachspielen species specific and how far are they cultural variables?"
Meanwhile, the relevance of Vygotsky's (1978) ideas to, say, the philos
ophy of science or legal philosophy is clear enough. In any professional
work, we master the relevant knowledge by making our own the Wissensstand of the discipline involved - the procedures that constitute the
collective state of understanding in that field at present. This state of
knowledge comprises the standard repertory of well-established proce
dures that are in good standing in the discipline at a given time, but the
standards by which we judge the merits of the procedures are historical
variables. This means that the rationality of a scientific or judicial proce
dure, say, is not a matter of clarity and distinctness or logical coherence
alone. Rather, it depends on the way in which these procedures develop
in the historical evolution of any given discipline.
So understood, shared procedures are neither the exclusive property
of collective professions nor the exclusive property of individual agents.
Rather, the rational history of a human discipline involves a continuing
interchange between the innovations of creative individuals and their ac
ceptance or rejection by the professional community. The procedures
constitutive of different arts or sciences thus exist at the boundary of the
individual and the collective: They have a life story independent of the
61
individuals or groups that embody them at any time, in the same way as,
say, operas or symphonies, which are performed several times in a single
season by one orchestra and cast or another.
Conclusions
Where do we go from here? Taking this constellation of concepts
(collective activities, shared procedures, "sums in the head," and so on)
seriously, we have to go back before Descartes, and the whole model of the
Mind as a Theater in the Head, and look at ideas that were familiar to the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance, not to mention to Aristotle himself.
For all these thinkers, philosophy was as much practical as theoretical: a
field for practical wisdom {prudence) as much as for intellectual grasp. In
ethics, they were concerned less with the abstract theories of moral phi
losophy than with the concrete particulars of specific moral issues, such as
those in today's medical ethics. In logic, they were concerned less with
the formalisms of the propositional calculus than with questions about
the substantive soundness of the varied arguments to be found in different
practical enterprises. In the human sciences, they were less concerned
with the pursuit of universal generalizations than with the kinds of lo
cal, particular knowledge discussed today by Clifford Geertz (1983). And
in fields of practical decision making, such as medicine, they saw that all
our formal calculations need to be complemented by questions about the
timeliness of our decisions.
The explanatory procedures of a physical scientist are one thing, the
diagnostic procedures of a clinician another, the judicial procedures of a
law court still another. We should not look for universal standards of, for
example, "soundness" of arguments in all fields equally: In each case, the
first step is to assemble detailed descriptive accounts of the procedures or
typified action sequences involved in all these activities.
We need these descriptions, indeed, before theoretical issues can even
be raised. To cite Aristotle's own example: We can ask why chicken is
good to eat only if we are already certain that chicken is good to eat, just
as today we can asky why aspirin relieves headaches only because we al
ready know that aspirin relieves headaches. Until the basic empirical or
experimental facts are established in the human sciences too, we are not
in a position to develop theoretical explanations, and the pursuit of the
oretical generalizations is premature.
With this last comment before us, we can raise two final queries.
1. In addressing the issues that arise in the study of human activity at
the convergence point between Vygotsky and Wittgenstein, are we ready
62
Stephen Toulmin
63
References
Descartes, R. (1968). Discourse on the method and the meditations. Harmondsworth: Pen
guin Books.
Dewey, J. (1929). The quest for certainty. New York: Minton, Balch & Co.
Ekman, P. (Ed.). (1982). Emotion in the human face. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Fleck, L. (1981). Genesis and development of a scientificfact. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Husserl, E. (1962). Die Krisis der europaischen Wissenschaften und die transzendentale Phdnomenologie. Husserliana VI. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
Huxley, T. H. (1881). Science and culture, and other essays. London: Macmillan.
Geertz, C. (1983). Local knowledge. New York: Basic Books.
Geschwind, N. (1974). Selected papers on language and the brain. Dordrecht: Reidel.
Kant, I. (1976). Critique of pure reason. London: Macmillan.
64
Stephen Toulmin
Lektorsky
Introduction
In Russia currently, activity theory is being criticized whole
sale by some philosophers and psychologists because it is alleged to be
an expression of totalitarian ideology. Among these critics are people
who were themselves not long ago advocates of activity theory. They
are referring mainly to such versions of activity theory as those of A. N.
Leont'ev (1978) and P. J. Gal'perin (1992). These conceptions are in
terpreted by the critics as representing humans not as creative beings
but as simple executors of plans, orders, and standards imposed from
outside.
These critics think that activity theory, with its stress on actions, op
erations, and internalization of ready-made standards of behavior and
cognition, corresponds to what command socialism demanded of people,
namely, to be simple executors.
I think that this criticism is justified to a certain degree. It is possible to
show that some versions of activity theory (in particular the conception
of Leont'ev) are one-sided. It is true that the formulation and elabora
tion of some ideas of this theory in the 1930s and 1940s were influenced
by the ideological situation in the USSR. This, by the way, does not
mean that all ideas that are ideologically stimulated and influenced must
be false: Most fruitful hypotheses in the history of science were influ
enced by their nonscientific context.
At the same time, I only partly agree with these critics. First, not all
the ideas of Leont'ev and Gal'perin are outdated. Second, activity the
ory cannot be exclusively equated with the versions elaborated by these
scholars. Third, we should not repudiate activity theory as a whole but
develop it in new directions.
65
66
Vladimir A. Lektorsky
Rubinstein, Leont'ev, and Vygotsky
67
68
Vladimir A. Lektorsky
versions of the theory. At the same time, I believe that nowadays it is not
sufficient to limit the activity approach to these ideas. It seems to me that
it is necessary to study specific features of intersubjective relations con
nected with activity.
First of all, I am referring to the creative, nonpredictable character of
human communication, which cannot be completely managed and con
trolled (e.g., Bibler, 1983-1984). The ideas of the famous Russian philosopher and literary theorist Mikhail Bakhtin concerning the nature of di
alogue are very interesting in that respect (Bakhtin, 1982). Bakhtin has
shown very clearly that it is impossible to equate subject-object and inter
subjective relations. The latter include different kinds of subject-object
relations but can't be reduced to them.
Activity in the process of a genuine dialogue is not a simple transfor
mation of a co-interlocutor in accordance with the aims and plans of an
other; it includes the self-realization of the participants at the same time.
Successful communicative activity presupposes taking into account the
position and values of the other, an ability to look at oneself from this po
rtion and to perform an "inner dialogue." It is a complicated system of
interactions between "my own image of myself," "the image of me by an
other, and the other's image of him- or herself." It is an activity, it is
a process of change, but it is not like the process of transforming physi
cal thmgs. The latter is included in intersubjective relations and can be
understood only in this context.
69
Introduction
In studying development of the child psyche, we must. . . start by analysing the develop
ment of the child's activity, as this activity is built up in the concrete conditions of its life.
(Leont'ev, 1981, p. 395)
71
This would count as mere pedantry were it not that it is exactly on the
societal nature of the human individual, as distinct from the social, that ac
tivity theory insists. The theory is not referring merely to the social fact
that individuals find themselves in relations with other people. In order
to clarify this point, I describe, first, activity theory's conception of the
societal nature of the functioning adult human being; second, the impli
cations of this nature for the development of the individual personality;
and, third, its methodological implications. By then contrasting these
understandings with those of Anglo-American contextualism, I hope to
make it clear that the activity approach represents an approach to both
theory and practice that is fundamentally and significantly different from
that of empiricist social science.
The societal nature of adult activity
Activity theory elaborates Marx's understanding of the human
essence as the ensemble of societal relations, but it must not be assumed
that this excludes the natural-historical (and therefore social) foundations
for these relations. As Messmann and Riickriem (1978) so clearly put if.
Das Wesen des Menschen ist aus seiner Wirklichkeit als Ensemble der gesellschaftlichen
Verhaltnisse allein nicht zu erklaren. Fur eine zureichende Erklarung muss vielmehr diese
Wirklichkeit als Realisierung einer Moglichkeit, eines Vermogens, betrachtet werden, das
den Menschen "von der Natur aus" qualifiziert, Produzent dieser Verhaltnisse zu sein.
(p. 80)
72
Charles W. Tolman
not now dealing with those primitive instinctive forms of labour that remind us of the
mere animal. An immeasurable interval of time separates the state of things in which a
man brings his labour-power to market for sale as a commodity, from that state in which
human labour was still in its first instinctive stage. We presuppose labour in a form that
stamps it as exclusively human. (1867/1954, pp. 173-174)
Tool use and tool making are often considered the defining features of
labor, but although these may indeed be necessary to the process, they are
not sufficient. Even when Marx was writing, instances of animals' using
and even preparing tools were known. As he went on to emphasize, the
crucial features are individual consciousness and the collectivity of the
activity. Indeed, as Leont'ev compellingly argues (1959/1981, pp. 207ff.),
it is precisely in the collective nature of labor that consciousness emerges
in its distinctively human form. The two working together are clearly
portrayed in Leont'ev's example of the beater participating in a primitive
hunt in which it is his function to drive the quarry toward his compan
ions, who are lying in wait to make the kill. The collective nature of the
activity is manifested in a division of labor. No single individual carries
out the activity required to satisfy his or her needs. Rather, the activity is
divided into separate actions, each of which is then assumed by a partic
ular individual in coordination with the others.
In our own society, the enormous complexity of the division of labor
is patently obvious. We are psychologists, carpenters, computer analysts,
or whatever. Each of us carries out only a very few of the sum total of ac
tions required to maintain our own and our society's existence. I mow my
own lawn, but I did not invent landscaping and I did not make my own
mower. I may go into the mountains to show that I can "live off the land,"
but I will wear clothing made by others and take with me implements in
vented and produced by others. Even if I go naked and implementless, I
go with knowledge given me by others. Survival in the strictest sense is
impossible for individual members of our species on their absolute own.
Our societal nature is perhaps most importantly indicated by the knowl
edge that is accumulated by society in the course of its history and that we
receive from others. The information required by individuals for func
tioning in society and for the survival of society itself is not carried in
our biotic genes but in our societal institutions, most notably those asso
ciated with the educational function, such as schools, libraries, and other
cultural forms.
This implies the importance of consciousness. In the example of the
beater in the primitive hunt, it is already obvious that a degree of con
sciousness is required that is lacking in other animals, no matter how
73
74
Charles W. Tolman
for action at the moment of birth or that gradually mature during ontogenetic develop
ment; these mechanisms are formed in accordance with the general laws of biological
evolution; it is a slow process corresponding to slow changes in the environment. In ani
mals these mechanisms are offundamental adaptive importance (1959/1981, p. 420)
75
into which the child is born, and it is this above all that the child is ac
quiring. It is the knowledge of making things and of the need to do so, of
the utility of wood, of the functions of nails and hammers. The child is
appropriating societal experience. And given that human society is char
acterized by a complex division of labor, the child is also acquiring the
possibility of entering the productive life of society. At the same time,
the child is being integrated into a process in which its own practice will
create new ways of carpentering, thus altering the accumulated body of
societal meanings that the succeeding generation will appropriate. None
of this applies to the rat learning to press a lever in a Skinner box.
Consider one further aspect of learning to use a hammer. Can the child
learn from the hammer itself, as animals learn directly from the demands
of their environments? Is it the world of objects from which the child
learns to speak a language, to read, and to develop other cognitive skills?
Surely not! There is always another human being in the picture. It is a
function of adults and older children to teach younger ones to do these
things. This function becomes institutionalized in families, schools, and
other cultural organizations precisely because the child cannot learn sim
ply by interacting on its own with the world of objects.
It was this sort of thinking that was expressed in Vygotsky's term zone
of proximal development. Too often, however, it has been interpreted sim
ply as a way in which the teacher can aid the learning of a pupil. This
completely misses its theoretical intent, which is to reveal the essentially
societally mediated nature of human learning. Engestrom comes closer
to the mark when he describes this zone as the "distance between the
everyday actions of individuals and the historically new form of the soci
etal activity that can be collectively generated as a solution to the double
bind potentially embedded in . . . everyday actions" (1987, p. 174).'
The conclusion, it appears to me, is inescapable: At its heart, human
ontogeny is a uniquely human, societal process of appropriating histori
cal experience in the form of actions and meanings.
Methodological implications
The implications of what was said earlier can be roughly divided
into two groups: formal and practical. The formal aspect can be ap
proached by way of an observation Leont'ev made in connection with
teaching arithmetic to children:
If the persons training a child primarily set themselves the goal of imparting knowledge
of some sort or other and pay little attention to how the child itself goes about it, by what
76
Charles W. Tolntan
operations it solves the school problems it has been set, and does not check whether a
further transformation is taking place at the proper time in these operations, their devel
opment can be disturbed. (1959/1981, p. 432)
To discover "how the child itself goes about it" is to reveal the actual
nature of the underlying process, which, for Leont'ev, was the aim of
all social scientific investigation. The problem for us is to see what the
method entails.
A first approximation to specifying the principles of an appropriate
method was made by Vygotsky in 1930 (Vygotsky, 1978, chapter 5). It
was expressed in three principles. The first was "analysing process, not
objects." He wrote: "Any psychological process, whether the develop
ment of thought or voluntary behaviour, is a process undergoing changes
right before our eyes" (p. 61). It was possible to "trace this development"
by setting up situations that "provoke" it: "Our method may be called
experimental-developmental in the sense that it artificially provokes or
creates a process of psychological development" (p. 61). The aim was "a
reconstruction of each stage in the development of the process" (p. 62).
That this leads to experiments that look quite different from those that
have become familiar in the Anglo-American tradition is evident from
examples throughout the book. I shall return to this in a moment.
The second principle was "explanation versus description" (p. 62). It
was explanation that Vygotsky was seeking, and here he turned to Kurt
Lewin's distinction between phenotype and genotype, a recognition that
underlying processes are not always evident from the surface appearance
of actions. An example is the relation between overt speech and action in
young children and adults, which appears to be the same in each case but
is accounted for by quite distinct "causal dynamic bases."
The third principle was referred to as "the problem of 'fossilized be
haviour' " (p. 63). Fully developed behavior patterns cannot be ade
quately understood from studying them in their developed forms. Vy
gotsky showed how this can be quite misleading. Only by looking at
behavior "genetically," by observing its development, can one hope to re
veal its underlying dynamics.
It remained, however, for Evald Il'enkov, a philosopher, to articulate
the methodology in more generalized terms (e.g., Il'enkov, 1960/1982).
He expressed the general unifying methodological principle as that of the
"ascent from the abstract to the concrete," which requires a particular
understanding of abstract and concrete. To say that all things are con
crete does not mean merely that they are things as opposed to ideas, but
also that they are integral wholes within a larger system that also forms
an integral whole. Things represent a "unity in diversity." Abstract, by
11
78
Charles W. Tolman
79
but create the illusion that there is something generic called integration);
and (3) some variables represent characteristics that are in fact generic,
like "age," but then serve to overlook how age may be different in dif
ferent societies and at different historical times. Blumer was obviously
alarmed by the abstractness being imported into social science by the
variable concept.
The "contextualist" approach to individual development
The contextualist approach to human development is a good foil
for activity theory because (1) it is a fair representative of Anglo-American
empiricist positions and (2) it claims more than most to accomplish the
goals I have identified with activity theory. It self-consciously seeks to
overcome the limitations of both mechanism (e.g., behaviorism) and organicism (e.g., Piaget) and avows a dialectical view of psychological pro
cess that integrates the individual into the social milieu (e.g., Lerner,
1979, p. 272). It is a position, therefore, that can lead one to believe that
activity theory is not really different from what has been proposed in
American psychology.
The key to any distinction lies in how the individualsociety relation
ship and the role of that relationship in the development of the individual
personality are understood.
Individual and society in contextualism
Richard Lerner (1979) leads into his discussion of social rela
tions by outlining the contextualist view of individual-environment re
lationships generally. Here he speaks of "direct exchanges," "reciprocal
outcomes," "reciprocities," "interdependent relations," and "congruity"
(p. 275). He states that there is a "continuous interdependency of or
ganism and environmental processes" (p. 276). There is a "dialectical
intermeshing" of the two that is conditioned by the organism's biologi
cal maturation and experience, with each being interdependent with the
other (pp. 275-276). Lerner stresses the reciprocity of this process:
As each person's maturation-experience interactions intermesh to provide a distinct in
dividual, this individual concomitantly interacts differently with his or her environment
as a consequence of this individuality. In turn, these new interactions are a component of
the individual's further experience, and thus serve to further promote his or her individ
uality. (p. 278)
80
Charles W. Tolman
81
82
Charles W. Tolman
83
Germany
classroom
individual
that basis.
84
Charles W. Tolman
References
Bakhurst, D. (1991). Consciousness and revolution in Soviet philosophy: From the Bolsheviks
to Evald Ilyenkov. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic interactionism: Perspective and method. Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice-Hall.
85
86
Charles W. Tolman
Messmann, A., & Ruckriem, G. (1978). Zum Verstandnis der menschlichen Natur in
der Auffassung des Psychischen bei A. N. Leontjew. In G. Ruckriem (Ed.),
Historischer Materialismus und menschliche Natur (pp. 80-133). Cologne: PahlRugenstein.
Rosnow, R. L., & Georgoudi, M. (Eds.). (1986). Contextualism and understanding in be
havioral science. New York: Praeger.
Schurig, V. (1975a). Naturgeschichte des Psychischen 1: Psychogenese und elementare Formen
der Tierkotnmunikation. Frankfurt am Main: Campus Verlag.
Schurig, V. (1975b). Naturgeschichte des Psychischen 2: Lernen und Abstraktionsleistungen
bei Tieren. Frankfurt am Main: Campus Verlag.
Schurig, V. (1976). Die Entstehung des Betvusstseins. Frankfurt am Main: Campus Verlag.
Shotter, J. (1993). Conversational realities: The construction of life through language. Lon
don: Sage.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behaviour. New York: Free Press/Macmillan.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher psychological processes.
(M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
Introduction
In an earlier paper, I discussed the uses of cross-cultural research
by the originators of the Soviet cultural-historical school. My focus was
on the ways in which their ideas intersect with certain streams of Ameri
can cross-cultural research (Cole, 1988).' In that paper I argued that con
tinued progress in developing the ideas of the cultural-historical school
would be well served by combining their emphasis on the mediated struc
ture of higher psychological functions and historically evolving modes of
activity with the American approach emphasizing the importance of cul
tural context and empirical methods that begins with an analysis of con
crete activity systems.
In this chapter, I begin where my previous discussion left off by pre
senting various contributions to the elaboration of a cultural theory of
human nature that have come to prominence in the past decade under the
rubric of cultural psychology.1 After suggesting some ways in which these
efforts complement the basic program of cultural-historical psychologists
and their successors who work within the framework of activity theory, I
present an example of research designed to apply the overall framework
to a concrete problem of development in modern industrial societies.
Recent proposals for cultural psychology
88
Michael Cole
Cultural psychology
89
of word meaning, the centrality of context as the locus of mental life, and
the necessity of methodological approaches that are broadly comparative
and developmental.
Similarities to cultural-historical formulations
In the earliest Soviet publication on this topic to appear in Eng
lish entitled "The problem of the cultural development of the child,"
Alexander Luria (1928) began with the well-known premise that "Man
differs from animals in that he can make and use tools." Following Marx
and Engels (as well as Aristotle, Benjamin Franklin, and Henri Bergson to name a few!), he said that tool use simultaneously transforms the
conditions of human existence and the structure of human psychologi
cal processes. The distinctive structural change in human thought that
arises in connection with tool use is that direct, "natural" processes are
complemented by indirect (mediated) ones.
Vygotsky (1934/1987) also emphasized the qualitative change in human
activity engendered by tool mediation. He called the resulting, specifi
cally human, form of thought the cultural method of cognition, which he
characterized as follows:
All processes forming part of that method form a complicated functional and structural
unity. This unity is effected, first, by the task which must be solved by the given method,
and secondly, by the means by which the method can be followed. . . . It is precisely the
structure which combines all separate processes, which are component parts of the cul
tural habit of behavior, which transforms this habit into a psychological function, and
which fulfills its task with respect to behavior as a whole. (Vygotsky, 1929, pp. 420-421)
90
Michael Cole
Cultural psychology
91
92
Michael Cole
helping things to grow. "Culture," Williams wrote, "in all of its early
uses was a noun of process: the tending of, something, basically crops or
animals" (Williams, 1973, p. 87).
Sometime around the 16th century, the term culture began to refer to
the tending of human children in addition to crops and animals. In the
18th century, culture when applied to human affairs began to differenti
ate quantitatively: Some people came to be considered more "cultured"
or "cultivated" than others. It was not until the 19th century that the
idea of culture as a social group's medium of adaptation to (and trans
formation of) its ecological circumstances forced attention to the variety
of cultural forms and brought into question the linear scaling of cultures
into more and less developed kinds. At present, these two latter concep
tions live side by side in science and society.
From the beginning, the core idea of culture as a process of helping
things to grow was combined with a general theory on how to promote
growth: Create an artificial environment where young organisms could
be provided optimal conditions for growth. Such tending required tools,
of course, and it is somehow provocative to learn that one of the early
means of culture was "plowshare."
Although it would be foolish to overinterpret the metaphorical par
allels between the theory and practice of growing future generations of
crops and of children, the exercise, I argue, has particular heuristic value
for thinking about the processes of development and for designing new
activity systems to promote development. Broadly speaking, like garden
ers, activity theorists must attend simultaneously to two classes of con
cerns: what transpires inside the activity system ("garden") they study
(or design and study) and what transpires around it. These issues of
ten seem to be addressable independently of each other, but in reality
they are as interdependent as tasks and context, thought of as the text
and context of development. Inside the garden, for every kind of plant,
there is the quality of the soil to consider, the best way to till the soil,
the right kinds of nutrients to use, and the right amount of moisture, as
well as the best time to plant and nurture the seeds and the need to pro
tect the growing plants against predators, disease, and so on. Each of
these tasks has its own material needs, associated tools, and knowledge.
The theory and practice of development at this level focuses on finding
exactly the right combination of factors to promote life within the gar
den walls.
Gardens do not, obviously, exist independently of the larger ecological
system within \yhich they are embedded. Although it is possible to raise
Cultural psychology
93
any plant anywhere in the world, given the opportunity first to arrange the
appropriate set of conditions, it is not always possible to create the right
conditions, even for a short while. And if what one is interested in is not
a short-run demonstration of the possibility of creating a developmentpromoting system, but rather the creation of conditions that sustain the
needed properties of the artificial environment without much additional
labor, then the system in which the garden is embedded is as important
as the properties of the garden itself. In the extended example to be pre
sented, I treat the garden-as-culture metaphor as a way of specifying a
particular kind of cultural context, constituted jointly by tool-mediated
practices that "wall the garden off" from its environment, thereby es
tablishing it as a particular kind of cultural context. In doing so, I pay
attention to the organization of activity both within the context ("gar
den/activity system") and between such contexts (between the "garden"
and its environment).
Applying the garden metaphor: From tertiary artifact
to the 5th Dimension
I now want to shift gears and describe a program of research that
takes seriously the garden metaphor as the basis of a methodology for im
plementing a cultural theory of mind. In particular, this program assigns
the researcher the role not only of an analyst but also of an active agent
in attempting to "create gardens" and "grow plants."
The first of these attempts was directed at the problem of children
who had failed to learn how to read following several years of elementary
school instruction. Named Field College, it was an afterschool activity
system that, in turn, was divided into two distinct kinds of activity. The
first involved the children in a unique form of group reading inspired by
the early work of A. R. Luria (1932). Since this work has already been
described in some detail in recent publications, I will not dwell on it here
(see Cole, 1990; Griffin, King, Cole, & Diaz, 1989, for accounts of this
work). Instead, I describe recent work with the second activity system
that we initiated in 1981 as it has evolved in the course of our subsequent
research. We call this activity system the 5th Dimension.
The purposes of the 5th Dimension include, but extend well beyond,
the teaching of reading. In terms of the garden metaphor, the 5th Dimen
sion is a specially designed cultural medium for promoting the all-around
intellectual and social development of 6- to 12-year-old children while in
troducing them to computers and computer networking. In Wartofsky s
94
Cultural psychology
Michael Cole
95
(
Practicum in
Child D e v e l o p m e n t
J-P-I
Cultural psychology
97
In addition to the local goal of completing a task, the rules of the 5th
Dimension provide for a variety of goals designed to appeal to a variety
of children. For example, all children are given a plain-looking token fig
urine upon entering the 5th Dimension. By traversing a path that takes
them in one door and out of another, they may "transform their cruddy
creature" and obtain a more desirable figurine. Or they may choose to
complete all of the rooms in the maze, thereby attaining expert status
and access to new activities. In Leont'ev's terms, the 5th Dimension pro
vides a variety of possible effective motives in addition to motives (such
as the need to master new information technologies) that are merely un
derstandable to the children.
Figure 6.2 provides a slightly more detailed schematic drawing of the
5th Dimension maze with a list of the software in use during the 1989
1990 academic year. Notice that by being provided with two activities
in each room, as well as multiple paths through the maze, children are
confronted with choices at every step of the way, allowing them to sat
isfy their own goals within the constraints provided by the microworld
as a whole.
Figure 6.3 illustrates the way children's interactions within a task are
structured using task cards. In this case, the task is an embodiment of a
Piagetian formal operations problem. In reading the task card, note that
the beginning level provides the child with a relatively accessible goal that
remains entirely within the predesigned task structure. But for both the
"good" and "excellent" levels, the child must not only complete actions
specified by the software but also write about the strategies used and the
knowledge gained to the "boss" of the 5th Dimension, the Wizard.
Before discussing the multiple significance of that archetypal artifact,
the Wizard, it is useful to glance at Figure 6.4, which displays an impor
tant microstructural constraint on movement through the 5th Dimen
sion. At the top of the figure we see the possible trajectories of activity
should a child choose always to complete a task at the beginner level.
Note that, by and large, beginner-level achievement quickly leads to a
dead end, where the child oscillates between two rooms. At the bottom
of the figure are the consequences of achievement at each level. Here
the important point to note is that higher levels of achievement increase
children's freedom of choice in moving within this quasi-make-believe
world. They can use this freedom either to return to a favorite game or
to pursue one of the other goals in the 5th Dimension.
Returning to Figure 6.1, it is time to examine that shadowy figure in
the upper-left-hand corner, the Wizard. It is difficult for me to classify
Cultural psychology
Michael Cole
99
FACTORY
Welcome to Willy Wonka's Wacky factory! As the new supervisor in charge of new product
development, it is your job to create new things!!!! You have various machines you can use to
do this! These machines can punch holes in your product, rotate your product to a variety of
angles, and even stripe your product with various sizes of stripes. The purpose of your factory
is to design some cool new products. In fact, your job as supervisor depends on it. You had
better get STARTED!!!!!!!!
Figure 6.3. A sample task card for the game "Factory" (Sunburst Corpora
tion). Movement from beginner to expert level involves increasingly complex
actions afforded by the software and increasingly complex forms of communi
cation about the actions with the software.
"Beginner" Loops
100
Michael Cole
Cultural psychology
101
102
Michael Cole
Cultural psychology
Whittier College
Fifth Dimension
Moscow, Russia
Chico Club
IX
Erikson Inst.
Chicago, IL
Fifth Dimension
Appalachian State
Boone, NC
Fifth Dimension
UC San Diego
La Clase Magica
UC San Diego
Fifth Dimension
Figure 6.5. A full map of the coordinated network of activity systems, medi
ated by a teleconference of all the participants in what has come to be called the
Distributed Literacy Consortium.
Figure 6.5, there are sites in distant locales, including Chicago and New
Orleans in the United States and Moscow in Russia. Each of these sites
has a local Wizard, and collectively the sites have a meta-Wizard who fos
ters intersite interaction between the children.
Some preliminary results
Before ending this description of our model activity system, I
want to summarize a few results of the work so far.
First, there seems little doubt that, on a small scale, the 5th Dimen
sion has achieved the social goal of providing children with additional
time on academic tasks. We know from tracking children's progress that
over the course of the year they achieve higher and higher levels within
the tasks that the 5th Dimension provides and become familiar with
a wide variety of computer-based activities, including telecommunica
tions. In addition, although there is no longer any research money for the
103
104
Michael Cole
Nor can we ignore the micro-level interactions that determine the qual
ity of experience for children who participate in our garden /micro worlds.
In several analyses to date, we have worked out ways to trace relationships
between the growth of local 5th Dimension cultures and the sociocognitive development of individual children who participate in them. We are
quite encouraged by what we have observed so far, but detailed analyses
challenge us to deal seriously with field notes as a source of data about
psychological processes; it remains to be seen how far we can push the
use of such data, which ideally would be complemented by data on chil
dren's school achievement and social behavior in other settings. We are
also seeking to understand and document the conditions under which intersite coordination between children serves as a source of motives for
communication and the cognitive analysis that it entails, since this is a
major source of the intellectual benefits from participating in this spe
cialized activity system.
S u m m i n g up
I hope that this discussion, brief as it has been, has success
fully illustrated my contention that the initial ideas of the culturalhistorical school of psychology are indeed usefully complemented by
Anglo-American notions associated with the notion of cultural psychol
ogy. In our research, we have adhered to the necessity of considering si
multaneously the goals and settings of activity and the mediational means
placed at participants' disposal. Our approach is developmental, not only
because we are working with children within an activity, but also because
of the history of that activity itself. Consistent with a contextual ap
proach, we have focused on both within-context and between-context
interactions as constitutive of the activity itself.
It should be obvious that we need to continue to develop our theoret
ical approach even as we develop the methodology that links theory to
practice. This effort is very much a collective enterprise to which I in
vite the readers' participation. For anyone who would like to enter into
this activity with us, the needed course of action is clear. Simply write an
electronic message to lchc@ucsd and ask to get in touch with the Wizard.
I am confident that the Wizard will be happy to assist you.
Notes
1. In that paper I used the term sociohistorical to refer to the work of Leont'ev, Luria,
Vygotsky, and their students as it was appropriated by American scholars. In part this
Cultural psychology
105
decision was based on my belief that since cultural phenomena are necessarily histor
ical, the social nature of cultural-historical phenomena needed to be emphasized. It
might also be noted that Leont'ev (1981) used this term in his well-known monograph
on development. Subsequently, after many discussions of the issues involved, I came
to the conclusion that such a change in terminology does a disservice to the histori
cal record and fails to add conceptual clarity, since cultural-historical phenomena are
also necessarily social. Consequently, I use the term cultural-historical throughout this
chapter.
2. For a discussion of the history of the notion of cultural psychology, see the special is
sue of The Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition of
January, 1990.
3. My thanks to Yrjo Engestrom for bringing Wartofsky's discussion to my attention in
his provocative article titled "When Is a Tool?" (Engestrom, 1990).
References
Barker, R. G. (1968). Ecological psychology: Concepts and methods for studying the environ
ment of human behavior. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Brushlinsky, A. V. (1990). T h e activity of the subject and psychic activity. In V. A. Lektorsky (Ed.), Activity: Theories, methodology, and problems. Orlando: Paul M.
Deutsch Press.
Cole, M. (1988). Cross-cultural research in the sociohistorical tradition. Human Develop
ment, 31, 137-151.
Cole, M. (1990). Cultural psychology: A once and future discipline? In J. J. Berman (Ed.),
Nebraska symposium on motivation: Cross-cultural perspectives. Lincoln: Univer
sity of Nebraska Press.
Eckensberger, L. (1990). From cross-cultural psychology to cultural psychology. The
Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, 12, 3 7 52.
Eckensberger, L., Krewer, B., & Kasper, E. (1984). Simulation of cultural change by
cross-cultural research: Some metamethodological considerations. In K. A.
McCluskey & H. W. Reese (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology: Histori
cal and generational ejfects. Orlando: Academic Press.
Engestrom, Y. (1990). Learning, working and imagining: Twelve studies in activity theory.
Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit.
Griffin, P., King, C , Cole, M., & Diaz, E. (1989). A socio-historical approach to remedia
tion. Moscow: Progress (in Russian).
Kantor, J. R. (1982). Cultural psychology. Chicago: Principia Press.
Krewer, B. (1990). Psyche and culture: Can a culture-free psychology take into account
the essential features of the species, homo sapiens? The Quarterly Newsletter of
the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, 12, 24-36.
Il'enkov, E. V. (1977). T h e problem of the ideal. In Philosophy in the USSR: Problems of
dialectical materialism. Moscow: Progress.
Leont'ev, A. N. (1981). Problems of the development of the mind. Moscow: Progress.
Leont'ev, A. N., & Luria, A. R. (1956). Vygotsky's outlook on psychology. In L. S. Vygotsky, Selected psychological works. Moscow: Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
Press (in Russian).
106
Michael Cole
Eskola
Introduction
There are two underlying ideas in the empirical studies of most
psychologists and social scientists that deserve critical attention. The
first idea is that the phenomenon that is being explained is determined by
certain factors, not directly but through the mediation of certain mech
anisms. This means we must first decide which are the dependent vari
ables that represent the phenomenon we want to explain and which are
the independent variables from which we will try to find our explana
tion. We then go on to examine whether there are any correlations be
tween those two categories of variables. If such correlations exist, then
it is assumed that they reflect some sort of universal laws, psychologi
cal, social, or biological (Figure 7.1). These laws exert their influence
through mediating mechanisms, which are represented by intervening
variables.
Among the earliest techniques that were developed for the analysis of
complicated relationships between variables were factor analysis, regres
sion analysis, and Lazarsfeld's (1955) method of elaboration. Today it
is possible, by means of covariance structure analysis, to combine into
one analysis the different steps for which the psychologist of the 1950s
needed factor and regression analyses (Schoenberg, 1989) or, by means
of log-linear models, to correct the technical deficiencies of the elabora
tion procedure of the 1960s (Hagernaas, 1990, p. 23). In methodological
terms, however, these new and elegant techniques introduced nothing
new compared to the idea described in Figure 7.1.
A second characteristic of empirical research in these fields is that the
search for explanatory factors is restricted to two sources. Either those
factors lie inside the person, in his or her dispositions or traits such as
needs, abilities, attitudes, and so on, or they are hidden somewhere in
the environment or situation. The final explanation may contain factors
107
108
Antti Eskola
Factors
determine
A j , Ag, A|< 6 1 C .
phenomenon ( Y )
Scientific law
PERSON,
disposition
ENVIRONMENT,
situation
from both domains and in this sense may be based on the interaction of
person and environment (Figure 7.2).
Over the years, psychology has no doubt made some progress in its
search for explanations. However, it still remains trapped in the cul-desac represented by the dichotomy described in Figure 7.2. All that has
happened is that the emphasis has shifted from the left to the right, that
is, there has been "sequential progression from the dispositional strat
egy to the interactional strategy to the situational strategy" (Snyder &
Ickes, 1985).
Transcending the trait-situation dichotomy
So what is wrong with the idea presented in Figure 7.2? Accord
ing to it, there are two sources of explanatory factors. I will take a simple
example from the field of historical psychology. Renvall (1949) studied
the Finnish man of the 16th century using criminal court records. He
found a phenomenon that seems to call for an explanation. In the 16th
century, people seemed to be so interested in court sessions that they were
"something of a popular entertainment," as Renvall says. Large numbers
of people would always turn up on court session days, and their involve
ment in the court proceedings was so intense that serious disturbances
sometimes occurred. How do we explain this phenomenon? Which of
the two sources of explanation should we turn to?
Renvall himself turns to the person. According to him, people in those
days were "affective" and unable to control their emotions. That is why
109
they liked to attend court meetings and to take an active part in them.
But the environment may also have played some part. That is, on court
sessions days there was always beer for sale. This might have attracted
people as well; and when people got drunk, they also got involved and
interfered in the court proceedings. Perhaps both of these factors are rel
evant. Perhaps the active involvement of the audience is explained by the
effect of inebriation on the person who was not very good at controlling
his or her emotions in the first place. The final explanation would thus
lie in the interaction of person and environment.
I do not believe that this explanation is totally irrelevant. But the most
important thing of all is nevertheless still to be mentioned: the activity of
"administration of justice," which transcends the personenvironment
dichotomy. That is, from RenvalPs data we also learn that the presence
and active participation of an audience was actually required at court ses
sions. It was one constitutive element of that activity. In many cases,
decisions had to be made on the basis of oral tradition. Therefore, an
audience had to be present whom the judge could consult. Renvall has
evidence of cases where the judge was forced to call off the court session
because not enough people had arrived. Not only that, those who failed
to appear were fined.
My example dates back to the 16th century. But the truth that psychol
ogy needs not only the person and the environment but also the concept
of activity still applies today. I refuse to believe that many of those who
attended the 2nd International Congress for Research on Activity The
ory in Lahti did so because they are certain types of persons, or because
Lahti is such an attractive environment, or because the situation at home
was so intolerable that they had to get away for a while. They went to
Lahti in order to participate in an activity called an international congress
on activity theory. This is the first thing we have to realize; only then can
we see whether there is any room left for additional explanations referring
to person and environment. This is why we have to add a third source of
explanation - activity - and write beside it: START HERE! (Figure 7.3)
I am sure that the concept of activity could add an important new step
to those analyses that now stop short at the concept of situation. Let
us consider the following question by Ross and Nisbett (1991, pp. 2-4):
"While walking briskly to a meeting some distance across a college cam
pus, John comes across a man slumped in a doorway, asking him for help.
Will John offer it, or will he continue on his way?"
We can agree with Ross and Nisbett that "nothing one is likely to
know or learn about John would be of much use in helping predict John's
110
Antti Eskola
\\\
Start here!
In activity the actor
if X, then Y ,
law, rule
ACTIVITY
ENVIRONMENT
112
Antti Eskola
might just as well eat what I please and ignore the health consequences.
Second, I may reason that the most important thing in life is health, so
I will move out to the country and grow my own food using biodynamic
methods. In both cases, the law has an impact on me. In the former case,
there is an accumulation of additives in my body; in the latter case, there
is a change in my whole way of life. I cannot escape the law and step out
side it, but I do have the freedom to choose what effects I allow those laws
to have on me.
The conclusion is precisely the same even if Y, which follows from my
act X, is the reaction of some other person or society, such as in the case
of social interaction or social norms. Just as fish live and swim in water,
we live our lives swimming in water that consists of laws and rules of the
type "if X, then Y." However, the course of our lives is not determined
by the laws any more than the course of swimming fish is determined by
water. From this it follows that the analysis must start not with water but
with swimming, as we are instructed to do in Figures 7.3 and 7.4.
Breaking loose from the power-knowledge coalition
At first glance, it seems quite obvious that if we want to under
stand the meanings attached by actors to their activities, the laws and
rules they take into account, and the logics forming the basis on which
they do this, it is useful to listen to their accounts, which is what so-called
ethogenic techniques do (see Harre, 1979, pp. 124-128). By bending or
breaking rules, which has been the trademark of ethnomethodological re
search techniques, we can grasp the logic of the practical consciousness
that the actor cannot express discursively (e.g., Garfinkel, 1967, pp. 3 5 75). The study of activity turns as if by itself to techniques that Parker
(1989) calls the methods of new social psychology in contrast to the labo
ratory experiment of old social psychology.
But is there anything radically new about new psychology as elabo
rated by Harre (1979) and others? Parker (1989) refers to Foucault's idea
according to which power uses two types of knowledge for purposes of
discipline: first, lawfulnesses that help to regulate behavior and, second,
the confessions of the disciplined. If the laboratory experiment helps
power by obtaining the first type of knowledge, new psychology helps it
by obtaining confessions, also known as accounts.
I believe there are some research techniques that the study of activity
could employ in its efforts to transcend these problems and to avoid be
ing caught in the traps of power. I have in mind the technique known
113
References
Eskola, A., Kihlstrom, A., Kivinen, D., Weckroth, K., & Ylijoki, O.-H. (1988). Blind
alleys in social psychology: A search for mays out. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Hagernaas, J. A. (1990). Categorial longitudinal data. Newbury Park: Sage.
Harre, R. (1979). Social being. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Lazarsfeld, P. F. (1955). Interpretation of statistical relations as a research operation. In
P. F. Lazarsfeld & M. Rosenberg (Eds.), The language of social research. Glencoe: Free Press.
114
Antti Eskola
Hdyrynen
Introduction
Recent changes in Europe have been swift and have altered the
entire political landscape. As a result, the structures that were established
after the Second World War have faded away. The last chain of conver
sions started with the rebellions in Poland, continued with perestroika in
the Soviet Union, and culminated in 1989/1991 in the collapse of the so
cialist regimes of Eastern Europe. Fixed coalitions known as the Soviet
Union, the German Democratic Republic, the Warsaw Pact, and Yu
goslavia suddenly collapsed. As a consequence, the tension between the
opposing military superpowers was alleviated and deep conflicts within
the postsocialist sphere emerged.
But has this development actually been rapid? One may even say that
what happened happened too late: What nurtured the tensions within
the earlier socialist nations is that many preserved too long their centralist
coalitions and provided no space for change. Present-day Europe is full
of indications of a new relationship between the individual and society.
One of the areas where these indications are manifested is the process of
economic and political integration in Western Europe - a type of devel
opment seemingly opposite to the disintegration of socialism. How are
these changes reflected in day-to-day activities? How swiftly can people
change?
Mainstream psychology does not usually concern itself with these
kinds of temporal problems. It has been extremely static in its premises
and methods. To paraphrase Pierre Bourdieu, academic research has
chiefly been concerned with the world of "preconstructed facts" mirror
ing the conventions of everyday life rather than the hidden, temporal,
gender- and class-based flow of social behavior (Bourdieu, 1992). Couze
Venn (1984, p. 130) suspects that the dominant social forms, such as a
middle-class type of ability or male linguistic practice, are translated in
115
116
Yrjo-Paavo Hayrynen
117
Valery's poem describes a battle between the self and the frozen repre
sentation of knowledge. Some years earlier, Henri Bergson had revived
the Greek philosophers' distinction between kairos, dynamic and irre
versible social time, and kronos, the homogeneous and celestial time of
the natural sciences (Bergson, 1985).
Bourdieu draws attention to the fact that for the Sophists kairos also
denoted the "vital point": both the right moment and the right words
for the moment. This was to be a well-timed blow that introduced a
turning point in the debate: "As rhetoricians they were predisposed to
make a philosophy of the practice of language as strategy" (Bourdieu,
1990, pp. 287-288). In this way, the Sophists also generated their being
as polemicists or "intellectuals," those who deliver punches in the spiri
tual sphere. In general, humans create themselves in collective practices
such as work, art, politics, and the various forms of dialogue. But con
flicts are created in the course of the same self-development; as Henri
Wallon writes, evolution tends to proceed through "leaps, breaks, and
even catastrophes" (Wallon, 1951). Development can result in unantici
pated consequences that drastically limit the realm of goal-directed ac
tivity (Elias, 1977, p. 47). But is it possible, then, to connect in one and
the same study breaks and continuity, goal-directed activity and unantic
ipated effects? This is a nuclear question if we wish to study activity in
the context of present change.
Psychology as a m e m o r y park
The German educationalist Johann Friedrich Herbart drafted in
1816 a program for psychology that illustrated a robust physicalist am
bition. "The lawfulness of the human mind will completely resemble
that of the starry sky" (Herbart, cited in Ebbinghaus, 1920, p. 13). This
search for the firmament of innate laws remains to this day the ambition
of mainstream psychology. A landscape of knowledge, with its adher
ence to static rules, was described in Paul Valery's poem The Cemetery
at the Sea in 1920. Composed of motionless gravestones, the cemetery
is a glorious but dead temple to time. Above is the midday sun, the
"perfect brain thinking only of itself." This "right-minded noon" is the
protector of the status quo, an analog of the academic system of refer
ees whose task is to reveal heretical deviations rather than to appreci
ate any fresh movement. However, a fresh Mediterranean wind expels
the worshipers of the idols at the end of this ballad. If psychology is
compared to that kind of memorial park, then the gale's coming is still
delayed.
Dialectic of durations
Is not history, the dialectic of duration, the explication of the so
cial in all its reality? asks the social historian Fernand Braudel (1958). He
claims that the time perspective of human research is either too broad,
so that concrete change remains unrecognized, or focused on timeless
events. Braudel invites social researchers to consider processes of long
duration that may indeed take centuries. This duration symbolizes the
deep layer of habits, which are not altered instantly (see also Peeters, 1991):
Humans are prisoners of long-lasting centuries, of climates, of vegetations, of popula
tions, of animals, of cultures; of a slowly constructed balance from which they cannot
escape without the risks involved in wagering all. (Braudel, 1958, p. 731)
118
Yrjb-Paavo Hdyrynen
that are irreversible and those that are not yet finished. The key con
cept in this thinking is the dialectic of duration, which means that during
a single period different progressions of time emerge, supporting and/or
contradicting each other. Conjuncture has connections with long-term
changes but also with the life course of the individual and even with the
isolated event.
Harry F. M. Peeters applies Braudel's theory in a promising classifica
tion of time levels in psychological research. Peeters studied the gene
sis of childhood in early Dutch and French capitalism. He believes that
sound psychological research should always consist of three forms of his
tory: general history, an individual's personal history, and the history of
mental functions that are to be studied (Peeters, 1984,1990,1991; Peeters,
Gielis, & Caspers, 1988). Although both Braudel and Peeters stress the
slow unfolding of all social processes, I suggest that the potentials that are
shaped by long-term processes, such as the acquisition of new abilities,
manifest themselves abruptly when the right moment comes.
How are the different currents of psychology related to this idea of di
alectical change? This question will be clarified if we discuss the nature
of the representations of change in psychology. For this purpose, I make
use of the ideas of Karl Riegel.
The enactive mind
In his final essay, Psychology Mon Amour, Riegel (1979) declares
that the primary task of psychological research should be to estimate to
what extent social change, especially transformations initiated by psy
chological knowledge itself, affects the future activities of people. Using
Bruner's classification of thinking codes into the symbolic, iconic, and enactive, Riegel claims that the orientation of Western psychology is chiefly
"symbolic-verbal" - that is, conceptual and abstract - or "iconic," related
to sensory data, rather than enactive (i.e., pertaining to action that cre
ates new conditions for life within society). Selectivity also exists: Some
theories depict only human beings as active, whereas others include the
environment. Riegel (1979) summarizes this contrast between passive
and active representations in the scheme depicted in Figure 8.1.
Naturally, the model provokes a number of questions. For example,
why is Vygotsky placed in the same segment as Skinner? Or could Riegel
have also used Rousseau or Freud as paradigms of personal evolution
(Segment C)? Segment D appeals naturally to dialectic psychologists,
though one could ask whether there are no newer representatives of this
119
PASSIVE
PASSIVE
ACTIVE
A.LOCKE
HUME
(HERBART)
C. LEIBNIZ
PIAGET
CHOMSKY
(FREUD)
inter-action
'clockwork'
self-action
& development
'inner force'
ENVIRONMENT
ACTIVE:
B.SKINNER
VYGOTSKY
acquirement &
internalization
'outer force'
D. MARX
RUBINSTEIN
(WALLON
BOURDIEU)
enactment
& agency
'dialectic'
paradigm (active individual and active environment) than Karl Marx and
S. L. Rubinstein, especially if one considers the changes that have taken
place in everyday life and politics since the time of these two eminent
thinkers. I propose that Bourdieu, Foucault, and Bakhtin, reinterpreting
Marx in the domain of cultural power, all fulfill the criteria for enactive
representation that Riegel sets.
Riegel explains Vygotsky's location in Figure 8.1 on the basis of the early
works in which Vygotsky stressed the role of internalization as opposed
to exteriorization. A still better parallel for Vygotsky might have been
Emile Durkheim, who derived all individual psychological facts from the
existing social laws. It was exactly on the basis of this "Durkheimian
bias" that S. L. Rubinstein, in his monumental Principles of General Psy
chology (1948/1977), criticized Vygotsky's sociogenetic theory. Another
point is that Vygotsky did not pay much attention to the conflicts that
emerge between learners and instructors in formal education. As Goodnow (1990) remarks, Vygotsky's concept of internalization illustrates a
motivated learner instructed by a benign adult, an ideal that rarely oc
curs even in the closest family circle. Can one say that Vygotsky failed
to problematize the ambiguous contents of Soviet social reality? On the
other hand, one might also ask whether he considered such contents, even
120
Yrjo-Paavo Hdyrynen
121
122
Yrjd-Paavo Hayrynen
and to a dialectic of various durations. The first case concerns the prob
lem of the structure of changing potentials of creativity that emerged in a
longitudinal study of Finnish students. The second case involves global
changes in Europe today in light of Bourdieu's and Foucault's notions of
power and resistance.
My own research program, concerned with Finnish students and aca
demics, covers two decades and thus represents a typical duration of
"conjunctural psychology" (Peeters, 1984). It comprises a longitudinal
study of applicants to the University of Helsinki in 1965, with followup until 1983. In addition, we collected data on new applicants in 1980,
which gave us a chance to compare cohort differences in the values guid
ing occupational choice. The study has been reported in several pub
lished articles (e.g., Hayrynen, 1987, 1989). Here I review some of the
aspects of creativity as reflected in individual trajectories and as related
to conjunctural change in the values of choice.
The expressions of creativity on which we gathered information rep
resent a heterogeneous set of aspects. As our study target is a cohort
of intellectuals, these include value orientations and self-evaluations, as
sessed literary and aesthetic production in 1983, Ph.D. dissertations, and
the degree of autonomy in work, which were all linked with feelings of
creativeness in our subjects. This heterogeneity characterizes the nature
of creativity. Creativity may be seen as symbolic capital for middle-class
people. Alternatively, it can be studied as an aspect of the self-images of
the individuals who were investigated.
At the university, students who came from upper-middle-class homes
activated the cultural capital their families had gathered; by this means,
they also reproduced the class position of their family in their learning
processes. Their cultural background was already visible in their selfimage at the time they entered the university. In this case, the "creative"
self-concept correlated with social origin and guided the individual's fur
ther selection of respected or autonomous jobs. But we could also iden
tify the effect of career on the development of creative orientation. For
those who were placed in positions in which work was self-directed, a
strengthening of the orientation to independence and creativity occurred
by 1983. This relationship between work and personal development has
been investigated by Kohn and Schooler (1983) in longitudinal studies
that include several cultural comparisons.
Despite the diversity of the various individual trajectories, we observed
an overall rise between 1965 and 1983 in the creativity-oriented values of
our cohort sample^ Comparison of the two academic cohorts of students
123
124
Yrjo-Paavo Hayrynen
Convulsion in Eastern Europe: Conjuncture or
completed change?
125
126
Yrjb-Paavo Hdyrynen
127
128
Yrjo-Paavo Hdyrynen
129
process. Even the most unexpected changes may display a revival of old
patterns of behavior and, thus, the aspects of "long duration" (Peeters,
1990). As such, a revival of old values may even act as a restraint on mod
ern Western consciousness.
However this may be, deeply inculcated strategies of habitus - such as
patterns of opposition, fears, and habits of economic behavior - may sur
vive for decades despite overt political change. This also explains why
the different postsocialist countries have such divergent models of change.
Each period seems to involve a certain bottom layer of historical and so
cial facts, which often remains neglected in contemporary research. If,
therefore, one wishes to reveal the potentials for development in Russia,
Poland, Germany, or Europe in general, these bottom layers should also
be taken into account.
How much, then, can the future activities of people be influenced? Psy
chologists do not usually give advice on how revolutions should be con
ducted. Their role is predominantly that of specialists rather than of intel
lectuals or dona tors of blows. However, Foucault stresses that in addition
to political forms of power there exists the power of truth. He describes
the earlier model of the "universal" intellectual. This was the man of jus
tice, the man of law, who opposed power and despotism (Foucault, 1981).
The 1960s were perhaps the last historical manifestation of this prominent
type of intellectual; in Eastern Europe it still plays an important role.
Since the 1960s, there has been an accelerated movement toward "spe
cific" intellectuals, toward the savant/expert who exercises the power of
truth only in a limited field. The chance that experts, such as psychol
ogists, will have an effect on development depends on their capacity to
deal with specific problems of health, the environment, or social policy.
The vital point here would be to separate the different forms of power
from each other. Foucault emphasizes that truth is of the world; it has
been produced under multiple constraints. For him, the problem is not
so much a question of emancipating truth from every power system but
rather of detaching the power of truth from all other forms of hegemony:
social, economic, and cultural (Foucault, 1981). In psychology, this kind
of extraction of truth should include the reevaluation of static, personcentered methodologies and the introduction of cultural and dialogical
approaches.
As some systems collapse, a fundamental process of integration also oc
curs in Europe. Integration is not limited to the economic coordination
of nations but also contains the idea of open cultural and social exchange.
The direction of development depends on the openness of the system
130
Yrjo-Paavo Hdyrynen
131
Hayrynen, L. (1992). How architects look on their history. In P. Korvenmaa (Ed.), His
tory of Finnish architects on their first centenary (pp. 233-253). Helsinki: Rakennuskirja Oy.
Hayrynen, Y.-P. (1981). Tutkiva ajattelu ja korkeakoulujen sisainen kaytanto (Explorative
thinking and the implicit practice of universities). Tiedeja Edistys, 1, 55-59.
Hayrynen, Y.-P. (1987). The life contents and social types of Finnish intellectuals. In R.
Eyerman, L. G. Svensson, & T Soderqvist (Eds.), Intellectuals, universities and
the state in western modern societies (pp. 211-234). Berkeley: University of Cali
fornia Press.
Hayrynen, Y.-P. (1989). Life trajectory, impact of university and intellectual position:
1965-1982. In M. A. Luszcz & T. Nettelbeck (Eds.), Psychological development:
Perspectives across the life-span (pp. 345-355). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Inglehart, R. (1990). Culture shift. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Janik, A., & Toulmin, S. (1973). Wittgenstein's Vienna. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Jarve, P. (1989). Attitude change in Estonia during perestroika. Poster presentation at the
ISBD International Congress on Research into Development, Jyvaskyla.
Joravsky, D. (1989). Russian psychology: A critical history. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Kohn, M. L., & Schooler, C. (Eds.). (1983). Work and personality: An inquiry into the im
pact of social stratification. Norwood: Ablex.
Kozulin, A. (1984). Psychology in Utopia: Toward a social history of Soviet psychology.
Cambridge, MA: M I T Press.
Leont'ev, A. N. (1977). Activity and consciousness. In Philosophy in the USSR: Problems
of dialectical materialism (pp. 180-202). Moscow: Progress.
Peeters, H. F. M. (1984). Theoretical orientations in a historical psychology. In K. J. Gergen & M. M. Gergen (Eds.), Historical social psychology (pp. 61-82). Hillsdale:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Peeters, H. F. M. (1990). The life-span as a sequence of diachronic interactions. Paper pre
sented at the 2nd International Congress for Research in Activity Theory, Lahti,
May 1990.
Peeters, H. F. M. (1991). Sosiaalisen konstruktivismin mahdollisuudet ja rajat (Possibil
ities and limits of social constructivism). University of Joensuu Psychological
Reports No. 12.
Peeters, H. F. M., Gielis, M., & Caspers, C. (1988). Historical behavioural sciences: A guide
to the literature. Tilburg, the Netherlands: Tilburg University Press.
Radzikhovskii, L. A. (1988). T h e dialogic quality of consciousness in the works of M. M.
Bakhtin. Soviet Psychology, 26(1), 3-28.
Radzikhovskii, L. A. (1991). T h e historical meaning of the crisis in psychology. Soviet
Psychology, 24(4), 71-96.
Riegel, K. (1979). Psychology mon amour: A countertext. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Rubinstein, S. L. (1977). Grundlagen der Allgemeinen Psychologie. Berlin: Volk und Wissen. (Original work published in Russian in 1948)
Rubinstein, S. L. (1989). The principle of creative self-activity (philosophical foundations
of modern pedagogy). Soviet Psychology, 27(3), 6-21. (Original work published
in 1919)
Sabour, M. (1988). Homo Arabicus academicus. University of Joensuu Publications in So
cial Sciences, No. 11.
132
Yrjo-Paavo
Hdyrynen
Introduction
The work and theory of Vygotsky (1978, 1987), Luria (1966,
1987), and Leont'ev (1978) reflect their commitment to dialectical and
historical materialism. This commitment led to their interest in the phylogeny as well as the ontogeny of the activity of organisms. The personal
and societal histories of these three leaders in human science did not make
it possible for them to be aware of complex developments in the study of
the evolution of behavior.
Vygotsky was clearly knowledgeable about the most well-known re
search in primate behavior, but the significant theoretical controversies
about such work were to occur after his lifetime. Luria and Leont'ev were
equally well read in the European and North American literature. How
ever, they also were part of the Soviet scientific community and reflected
the dominant thinking in the biological and physiological disciplines. So
viet scientists by and large accepted the traditional division between "an
imals" and humans; although humans had some "lower animal instincts,
drives and emotions," they were reflective primarily of societal processes
(Graham, 1987). The history of this view in relation to Marx, Engels,
and Lenin requires its own treatment, but it is fair to say that it was the
view held by those three dialectical materialists, as well as by Vygotsky,
Luria, and Leont'ev (the "Troika" of activity theory).
This belief by the Troika does not detract from their significant de
velopment of human activity theory based on historical and dialectical
materialism. It is possible, however, that some consideration of more re
cent thinking is warranted. One example of contemporary thought is the
concept of integrative levels, an application of dialectical and historical
materialism to the evolution and development of behavior.
The vitality of dialectical and historical materialism is at issue today
in two of its most creative and useful expressions: activity theory and
133
134
Ethel Tobach
135
136
Ethel Tobach
137
comprising abiotic or nonliving and biotic or living processes). The interconnectedness and interdependencies of these three categories are evi
dent in the evolution of intraorganismic morphological/physiological lev
els, particularly in the evolution of neural systems.
Two categories: Social organization/behavior and
environmental control
The continuities and discontinuities in two of these categories,
the social behavior/organization category and the environmental control
category, will be discussed briefly and then related to the category of
activity.
By definition, a living organism is one that reproduces itself. It is there
fore not surprising that every species, beginning with blue-green algae,
once thought to reproduce only by fission, or splitting in two, must at
some time in its life cycle mix the gametes of one organism with the ga
metes of another to reproduce. Thus, there is no species that is not social
at some time in its history: That is, it engages in an activity involving
another organism, but the quality of its social activity is reproductive.
The forms and activities involved in reproduction at succeeding species
levels become increasingly subsumed within other types of interindividual activity (e.g., feeding, anti-predation). As the contradiction between
reproductive and nonreproductive social behavior sharpens, the continu
ity of the category social behavior/organization becomes discontinuous
on different phyletic levels and social behavior differentiates from repro
ductive behavior. These changing relationships within the levels of the
category of social behavior/organization have been ignored or misinter
preted by ethologists and sociobiologists, who reduce social behavior to
genetic perpetuation and make reproductive behavior dominant on all
phyletic levels, including humans (Dawkins, 1976).
The category of behavioral environmental control applies to all forms
of life and is evident in the earliest forms as the taxic behavior of acellular organisms. That is, organisms that are not attached to the substrate
change location as a function of physical and chemical changes in the
environment; they move toward or away from the gradient of change.
An amoeba forms a pseudopod or "false foot," and moves to a particular
chemical change in the environment whether the source of the chemi
cal is another living organism, an amoeba of the same group, or not, or
whether the chemical change is from an abiotic source, such as one pro
duced by heat or light, from which it will withdraw or approach. The
138
Ethel Tobach
139
140
Ethel Tobach
141
142
Ethel Tobach
143
Activity theory and the concept of integrative levels are views that are
contrary to genetic determinism. The roots of activity theory and the
concept of integrative levels are in dialectical and historical materialism,
whereas the roots of genetic determinism are in reductionism, logical
positivism, idealism, and scientific materialism.
Who are the proponents of the genetic determinist-hereditarian views?
The Nobel Prize winner Konrad Lorenz best represented the ethological views that the explanation of human behaviors such as aggression, sex
differences in parenting, and group formation could be extrapolated from
what ethologists called the "instinctive, inherited, innate, inborn" behav
ior patterns described in animals (Lorenz, 1970,1971; see also Lehrman,
1953). Today ethology is an accepted, accredited, and honored ideology
in biology, psychology, psychiatry, anthropology, sociology, and so on in
all academic and scientific communities in the world. There are those
who profess a neoethology that involves developmental explanations of
behavior. But these explanations are based on the concept that genes de
termine developmental patterns (Hinde, 1988).
Another expression of genetic determinism is sociobiology. J. P. Scott
originally defined sociobiology as "the interdisciplinary science which
lies between the fields of biology (particularly ecology and physiology)
and psychology and sociology" (Scott, 1950, p. 1004). The term sociobiol
ogy has undergone significant reformulation, however. The first phase of
this process was W. D. Hamilton's (1964) interpretation of evolutionary
theory, which led to axiomatic formulations of the relationship between
biology and social behavior. E. O. Wilson (1975) provided a new contex
tual meaning of sociobiology derived from Hamilton's work by analyzing
human nature and society from a scientific materialistic approach.
C. J. Lumsden and E. O. Wilson (1981) then defined sociobiology as the
"systematic study of the biological basis of all forms of social behavior, in
cluding sexual behavior and parentoffspring interaction, in all kinds of
organisms." They elaborated this meaning further by postulating geneculture coevolution, which provides an "internally consistent network of
causal explanation between biology and the social sciences" (p. 243). Cen
tral to this proposal is the culturegene, defined by them as "the basic unit
of culture. A relatively homogeneous set of artifacts, behaviors and mentifacts (mental constructs . . . ) " (p. 268). These "are processed through a
sequence of epigenetic rules" (p. 7) that are "ultimately genetic in basis"
and channel "the development of an anatomical, physiological, cogni
tive, or behavioral trait in a particular direction" (p. 370). Gene-culture
coevolution is governed by natural selection and genetic fitness, so that
144
Ethel Tobach
145
146
Ethel Tobach
Kleiman, D. G., & Eisenberg, J. F. (1973). Comparisons of canid and felid social systems
from an evolutionary perspective. Animal Behavior, 21, 637-659.
Lehrman, D. S. (1953). A critique of Lorenz's "objectivistic" theory of animal behavior.
Quarterly Review of Biology, 28, 337-363.
Leont'ev, A. N. (1978). Activity, consciousness and personality. Englewood Cliffs: PrenticeHall.
Livergood, N. D. (1967). Activity in Marx'philosophy. T h e Hague: Martinus Nijhoff
Lorenz, K. (1970). Studies in animal and human behaviour (Vol. 1). Cambridge, MA: Har
vard University Press.
Lorenz, K. (1971). Studies in animal and human behaviour (Vol. 2). Cambridge, MA: Har
vard University Press.
Lumsden, C. J., & Wilson, E. O. (1981). Genes, mind and culture: The coevolutionary pro
cess. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Luria, A. R. (1966). Higher corticalfunctions in man. New York: Basic Books.
Luria, A. R. (1987). Afterword to the Russian edition. In R. W. Rieber & A. S. Carton
(Eds.), The collected works ofL. S. Vygotsky: Vol. I. Problems in general psychol
ogy. New York: Plenum.
Novikoff, A. B. (1945). The concept of integrative levels and biology. Science, 101, 209215.
Plomin, R. (1990). T h e role of inheritance in behavior. Science, 248, 183-188.
Schneirla, T. C. (1971). Selected writings of T. C. Schneirla (L. R. Aronson, E. Tobach,
D. S. Lehrman, & J. S. Rosenblatt, Eds.). San Francisco: Freeman.
Scott, J. P. (1950). Foreword. Methodology and techniques for the study of animal soci
eties. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 5/(10003), 1-5.
Tobach, E. (1981). Evolutionary aspects of the activity of the organism and its develop
ment. In R. M . Lerner & N. A. Busch-Rossnagle (Eds.), Individuals as producers
of their development: A lifespan perspective. New York: Academic Press.
Tobach, E. (1987). Integrative levels in the comparative psychology of cognition, language
and consciousness. In G. Greenberg & E. Tobach (Eds.), Cognition, language
and consciousness. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Tobach, E. (1990a). Biologie und Sozialwissenschaften. In H. J. Sandkuhler & A. Regenbogen (Eds.), Europdische Enzyklopadie zu Philosophic und Wissenschaften.
Hamburg: Felix Meiner Verlag.
Tobach, E. (1990b). The amoeba and Einstein. In G. Greenberg & E. Tobach (Eds.), Evo
lution of knowledge. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Tobach, E. (1990c). If it were easy it would have been done: Genetic processes make a hard
row to hoe. Commentary on article by P. Roubertoux and C. Capron. Cahiers
de Psychologie Cognitive, 10, 681-685.
Wilson, E. O. (1975). Sociobiology: The new synthesis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univer
sity Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The psychology of higher mental functions (M.
Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Thinking and speech. In R. W Rieber & A. S. Carton (Eds.),
The collected works ofL. S. Vygotsky: Vol. I. Problems in general psychology. New
York: Plenum.
10
T h e relevance to psychology of
Antonio G r a m s c i ' s ideas on activity
and c o m m o n sense
Francesco Paolo Colucci
Introduction
Common sense is a key concept in the study of man. Its relevance
has been further underlined by recent social transformations and polit
ical events. Take, for example, the role it played in the collapse of the
Communist regimes in Eastern Europe and the breakup of the partitocracy in Italy. In general, common sense orientates and at the same time
is the product of activity, a process that includes communication, coop
eration, conflict, and negotiation.
Although Gramsci's ideas on common sense are in the tradition of
Enlightenment thought, some aspects are remarkably modern and use
ful in current psychological research. They link up with the problem of
social representations, which is now crucial in social cognitive psychol
ogy. Furthermore, these ideas are founded on the Marxist concepts of
praxis and historicity, which are in important respects in line with the
cultural-historical school founded by the Russian psychologist Vygotsky
and, hence, with the concept of activity as developed by this psychologi
cal school.
I have chosen to concentrate here on Gramsci's ideas in order to help
psychologists, well versed in their own fields of research, in making
their own observations on the problems put forward. The underly
ing assumption is that these ideas can serve as a basis for a compari
son of different psychological theories, above all between cognitive social
psychology and activity theory, and thus contribute to the advance of
psychology.
147
148
149
150
to clarify the relation between the latter and good sense. The "sound nu
cleus" of common sense, good sense "deserves to be developed and made
unitary and consistent" (Q11, p. 1380). It reveals itself in the "expressions
of common language" and consists, moreover, in understanding philoso
phy above all as an "invitation to reflect, to understand that what happens
is basically rational and, as such, must be faced by focusing one's ratio
nal powers and not letting oneself be carried away by violent impulses"
(ibid.). More important, common sense, inasmuch as it is good sense,
is able to "identify in a series of judgments . . . the exact simple cause
and is not led astray by metaphysical abstruseness and falsely profound
pseudo-scientific elaboration, etc." (Q. 10, p. 1334). Whereas good sense
reacts against such cultural degeneration, common sense, in contrast,
"purveys Philistinism, mummifies a justified reaction into a permanent
state of mind" (Q. 8, pp. 958-959, and Q, 11, pp. 1399,1483).
To these principal basic elements Gramsci adds more complex distinc
tions and characteristics that further define common sense in general.
Here we start with the distinction between common sense and folklore,
defined earlier as one of the three components of spontaneous philoso
phy. Although he frequently uses the terms common sense and folklore as
synonyms, there is an important distinction:
Common sense [which, together with good sense, is "the most widespread conception of
life and man" among the different social strata] is not something rigid and immobile, but
is continually transformed, enriched with scientific notions and philosophical opinions
that have entered the public domain. Common sense is the folklore of philosophy and
is always halfway between true folklore (that is, as it is commonly understood) and phi
losophy, science and the economics of scientists. Common sense creates future folklore,
namely a relatively rigid phase of popular knowledge of a certain time and place. (Q. 24,
p. 2271, and Q. 1, p. 76; Q. 5, paragraph 156; Q. 9, paragraph 15; Q. 27, paragraphs 1
and 2)
151
152
As this quotation makes clear, the essential aspect of the "new com
mon sense" consists in its being "critical." Furthermore, "conformism,"
which for Gramsci must also characterize it, can become meaningful only
153
154
pedagogy and ideas on the formation of humanity run the risk of being
viewed as a generic pedagogical willingness. For the previously men
tioned reasons, educational activity, understood as formation of the new
common sense in the masses by elites, cannot be considered simply as an
activity that starts from the historical analysis of common sense in the
masses and then acts on them from above (through elites). This is be
cause such educational activity must, in turn, depend for its efficacy on
its linkage with the practical life of the masses: In this the elites depend
on the masses.
If this dialectical relation between elites and the masses is not consti
tuted, or is not "organic," the formation or educational activity will not
achieve its aims, just as, for example, the popular universities did not
achieve their objectives. They were criticized by Gramsci as being places
where the exchange between intellectuals and the people had assumed
the form of the relationship between British merchants (the intellectuals)
and natives (the people) based on the exchange of junk for gold nuggets.
Only in these terms is it possible to distinguish the formation of the new
common sense in the masses, undertaken by the philosophy of praxis,
from the pedagogical action carried out by other cultural formations and
elites. Take, as an example, the pedagogical action of the Church and,
in particular, the Catholic Church. The latter is characterized by its in
tention to spread a "religion for the people" and keep it distinct from a
"religion for intellectuals."
There are some aspects in Gramsci's thought on common sense that
can be considered as outdated and in need of critical revision. Take, for
example, Gramsci's ideas on the function of the Party in the formation
of the new common sense and in the organization of the relation between
elites and the masses (the general idea of the "modern prince-Party").
It is undeniable that this relation is more complex inasfar as this is true
of society as a whole. At the same time, it must be remembered that
the problem of elites posed by Gramsci, though in different terms and
with different connotations, is a topical one in contemporary psychology,
where it is called minority influence or influence des minorites actives.
C o m m o n sense a n d social representations
Apart from this respect, there are others that appear in current
psychological debates, as will be evident to psychologists themselves from
what has already been said. Thus, when we read Gramsci's scattered ob
servations on common sense, several similarities and points of agreement
15 5
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
Francesco
Paolo
Colucci
2. Riickriem (1991) maintains that it is possible and useful to take the Gramscian category
of activity, and therefore the formative function attributed by Gramsci to the organi
zation of work in the modern big factory, as the starting point for an explanation of
subjectivity.
References
Bobbio, N. (1990). Saggisu Gramsci. Milan: Feltrinelli editore.
Conti, C., & Romano, D. F. (1979). // dramma uniforme. Per una teoria della vita quotidiana.
Bologna: II Mulino.
Gramsci, A. (1975). Quaderni del carcere. Critical edition by V. Gerratana. Turin: Einaudi
editore.
Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.
Holzkamp, K.,&Schurig,V. (1980). Zur Einfuhrung in A. N. Leontjew's Probletne der Entwicklung des Psychischen. Konigstein: Athenaum.
Holzkamp-Osterkamp, U. (1976). Grundlagen der psychologischen Motivationsforschung.
Frankfurt: Campus.
Jodelet, D. (1984). Representations sociales. In S. Moscovici (Ed.), Psychologie Sociale.
Paris: PUF.
Leont'ev, A. N. (1978). Activity, consciousness, and personality. Englewood Cliffs: PrenticeHall.
Luria, A. R. (1972). The man with a shattered world: The history of a brain wound. New
York: Basic Books.
Luria, A. R. (1976). Cognitive development: Its cultural and socialfoundations. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
Luria, A. R. (1978). The making of mind: A personal account of Soviet psychology. Cam
bridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Moscovici, S. (1981). On social representations. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Social cognition.
London: Academic Press.
Moscovici, S. (1984). T h e phenomenon of social representations. In R. M. Farr & S.
Moscovici (Eds.), Social representations. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Ruckriem, G. (1991). Common sense and the concepts of "sense" and "meaning." Paper pre
sented at the International Symposium "Praxis, Common Sense and Hege
mony," Bologna, December 4-5.
Stadler, M. (1988). Theory of activity and Lewin's field theory. In M. Hildebrand-Nilshon
& G. Ruckriem (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1st International Congress on Activity
Theory (Vol. 4.1). Berlin: System Druck.
Tolman, C. W., & Maiers, W. (Eds.). (1991). Critical psychology: Contributions to an histor
ical science of the subject. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Walzer, M. (1988). The company of critics. New York: Basic Books.
11
Introduction
Writing is a multifunctional activity. Writing enables us to send
messages to or receive information from people displaced in time and
space. With the aid of written symbols, we can regulate our own actions
and behaviors in the future. Among the various functions of writing,
however, I would like to focus on the function of constructing a dialogic
sphere. The following composition, which illustrates this function, was
written by a second-grade girl in a Japanese elementary school.
Example 1
TADPOLE IS A BABY FROG
Today, we decided that we were going to keep tadpoles in our classroom. I know that a
tadpole is a baby frog but I don't know it really. Tomoki said we would see hind legs first
but Naomi insisted that forelegs and hind legs grow out at the same time.
Mr. Kuwabara [the teacher of the class] didn't know what to answer. I'm really looking
forward to seeing how the tadpoles would grow.
166
Yuji Moro
167
In his later years he adopted the unit of analysis based on the discourse
studies of that time, for example, those of Yakubinsky (1923). But most
frequently in his psychological writings, Vygotsky used the word as a unit
for the analysis of speech. This concept of unit seems to have enabled
him to succeed in revealing the semiotic nature of speech and the child's
word-concept development. But at the same time, this unit became a
limitation in his studies.
Vygotsky's notion of speech function, focused on directives or com
mands and inspired by the French psychologist Pierre Janet (Wertsch,
1985), also limited his analysis of speech. Individualization is a process
of acquiring self-control. As they develop, children make use of adult
directives and commands as tools to control themselves. But the direc
tive function itself does not reveal the content of the situation in which
it is used. When directing or commanding, speakers and hearers are as
suming particular roles, recognizing the situation as some kind of social
institution, and adopting certain forms of speech closely tied to the in
stitution. The word as the unit of analysis and the directive function
of speech cannot serve as sufficient tools for investigating such concrete
speech situations.
168
YujiMoro
169
170
YujiMoro
171
172
YujiMoro
Tsuzurikata
173
174
YujiMoro
175
In the composition (Example 6), though Izumi did not yet write about
his aunt, we notice his changed way of writing. The resources provided
by other children enhanced the change. He came to use the classroom
journal genre to speak to his classmates and the teacher straightforwardly.
In this speech genre, Izumi was able to create a main character who talked
about the process he could use to write about "Hatchan."
176
Yuji Moro
Example 7
ME WHO CAME TO THINK ABOUT HATCHAN EARNESTLY
(sixth grade, May, excerpts)
When I was a third grader, Madoka came to my house to play with me. He looked at
Hatchan when she looked into the room in which we were playing, and he said "Who
is that?" I answered, hoping that she would go out, "Well, she is Hatchan. When she
was small she was taken ill, and became like that," and Madoka said "Pity." But I felt
ashamed, I wished Hatchan was not at my home. . . .
This composition (Example 7), written 10 months after Example 4, is
17 pages long. Izumi constructed a dialogic sphere in which he set him
self up as a posited author describing his difficult problem to his class
mates and to the teacher. In this composition he is taking a double role.
The first role is that of the posited author who assimilates various ut
terances into the sphere. The other role is that of the main character.
By taking this double role - in other words, by acting as a split speaking
subject - Izumi depicted Hatchan vividly. In Example 7, he frequently
quotes others' utterances and describes the scenes and events in which
he acted on and interacted with other people around him.
The development of Izumi's interface of utterances seems to consist of
three phases, as illustrated in Figure 11.1.
177
PHASE 1
Izutni
PHASE 2
178
YujiMoro
179
Then they each drew continuity sketches to divide the whole story into
scenes and to determine subthemes for each scene, setting themselves up
as directors who intended to make a film from the cartoon story. Finally,
each of them wrote a new story based on his or her continuity sketches.
Some of the children seemed to succeed in gaining a new way of writing.
Here I examine two compositions written by a girl in Mr. Wakabayashi's
class before and after studying the director's activity. The following is a
composition written before the study.
Example 8
THE FIRST SHOPPING
One day, Kurichan *vas asked to go shopping by his father. Because it was the first time
for him to go shopping by himself, he was excited and went out rigorously.
180
Yuji Moro
181
At that moment Kuri's mother was ironing. She was very anxious about him. She was
absent-minded and burned shirts and pants with the hot iron.
Behind a telegraph pole at the corner, Kuri's father was nervous, jiggling his knees so
fast that we could not see it. His face looked like a chimp's face. He crinkled his face
like an aggressive chimp that was fighting with another chimp. He waited for Kuri for
ten minutes. But Kuri did not come out of the store. When he decided to rush into the
store, Kurichan came out, smiling, with packs of cigarettes in his hand. Father, looking
at Kuri, wrinkled his face more, with joy, and he was relieved....
Kurichan came back just as father returned and sat down with an innocent look.
Kurichan felt very happy that he was able to go shopping by himself. Father and mother
felt relieved. Kurichan thought it was good. Praised by father and mother, Kurichan felt
very good.
The girl succeeded in assimilating into herself a posited author who dialogized with the characters in the story. The posited author was created
through her process of appreciating the director's activity. Compositions
written after studying the director's activity had two characteristics: uti
lization of quotations and detailed description of the scenes in the story.
As in the previous example, almost all of the children quoted the char
acters' speech. Children were able to add various details: the characters'
appearance and behaviors, their action and body movement, and their
locative relationship. These were details seen by a posited author who
was sent by the actual writer.
In this chapter, I have proposed an approach to writing activity based
on the idea that this activity involves creating interfaces of utterances
utilizing various genres and social languages. Through the creation of
interfaces, children achieve individualization of speech.
References
Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). The dialogic imagination. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Bakhtin, M. M. (1986). Speech genres and other essays. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Bakhtin, M. M. / Voloshinov, V. N. (1973). Marxism and the philosophy of language. Cam
bridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Britton, J. (1977). Language and the nature of learning: An individual perspective. In
The seventy-sixth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Holquist, M. (1981). T h e politics of representation. In S. Greenblatt (Ed.), Allegory in
representation: Selected papersfrom the English Institute (pp. 163-185). Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press.
Kitagawa, M. M., & Kitagawa, C. (1987). Making connection with writing: An expressive
writing model in Japanese school. Portsmouth: Heinemann.
Niwa, N. (1982). Asu ni mukatte (Toward tomorrow). Tokyo: Soodo Bunka.
Olson, D. R. (1977). From utterance to text: The bias of language in speech and writing.
Harvard Educational Review, 47, 257-281.
Radzikhovskii, L. A. (1986-1987). The dialogic quality of consciousness in the works of
M. M. Bakhtin. Soviet Psychology, 25, 3-28.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky: Vol. 1. Problems of general
psychology. New York: Plenum.
182
Yuji Moro
Wakabayashi, K., Moro, Y, & Satou, Y. (1992). Writing from a virtual point of view: A
dialogic approach for writing activities in classroom. The National Language
Research Institute Occasional Papers, 13, 123-164.
Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the socialformation of mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Yakubinsky, L. P. (1923). On verbal dialogue. Despositio, 4, 231-336. Department of Ro
mance Language, University of Michigan.
12
Amano
Introduction
184
Kyoshi Amano
185
of Finland
in Lahti
is held
Congress of Research
for Activity Theory
%[sligJftgfit^Ji.
E.
Chinese characters
:
186
KyoshiAmano
As with other writing systems, many years are required to learn the
Japanese writing system so that the children may master it in reading and
writing. In particular, learning over 2,000 Chinese characters, which is
the minimum essential to modern Japanese, requires much time and prac
tice. But the Japanese have a so-called writing system for children, that is,
a syllabic writing system, Hiragana. Books for preschool children are al
ways printed in Hiragana, which has 71 symbols. Preschool children who
have mastered it can easily learn to read picture books and write letters.
Learning of syllabic letters by children
In the preschool period, Hiragana is always used at home, in
kindergarten, and in nursery school to represent the names of children,
other persons, and objects. Children can often find sign boards and nameplates written in Hiragana in the streets. In any railway stations in Japan
the names are always written also in Hiragana.
This cultural circumstance, of course, stimulates preschool children to
learn to read and write Hiragana letters. Usually Japanese children be
gin to learn to read Hiragana in the early preschool period or, to be more
exact, at about 4 years of age. Almost all of them can master the funda
mental skills of reading in Hiragana before entering school without any
systematic instruction in reading in kindergarten (Muraishi & Amano,
1972). Why can Japanese preschool children begin to learn to read syl
labic letters when they are about 4 years old, and why can they acquire the
most basic skills of reading in Hiragana before school without any sys
tematic instruction? These were the first questions I had to answer when
I began my research on child literacy in the National Language Research
Institute 28 years ago.
A series of experimental studies (Amano, 1967, 1970, 1977) on the re
lationship between the development of syllabic analysis and the acquisi
tion of reading in syllabic letters produced the following answers to these
questions:
1.
2.
Syllabic analysis or, more exactly, the act of analyzing the suc
cession of syllabic components of words, is the most important
and necessary prerequisite condition for acquisition of reading
and writing in Hiragana. Without syllabic analysis, children can
never learn to use Hiragana letters.
Syllabic analysis and syllabic awareness begin to develop at the
age of 4.
4.
187
But these findings do not mean that Japanese children never have diffi
culty acquiring literacy in Hiragana. Our further studies (Amano, 1978,
1986) showed that preschool children and lower-grade schoolchildren,
particularly those with learning difficulties and learning disabilities, en
counter great difficulties in learning to read and write words with special
syllables of Hiragana. In Japanese, besides the 71 fundamental syllables
there are 4 kinds of special syllables - long, contracted, contracted long,
and assimilated - which do not maintain a one-to-one correspondence
between syllable and symbol. They are presented in a combination of
fundamental syllabic letters. For example, long syllables are represented
by two symbols and contracted long ones by three.
Our studies also showed that when children do not have linguistic
awareness of the features of syllables, that is, length, contraction, and as
similation of syllables, they often make typical mistakes in spelling these
syllables. For example, children with no awareness of long and short
syllables often use the same spelling for the words obasan (an aunt) and
oba:san (a grandmother), ojisan (an uncle) and oji.san (a grandfather), by
omitting the vowel that should be added in the case of the long syllable.
This fact suggested that it was necessary for children to acquire linguis
tic awareness of special syllables so that they can correctly write words,
including those with special syllables. This holds true particularly for
children with learning difficulties or learning disabilities.
But how can we form such linguistic awareness in children? We con
structed a model corresponding to the syllabic structure of a word to
serve this purpose. If we represent four kinds of syllables, short funda
mental syllables including a nasal consonant, long ones, contracted ones,
Kyoshi Amano
188
<h
sakura
IS-? L
bo: shi
L <t ? IS ? L >
syo: bo: sya
^^-^C-^tioL^
kyu: ko: ressya
ocno
oczin AO
and contracted long ones, with a square, a rectangle, a circle, and an oval,
respectively, and a pause (or stop) mora in an assimilated syllable with a
triangle, we can symbolize words with all kinds of syllabic structures in
Japanese by combining these figures. For example, the syllabic structures
of the words sakura (cherry), bo:shi (a hat), syo:bo:sya (a fire truck), and
kyu:ko:ressya (an express) can be represented as shown in Figure 12.2.
Mainly on the basis of this idea, we constructed an experimental read
ing and writing teaching program for preschool children (Amano, 1977b)
and for lower-grade schoolchildren with learning difficulties (Amano,
1982). This program consisted of seven parts comprising 26 steps. In
the first part, children learn to analyze the succession of syllabic com
ponents of words consisting of only fundamental syllables, and to read
and write these words correctly. In the second part, they learn to con
struct models of words with assimilated syllables and to read and write
them correctly. Then they do the same with words containing a long syl
lable, a contracted one, and a long-contracted one, respectively, in the
third to fifth parts of the program. And in the last part of the program,
they learn to make syllabic models of words and to read and write them
with complex words including two or three kinds of special syllables in
one word.
Using the stage-by-stage formation method (Gal'perin, 1956, 1959),
we organized children's learning of model construction of words with a
special syllable in the following five stages.
1.
189
2.
After learning model construction with words, children learn the cor
respondence between syllables and symbols or the orthographic rules of
these syllables. For example, in the program on the orthographic rules
of a long syllable, training proceeds in the following steps.
1.
First, children learn the features of symbols and sounds and the
differences between them.
2. Second, they learn the vowels and identify long vowels contained
in a long syllable of the word.
3. Third, they learn to classify words according to the long vowel
in the long syllable of the word.
4. Then they learn the orthographic rules of long syllables.
5. Finally, they repeat the practice of reading and writing words
containing long syllables.
We repeated such teaching experiments first with preschool children
and then with children with learning difficulties. Figure 12.3 shows the
results of the experimental training of long syllables with preschool chil
dren. In this study (Amano, 1977b), based on data from preliminary
tests, seven pairs of 4- and 5-year-old children, each equal in terms of
level of acquisition of Hiragana letters, level of acquisition of awareness,
and word construction of long syllables, were selected and randomly di
vided into training and control groups. Children in the training group
were trained in model construction and then in spelling long syllables in
dividually. Their performance (mean percentage correct) in the model
construction and word construction tasks during the study period was
190
KyoshiAmano
100
A month and a
half before the
training
Before the
training
o Q
Experimental group
Control group
After the
training of
spelling
Figure 12.3. The effect of training in model construction and word construc
tion on learning of long syllables by preschool children.
90
80
I Training group
I Control group
|
!
70
60
50
'
After
training
Control
test
40
20
10
and writing
We may now define the role of phonological analysis in the ac
quisition of reading and writing by children as follows.
100
30
191
Before
training
compared with that of children in the control group, who did not un
dergo any training.
Figure 12.4 shows the results of the experimental training in special syl
lables in schoolchildren with learning difficulties. In this study (Amano,
1.
192
Kyoshi Amano
AGENT:
persons or animals who do
different kinds of action or
who feel.
PURPOSE:
The aim of an agent.
CAUSE or REASON:
Causes or reasons why the
action happens or why an
agent acts.
PATIENT:
Persons or animals whom an
agent affects.
OBJECT:
Objects being affected by the
action. Objects being made
through actions. Objects
being given to someone.
PLACE:
Place where actions are
done. Place where a move
ment happens. Destination.
Starting point.
PARTNER:
Persons or animals who are
given something.
193
TIME:
The time when an agent
acted or acts. Time. Date.
Season.
INSTRUMENT or MEANS:
Tools used by an agent in the ac
tion. Means of transportation.
MATERIAL:
Material or things worked on
when an agent makes some
thing.
ACTION or MOTION:
Actions or motions that an
agent carries out.
*
Transformation of each
separated phonological sound
into graphic symbol
194
Kyoshi
(1)
Amano
Kino
Taro-wa
Yesterday
Tarou
(2) Katashi-wa
I
(3) Mukash i
turi-ni
itta.
fishing
went
tomodachi-ni
tegam i-wo
kaita.
to my friend
a letter
wrote.
hitobito-wa
Formerly
kawa-he
to the river
people
yari-de
with a spear
o
(4) Kawano
shita-de
dobutu-wo
tukamaeta.
animals
caught
samusa-n i
furueteiru.
with
shivers
cold
With the aid of these symbols, one can easily construct a model of the
syntactico-semantic structure of a sentence, as long as one has more or
less obvious linguistic awareness of the syntactico-semantic components
of sentences. The following examples, shown in Figure 12.7, serve as an
explanation.
As the reader can see in these examples, in Japanese the case re
lations of words, that is, the syntactico-semantic meaning of words,
is expressed not by prepositions or word order as in English, but by
195
postpositions, for example, ga, wa, de, ni, wo, kara, and so on. There
are some 15 postpositions in Japanese. But like prepositions in Eng
lish, Japanese postpositions are always multivocal and represent different
kinds of syntactico-semantic categories. For example, the postposition de
sometimes represents "place" but at other times "cause and reason" or
"instrument" or "material," depending on the context of a word in the
sentence. Moreover one syntactico-semantic category can often be ex
pressed by different kinds of postpositions. For example, the "place" can
be expressed by de, ni, he, kara, and so on.
Usually children with learning difficulties or learning disabilities have
serious difficulty not only in writing but also in oral speech. They can
hardly compose and write any sentence, or at best can write a simply con
structed sentence. Related to the previously mentioned characteristics
of Japanese syntax, they often show errors or ellipses of postpositions in
written sentences and in oral speech. This defect in their syntactic ability
may result, on the one hand, from poor development of sentence con
struction but also, on the other hand, from nonawareness of syntacticosemantic categories and components of sentences. Of course, in Japan
children learn grammar in elementary school, but usually the lessons in
grammar begin with teaching the concepts of the subject and predicate of
sentences in the third grade. These concepts of formal grammar never
help children with learning difficulties acquire the necessary linguistic
awareness in sentence composition. For these reasons, we intended to
develop this new type of syntax program in order to promote the devel
opment of linguistic awareness in children with learning difficulties or
learning disabilities in reading and writing.
But how can we teach children to construct a syntactico-semantic
model of sentences? Over the past 10 years, we repeated many teach
ing experiments with different categories of children: normal elemen
tary schoolchildren, preschool children, children with learning difficul
ties, and children with mental retardation. The methods of teaching were
slightly different, depending on the degree of their development. When
we teach Japanese adults or students to construct models, it may be suffi
cient to give them a brief explanation of each category with the aid of the
illustrative figure. But when teaching lower-grade schoolchildren, much
less children with learning difficulties, it is clearly insufficient to give
them only explanations of the meaning of each symbol. It is necessary to
teach some objective acts or operations, by which they can identify cor
rectly each of the syntactico-semantic components or categories in the
sentences. The following two acts or operations serve this purpose.
196
Kyoshi Amano
197
The first training experiment (Amano, 1982) was conducted with nor
mal second-grade schoolchildren (four children each in the experimental
and control groups) applying a six-step program. The steps of the train
ing are illustrated in the flow chart shown in Figure 12.8.
In this program, training began with teaching the function of each
syntactico-semantic category through the concrete pretending act of us
ing toys in miniature garden situations. The program then moved to the
model construction of sentences through learning the previously men
tioned two kinds of operation. This method proved to be very effective
in developing the sentence model constructive skill in children.
Figure 12.9 shows the effect of the training, comparing the mean per
centages correct on model construction tasks before and after training.
Subsequently, we moved to a training program with lower-grade
schoolchildren with learning difficulties. The program was administered
to first-grade children who apparently could not learn to read and write
due to a learning disability or slight mental retardation. For the time be
ing, the program consists of two parts.
In the first part of the program, children composed declarative and in
terrogative sentences with different constructions in oral speech, such
as constructing the model of a sentence on the basis of a schema of the
model. The aim of training in this stage is to improve their sentence
construction in oral speech and, at the same time, to develop syntacticosemantic categories and functions of each figurative symbol with the aid
of the explanatory figure. Then they learn to compose declarative and in
terrogative sentences with the interrogative words who, what, and where
in oral speech. In this step, pictures expressing the content of sentences
are used as training materials. Each picture is drawn on a sheet; below it
is a schema of the model of the sentence corresponding to it. The schema
is usually covered by a small sheet of opaque paper, but it can be uncov
ered if needed.
The training in sentence composition is conducted in the following
order.
1.
2.
198
Start
100
Syntactico-semantic
categories taught in
each step
Pretest
80
step 2
j
'
50
30
hn
60
40
| Training group
9U
/O
stepl
199
KyoshiAmano
20
'
1
1
-t
!i .
" ;
'
i .-
.'
10
Before training
Agent, Object, Instrument,
Material, Race, Partner, and
Action
step 3
step 4
step 5
step 6
Check test
Has he/she
attained the goal?
No
After training
uncovers the schema, and asks the child to compose the sen
tence correctly, putting the corresponding symbol plates on the
schema and constructing a model of it.
3. Composition of an interrogative sentence with interrogative sen
tences. After the child has constructed the model of a sentence,
he or she is required to compose an interrogative sentence, ask
ing for one component (agent, object, or place of the sentence)
and constructing a model of the sentence with the aid of the sup
plementary figures for interrogative sentences. The trainer first
demonstrates constructing the interrogative sentences once with
each type of interrogative sentence.
4. Test of model construction. After exercises with 14 sentences,
the trainer asks the child to make a model of each sentence cor
rectly again in order to evalute his or her learning. In steps 2-4,
similar training is done with 10 different sentences with differ
ent syntactico-semantic components. But in each step, the child
learns to compose different kinds of interrogative sentences.
Yes
Posttest
Stop
200
Kyoshi Amano
201
After training
Subjects
T.M.
N.T.
M.Y.
Age"
(years: months)
7:5
7:0
7:0
84
113
97
107
95
102
85
113
99
WISC-R*
VIQ.
PIQ.
IQ.
Syllabic models
construction
(20 words), %
I.T.
N.D.
T.M.
N.T.
M.Y.
I.T.
N.D.
6:10
7:4
8:9
8:5
8:6
8:4
9:8
68
90
76
69
59
61
101
111
106
103
93
98
107
84
96
113
95
105
79
61
68
4
20.0
3
15.0
5
25.0
16
80.0
11
55.0
20
100.0
19
95.0
20
100.0
20
100.0
20
100.0
Sentence model
construction task
(29 items), %
4
13.8
7
24.1
12
41.4
23
79.3
15
51.8
28
96.6
28
96.6
27
93.1
27
93.1
28
96.6
Oral sentence
construction task
(22 items), %
5
22.7
8
36.4
12
54.5
10
45.5
4
18.2
19
86.4
19
86.4
20
90.9
19
86.4
13
50.9
0
0.0
0
0.0
1
16.7
0
0
0
0
6
100.0
6
100.0
6
100.0
6
100.0
6
100.0
Class inclusion
taskr
(6 items), %
(WISC-R) tests before and after training. After the training, we also gave
the children a sentence composition task using a certain model sentence
and the task of writing an essay on a certain theme ("On a person whom
I like best"). These results showed clearly that the children had acquired
a linguistic awareness of syllabic word construction and sentence con
struction, as well as the basic skills required to write a sentence and an
essay correctly through the training by our complex language teaching
programs.
The very important and interesting result obtained by this experimen
tal training is that the verbal IQs (VIQs) on WISC-R tests improved
significantly for three boys (T.M., M.Y., and I.T.) of the five who under
went our complex training program. In contrast, one boy (N.T.), whose
performance IQ_(PIQ) on WISC-R tests had been lower than his VIQ.
before the training, did not improve in VIQ., although his awareness of
202
Kyoshi Amano
Conclusion
I have outlined a long series of studies that started nearly 30 years
ago, stimulated by the ideas of Vygotsky and El'konin on reading acqui
sition by children. To conclude, I point out some of the problems con
cerning the relationship between the development of linguistic awareness
and learning to read and write.
As I mentioned earlier, we observed a strong reciprocal relationship be
tween the development of the act of analyzing the succession of syllabic
components of words and reading and writing acquisition by children in
Hiragana, particularly in the fundamental syllables (letters), which have
a one-to-one correspondence between syllable and symbol. But a differ
ent pattern was observed in reading and writing words containing special
syllables, especially those with long or long contracted ones. When we
were able to form and develop linguistic awareness of special syllables in
children before they learned to read and write words with them, we ob
served the appearance of a reciprocal relation between development of
linguistic awareness of special syllables and reading and writing activity
of children. However, when we did not teach them the linguistic fea
tures of special syllables, we did not observe this relation. That is, some
children began to read and write words using their own strategy, with
no linguistic awareness of special syllables. As a result, their awareness
developed very slowly, and they repeated errors in reading and spelling
words for a long time. A similar relationship was observed between the
development of linguistic awareness of syntactico-semantic structures of
sentences and learning to read and write sentences.
In our training studies, we observed that children's construction of
models of the syatactico-semantic structures of sentences played a role
203
References
Amano, K. (1967). An experimental study on the ability of preschool children to analyze
phonological structure of words. Study of Language, 3, 51-87 (National Lan
guage Research Institute).
Amano, K. (1970). Formation of the act of analyzing phonemic structure of word and its
relation to learning Japanese syllabic characters (kana-moji). Japanese Journal
of Educational Psychology, 18(2), 7689.
Amano, K. (1977). On the formation of the act of analyzing syllabic structure of words
and the learning ofJapanese syllabic characters in moderately mentally retarded
children. Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology, 25(2), 73-84.
Amano, K. (1978). Formation of the act of analyzing syllabic structure of words and the
learning of Japanese syllabic characters: Formation of awareness on long syllable
and teaching reading and spelling in preschool children. Paper presented at the
20th Annual Conference of the Association of Japanese Educational Psychol
ogy, Yokohama, September 2-A.
Amano, K. (1982). Improvement of language abilities of school children through the for
mation of awareness to linguistic reality. Bulletin of the National Institute for
Educational Research, 102, 1-112.
Amano, K. (1986). Processes of acquisition of Japanese syllabic characters. Tokyo: Akiyamasyoten.
204
Kyoshi Amano
205
13
have
<?>' JAN i i
birthday
make
and
party
have
You
come
Introduction
The case study presented here is one of the first six to be in
volved in an Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) re
search project led by Professor Siegfried Schubenz. Its aim is to examine
new communication forms and approaches with physically severely dis
abled students.
The intervention strategy that we use is derived from psychologicaleducational therapy (Pddagogisch-Psychologische Therapie; see Schubenz,
1993; Pilz, 1982; Schlosser, 1980). Grounded in activity theory, this ther
apy integrates psychotherapeutic and educational aspects into a model of
ambulant psychosocial intervention.
The AAC medium most widely used in our work is Blissymbolics (Bliss,
1965). This is a picto- and ideographic symbol communication system
consisting of 26 basic "symbol elements" (McDonald, 1980, p. 21). These
elements are combined according to standardized rules to form terms and
can be grammatically arranged into sentences.
In order that the symbols be understood by persons not fluent in Bliss,
the meaning of each symbol is also written in traditional orthography
(TO) above the symbol. Currently there are about 3,000 standardized
Blissymbols worldwide.
In order to communicate with the help of such a nonverbal symbolic
communication system (Musselwhite & St. Louis, 1982), or aided system
(Lloyd, 1985; Lloyd, Quist, & Windsor, 1990), not only the meaning of
the symbols but also ways to produce them have to be learned. If writ
ing or drawing are out of the question, some form of indicating or coding
strategy becomes necessary as a substitute, using the remaining range of
voluntary movements.
206
question
Saturday
Q, 3 0 19
Transcription and translation:
Dear Jan,
It's my birthday soon. I'll have a party. I have a question.
Would you come on Saturday the 30th at 19 hours?
Note that the Bliss text follows the German grammar correctly, with one exception:
Michael writes "Du kommen," whereas the correct form would be "Kommen Du."
207
208
In our work, questions arising from the construction and use of ade
quate coding strategies are of great importance, not only for the use of al
ternative communication systems, but also for the acquisition of literacy.
Case study of Michael B.
Michael was 18 years old when he became involved in our re
search work. His voluntary movements are restricted almost entirely to
his upper torso, neck, and face due to a quadriplegic cerebral palsy caused
by an oxygen deficiency during birth. He can turn his head to either side
quite freely and can also move his upper torso, neck, and head forward
with some difficulty. Michael is labeled anarthric, that is, his speech is
not intelligible, except for a few words, and these are understood only by
people who know him well. On the other hand, he understands spoken
language perfectly well, having mastered language comprehension in his
childhood apparently without delay.
Although it is not the topic of this chapter, it must be noted that this
skill alone is far from normal for people with physical disabilities of this
kind and magnitude in Germany. From the outset, Michael was fortu
nate to have very dedicated parents who were convinced that their son
would develop in a normal way. They participated in organizing a parentinfant play group at a private therapeutic center. Later, Michael attended
kindergarten and preschool at the same center in an integrated group of
handicapped and nonhandicapped children of the same age. Michael and
his parents have fond memories of the time he spent at the center.
Despite strong efforts by the staff of the center and his parents, the
board of education for his district did not allow Michael to continue his
schooling with this group of children at a normal primary school. Cur
rently, the situation in the Berlin school system has been liberalized so
that integration is possible under certain circumstances, but at that t i m e in the mid-1970s - the concept of segregating children with special needs
was still being actively pursued. From the age of 7 until the age of 20
(1989), Michael thus attended a special school for the learning-disabled
and mentally handicapped that also schooled a number of multiply hand
icapped students.
During his 13 years of education, Michael acquired and maintained a
tenacious dyslexia, which prevented him from learning to read texts writ
ten in T O and impaired his writing skills. Since many different methods
of instruction in reading and writing skills showed little success, skepti
cism concerning his learning abilities grew over the years.
209
210
Seite2
mogen
arbeiten
A
lieben
kussen
oo
O+i
sehen,
schauen
sprechen, sagen,
erzahlen
sein,
existieren
haben
gehen,
laufen
beende,
ankommen
kommen,
nahren, sich
A
A_
tanzen
A_d
Selection of page:
Selection of row:
Selection of column:
2 head movements
2 head movements
1 head movement
Page No. 2;
Row No. 2;
Column No. 1;
211
212
This leads to the first hypothesis concerning the importance of the sensorimotor (or micro) level for the acquisition of literacy: If the articula
tory, gesticulatory, and graphomotor functions are severely handicapped,
they have to be compensated for by learning some other voluntary move
ment patterns as representations for letters and other symbols. Further
more, the use of these patterns is one of the prerequisites for the process
of analyzing and synthesizing the letter strings of words in reading and
writing.
In the normal course of development, articulatory movement patterns
are unconscious. They are normally developed in the early stages of lan
guage acquisition. While learning to read and write, which usually takes
place in school, supported by different educational strategies (e.g., con
scious, goal-directed spelling of single letters), the child attains access to
hitherto unconscious articulatory structures, thus enabling orthographic
and morphological analysis. Each letter is learned as a set of voluntary
movements on an articulatory and a graphomotor level. With use, not
only do the movement patterns necessary for the production of the artic
ulatory and graphic structures become automatized, so does the ability
to move from one level to the other.
Our explanation for the lack of progress in literacy acquisition in this
case study is twofold. The second hypothesis regarding this apparent lack
of progress in reading and writing competence deals with the macro level
of personality development. Both hypotheses and their interrelation are
derived from activity theory. We discuss personality development and in
tegration of the micro and macro levels into activity theory in Part Two.
Before that, we continue to consider the practical implications of the first
part of our approach.
Since the numerical code for the processing of Blissymbols had been
so successful, we decided to create an equivalent code system of head
movements for the letters of the alphabet. We hoped to find out whether
learning to produce the letters actively through individual patterns of
head movements would help Michael to complete his literacy acquisition
on the sensorimotor level, that is, to connect the ongoing visual and acous
tic processes, on the one hand, with a substitute for the missing articula
tory and graphomotor processes, on the other, thus enabling him finally
to close the gap in the field of phonological and orthographic analysis.
Keyboard simulation SIMULAA
and
SIMULA-2
213
for every letter of the alphabet had to be created. This was done by de
veloping a software program allowing the simulation of the entire key
board of any standard MS-DOS microcomputer with either a one- or
two-switch input device. We named it S I M U L A J and SIMULA_2.
The program consists of nine consecutive triangular tables, which con
tain all the letters of the alphabet as well as all the other keys of the ex
tended PC keyboard (140 total). The nine tables - seen as a whole - form
a tetrahedron. The first triangle is largest, with each successive triangle
smaller than the preceding one. This allows the number of steps needed
to select a character to be minimized; the character in the most unfa
vorable position can be reached with just 12 strokes. Each key on the
keyboard is represented exactly once in the simulation program, and the
search for each key begins at the same starting point. Another advantage
of the triangular arrangement is that the space on the screen needed for
the tetrahedron is very small, thus minimizing interference with other
complementing software (e.g., word processing programs).
The procedure used to choose a key requires three steps. First, the
triangle is chosen, then the row of characters, and finally the character
within the chosen row. Regardless of whether S I M U L A J or SIMULA_2
is used, any character in any of the nine triangles has its own individual
pattern. However, whereas in SIMULA_2 each character is actively re
trieved by the user at his or her own pace, S I M U L A J is based on a
scanning procedure. With a certain period of time, which can be indi
vidually adapted, the user has to make three consecutive selections by
pressing his or her input device once at the triangle, once at the row, and
214
215
216
Character
Total
<Blank> 9757782
7745523
4821525
3844148
3545446
2900703
2728829
2546239
2112014
2094722
1751993
1737135
1388043
1290598
1261555
1086896
777282
682066
624619
,
k
588197
w
575835
z
526401
455022
V
340237
334532
p
u
316487
293607
s
a
283617
D
227340
M
221113
A
218209
B
194259
M
180564
B
164506
E
156855
G
151927
W
150554
K
150478
P
136075
F
134680
6
122737
R
112234
H
112084
V
106722
98957
T
94030
L
92741
90648
I
77547
73706
N
Z
69779
1
69662
J
67229
65259
j
e
n
i
r
t
s
a
d
h
u
1
c
g
o
m
b
f
Accum. in
percent
16.1454
28.9613
36.9391
43.2997
49.1661
53.9657
58.4809
62.6939
66.1885
69.6545
72.5534
75.4277
77.7244
79.8598
81.9472
83.7456
85.0317
86.1603
87.1938
88.1670
89.1198
89.9908
90.7437
91.3067
91.8602
92.3839
92.8697
93.3390
93.7152
94.0811
94.4422
94.7636
95.0624
95.3346
95.5941
95.8455
96.0946
96.3436
96.5688
96.7916
96.9947
97.1804
97.3659
97.5425
97.7062
97.8618
98.0153
98.1653
98.2936
98.4156
98.5311
98.6464
98.7576
98.8656
Character
u
0
y
9
c
0
3
2
8
)
(
5
y
4
X
6
7
/
uq
/
;
6
A
Q
+
V
>
<
e
X
&
=
1
%
A
Total
64499
63242
46745
40776
39879
36610
33985
33764
33422
29135
28957
28573
26220
25461
24626
22913
19493
18974
13085
9915
7094
6666
6036
5001
4934
3928
2610
2423
1477
1475
1183
921
793
477
419
175
133
1
In
Accum. in
percent percent
0.1067
0.1046
0.0773
0.0675
0.0660
0.0606
0.0562
0.0559
0.0553
0.0482
0.0479
0.0473
0.0434
0.0421
0.0407
0.0379
0.0323
0.0314
0.0217
0.0164
0.0117
0.0110
0.0100
0.0083
0.0082
0.0065
0.0043
0.0040
0.0024
0.0024
0.0020
0.0015
0.0013
0.0008
0.0007
0.0003
0.0002
0.0000
98.9723
99.0769
99.1542
99.2217
99.2877
99.3483
99.4045
99.4604
99.5157
99.5639
99.6118
99.6591
99.7025
99.7446
99.7853
99.8232
99.8555
99.8869
99.9086
99.9250
99.9367
99.9477
99.9577
99.9660
99.9742
99.9807
99.9850
99.9890
99.9914
99.9938
99.9958
99.9973
99.9986
99.9994
100.000
100.000
100.000
100.000
Selected Charade c
Blank
e
n
i
r
t
s
a
Backspace
0
d
h
u
1
c
Return
1
4
g
m
o
f
7
k
j
M
Patte rn S1rueture
IS
IS
IS
2S
IS
IS
2S
2S
IS
2S
IS
IS
2S
C
c IS C
c c
c
c
c I2 SS c
c
c
c c
c IS c
c c
c
c
c I2 SS c
c 3S c
c
c
c
c
c 2S c
c c
c IS c
c
c
c 23 SS c
c
c
c
c
2
S
c
c
c c
c
c
c 3S c
IS
2S
IS
IS
3S
2S
IS
2S
IS
4S
2S
IS
3S
4S
5S
IS
217
Total of Hoveients
C
C
C
C
C
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
8
9
9
C = change l e v e l
nS = numbers of s t e p s within the l e v e l
Note t h a t the
ter.
= 60436968 counted c h a r a c t e r s
many more, that is, he understands the logic used in constructing the
tetrahedron. Not surprisingly, he learned the most frequently used char
acters first.
These results seem very promising. It appears that even the use of
SIMULAT contributed to the acquisition of alternative movement pat
terns. This led to a higher level of optical and acoustical control - which
Michael uses extensively - and may allow for progress on the sensorimotor level, with the ultimate aim of reducing preoccupation with the
alphabet to the automatized operations level of activity.
Michael's literacy acquisition is still continuing, and thus new prob
lems that may be encountered along the way must be considered. He
has yet to master the whole alphabet, and the letters and characters still
missing are harder to learn simply because of their less favorable position
within the frequency distribution. Furthermore, even though some en
couraging progress in the field of writing can be seen, this has not affected
the reading process. However, the fact that reading skills trail somewhat
behind writing skills has also been found when teaching methods favor
218
writing in the initial stages of literacy acquisition with vocal children (see
Reichen, 1988; May, 1986).
In analyzing the text of Figure 13.7, which is part of a written dialogue,
different writing strategies can be seen. There are problems on the or
thographic, morphematic, and syntactic levels:
1.
m:
j:
m:
j:
m:
j:
m:
j:
j:
m:
j:
m:
j:
219
Michael often writes down words the way they are depicted in his
Blissbook, using a gestalt strategy and disregarding grammatical
flexions (conjugation of verbs, etc.).
2. A growing orientation to the phonematic principles may be ob
served. Michael writes, for example, "betifl wimen" (German =
"schh faun"), that is, correctly spelled "beautiful women" ( =
"schone Frauen"), where the written sequence of letters more
closely resembles spoken everyday German.
3. The beginning of his orientation to morphematic principles can
also be seen: "I go to cinema" ( = "ich gehe in kino"), that is, "I
go to the cinema" ( = "ich gehe ins Kino"), and "yesterday had
written story" ( = "gestern hat schreiben geschicht"), that is,
"yesterday I wrote a story" ( = "gestern habe ich eine Geschichte
geschrieben").
4. More complex syntactic structures are beginning to emerge,
though they are not very often used: "Ich weiss nich ich fre
itag kommen"; "I don't know I come Friday" ("Ich weiss nicht,
ob ich am Freitag kommen kann"; "I don't know if I can come
on Friday").
This provides an idea of some of the typical problems of text produc
tion we are currently dealing with. At this point, it seems appropriate to
address the second aspect of our research on literacy acquisition.
Part two: Aspects of personality development in the acquisition of
writing and reading
When we started this case study, we did not believe that Michael's
long-standing problem of dyslexia could be solved solely by learning al
ternative movement patterns (hypothesis 1) with assistance from techni
cal aids, hardware, and/or software. We encountered a lot of skepticism
in Michael's social environment concerning his ability to become literate.
Our own initial doubts went in two directions.
1.
220
Would Michael really want to make a new effort after all the fail
ures he had encountered? Would we be able to generate genuine
"personal sense" (Leont'ev, 1978), that is, create a positive socioemotional assessment of literacy acquisition? Would increas
ing literacy competence and the following changes in personal
perspectives be tolerated by his social environment, namely, at
school and by his family?
2.
111
2.
The second condition for the creation of new motives has been
achieved - at least in part. We divided the complex task of learning to
read and to write into operation and action parts that can be handled by
the individual. The first hypothesis discussed earlier provided conscious
222
goals, on the one hand, and operative means and technical equipment, on
the other hand, allowing an active process of learning letter differentia
tion. The goal (the communication of words and sentences via computer)
had to be cooperatively planned and consciously appropriated. Michael's
operations in the form of head movements and the knowledge of working
with numbers (mathematical operations) were available, and the techni
cal side was accounted for.
However, an elaboration on the first condition - the objective aspect of
motives - has not been theoretically or empirically finalized at this stage
of our research (for interpretations of the concept of activity in relation
to motives, see Engestrom, 1987; Haselmann, 1984; Hildebrand-Nilshon,
1989a, 1989b, 1989c; Hildebrand-Nilshon & Ruckriem, 1988,1989). Here
it is sufficient to point out that our position on the interpretation of ac
tivity theory varies from positions taken by many psychologists in the
Soviet Union. Activity as an object of psychological research (apart from
but in relation to action as an object of psychological research) has, in
our opinion, to do with sociohistorical systems of activity, that is, with
social networks or institutions. These are organized and reproduced interindividually through objects, meanings, rules and roles, interpersonal
relations, and values.
We assume that the objective side of motives consists of those social ac
tivity systems developed in the history of a society. The objective mean
ings and features of these systems, the objective interrelations of the peo
ple constituting and reproducing the system, are the source of emotional
orientations, of personal sense on the part of each participating individ
ual. Crucial for these emotional orientations is the subjective relevance
of taking part in the system for the individual and his or her relation to
other activity systems. There are contradictions and struggles between
the different emotional orientations in regard to the activities the person
is involved in. This struggle for priority between the different emotional
orientations (symbolized in Figure 13.8 by the flashes between the mo
tives oriented to the different activity systems) is a central aspect of per
sonality development.
Applied to the present case study, the previously mentioned motivation
is dependent upon the integration of Michael's actions and operations in
an old activity system or the creation of a new one. Both alternatives are
possible. Michael's integration into the research project created a spec
trum of different activities he could take part in. These are only briefly
mentioned here (symbolized by the ovals in Figure 13.8):
223
operations A
goals
the stream of actions of the individual within activity systems: the actions are structured by
motives (related to the activity systems), conscious goals, conscious and unconscious oper
ations, and movement patterns
Each activity system has its own characteristics, its meanings, roles and
values, which can produce some kind of emotional orientation in a person
224
acting within the system and taking part in the interactions. The goals,
leading to actions in the new systems, can rely on "old motives," that is,
on orientations stemming from other activity systems. The new experi
ences can fit into the old sense system or they can render it questionable.
Within new activity systems and their objective aspects, we can follow the
old senses in new clothes.
But new activity systems may not only split or alter but also contradict
the old sense structure. In any case, the integration and movement into
new activity systems is a psychological challenge, provoking contradic
tions, defense mechanisms, and/or changes in the motivational system.
The actions within our project must therefore be able to create, de
velop, or solve those contradictions. In other words, Michael must use
the new actions and means for change and for dislodging the contradic
tions between his personal sense and the objective meaning of the new
activity systems. Reading and writing must become one of the powerful
means to move within these contradictions between sense and meaning.
This movement is situated in a triangular structure.
First, there is the conscious goal of learning to read, write, or spell and
the search for the means to realize this by means of Michael's own com
petence, along with help from others and from technical resources. Our
first hypothesis was focused on this problem.
Second, there is the activity system (or systems) in which the actions
and conscious goals are integrated and confronted with the requirements
of the objective structure of this system. The requirements are medi
ated by the objective meanings of the system - for Michael, for example,
the conditions necessary for getting a job involving computer technol
ogy. This so-called objective structure is not a dead body. It consists of
other subjects having their own emotional and motivational orientations
that fit into the system, which may conflict with it or even contradict it.
The objective meaning of an activity system constituting the objective re
quirements for motivational orientation should therefore never be seen
as unchangeable. It is reproduced by persons and their actions, that is,
by conscious goals and emotional orientations realized in operational se
quences under intersubjectively produced circumstances.
Third, there is an emotional orientation that makes some aspects of
the activity system attractive for Michael. This attractiveness constitutes
the relation to the already existing personal sense in accordance with
Michael's personal history, that is, his earlier (sometimes even discarded
or closed) activity systems. To initiate learning processes in such a sit
uation implies thf intertwining of at least two different manifestations
225
226
References
227
Part III
14
Hakkarainen
Introduction
In this chapter, an attempt is made to redefine the concept of
play as a prime example of the complex nature of human motivation. My
aim is to show that the social context and social activity individuals are
engaged in, rather than individual inner states, are basic determinants of
the motivation of children's play.
I first provide an overview of play as a historically developing activity.
Next, I employ object orientation and object construction, with their in
ner contradictions, as basic categories of analysis of motivation. These
conceptual tools are then used in the analysis of videotaped play sessions
in Finnish kindergartens and reconstructed episodes of the same types of
play as they occurred 23 years ago in the lives of educators now working
in kindergartens.
Conceptualizing play
Functions of play are defined in different ways, and different
functions lead to different explanations of motivation. In Groos's (1922)
theory, the main function of children's play is to prepare for adult life.
From this viewpoint, the content of play, as well as its relation to the
adult world, is important. In other approaches, the essence of play and
its main function are defined in terms of independence from the adult
world. According to Csikszentmihalyi (1981), we can talk about play only
when the rules of reality are suspended. If a girl feeds and dresses a
doll in a way that resembles the usual cultural manners, this is not play
in the actual meaning of the term because there are no experimental ele
ments exceeding the usual cultural limits. By this definition, for example,
Maya children's play is not play in the strict sense of the term (Gaskins
& Goncu, 1992).
231
232
Pentti Hakkarainen
233
234
Pentti Hakkarainen
the needs explaining the choice of the object of play, and what is the mo
tivation of play?
There have been some interesting attempts to define the objects and
needs of play. Play does not change anything visible; thus the object of
play must be the process itself (El'konin, 1978; Leont'ev, 1981). There
is no necessity to produce any concrete results or attain previously for
mulated goals in play (Bateson, 1978; Csikszentmihalyi, 1981). Play is
oriented to emotions, needs, and motives instead of visible objects. Fein
(1987) argues that a child simulates need states, not actual effective needs.
For example, a child pretending to sleep in a play is not tired and has no
intention of falling asleep. Play can be generally characterized as an ac
tivity type dominated by experimenting with potential or virtual objects
and motives of human activities.
Leont'ev (1981) explains the social need behind children's play by ar
guing that its essence is children's desire to act as adults do. Children
want to take part in the social life of the adult world, but their skills are
not adequate for real participation. The general need to act like adults
is directed at the beginning to the use of objects in human life accord
ing to their social functions. Later on, needs are directed to the objects
of activities in adults' life. According to Leont'ev, the needs of play are
in the adults' world, but the motives are in the process of play. This is an
essential difference between play and other activity types. Play as an ac
tivity type aims at the mastery of mastering. Play does not produce any
concrete knowledge about the technology of mastering. It produces gen
eral flexibility and a disposition to change one's approach when facing
the concrete demands of the situation. Incitements are inherent in the
process as intellectual challenges, imagination, fantasies, and emotions.
Satisfaction of a child's vital needs is actually differentiated from the results of the child's
activity: a child's behavior does not define satisfaction of her/his needs of nutrition,
warmth, etc. There is a vast number of needs independent of concrete results of behavior.
In other words, children's activities include their own motives at this stage of develop
ment. (Leont'ev, 1981, p. 481)
This is why the general discrepancy between the goals of actions and
motives observed in other activity types is not possible in play.
Rubinstein (1989, II, 64-74) stresses that the motives of play reflect an
immediate relation to reality. Goals of play actions are always meaningful
directly because of their own contents. Different motives of human ac
tivities are realized in play actions, but in another mode than in practical
activities. Play actions express the meaning of actions and their relation
to goals rathe* than attainment of goals in the form of concrete results.
Subject:
/
Limited skills and "*
mastery of reality
Object:
Adults' activities,
motives, objects
, - i \ Results:
1 /
Experience of
meaning, emotions
Children eliminate the contradiction between the need to act like adults
and their real skills by cutting off the conditions of real actions from play
actions. Thus, according to Leont'ev (1981), play operations do not cor
respond to real operations, but play actions are like real actions. The main
difference is in motivation: Play actions are independent of objective re
sults. Play includes real actions with real objects and real operations, but
the operations are carried out in imagined situations. Noncorrespondence between operations and actions in play is the reason for imagined
situations. Rubinstein (1989, p. 69) describes the role of imagined situa
tions as follows.
Everything which is essential in play is genuinely real: emotions, wishes and ideas are real
and genuine. Genuine are also questions solved in play. . . . Emotions, wishes and ideas
are the player's emotions, wishes and ideas, because the role is herself/himself in new,
imagined situations. Imagined are only situations in which the player places her/himself,
but the emotions experienced are real emotions.
Play actions are always generalized actions. Leont'ev (1981) argues that
a child is not imitating any concrete persons in a play; the child is imitat
ing actions (not a concrete driver, but driver and driving a car in general).
He supports his argument by comparing the structure of play actions
with actions in real situations. If a child masters an action in real life, it is
not repeated in identical form in play situations (e.g., the use of a spoon
in play takes a symbolic, generalized form).
The arguments presented by El'konin, Leont'ev, and Rubinstein con
cerning the origin of play are summarized in Figure 14.1. The origin of
play is explained by representatives of psychological activity theory, first
of all, by the basic contradiction between children's limited skills and
adults' activities in the surrounding context. The contradiction is solved
by using mediating means: imagined situations, symbolic actions, scripts,
roles, and rules. The motivation of play is explained by the object of play.
El'konin (1978) shows how the origin of children's play is connected to
the change in children's social status. The motivation of and need for play
236
Pentti Hakkarainen
237
Instruments:
Instruments ot care
and education
Rules:
Working hours,
norms
Community:
Division of Labor
Day-care personnel Training, responsibility
Instruments:
imagined situations,
scripts, roles
Division of Labor:
Social status
Community:
Day-care group
j
I
I
Rules:
Reciprocity
238
Pentti
Hakkarainen
Play and
frame
frame
motivation
239
You had the idea that a shy and overtidy girl should be involved
in sand play in the first place. Why did you choose her?
K: This child is very tidy, overtidy, and shy so that she is upset if her hands
get dirty or milk is spilled over or something. I do not know why there is a
principle that we should get them to be a little more messy. If we doubt that
this is not anymore normal tidiness we try to involve a child in something.
These children often cannot do anything because they are so careful. We
try to eliminate hysterical reactions if something happens little by little . . .
Interviewer: Did you succeed with Sari?
K: Personally I did not go there, although it was my intention. But I saw the
video and I personally think that she felt the sand with her hands quite well.
She has been really shy and tidy. She did not tolerate a wrinkle in her skirt.
We are not aiming at any untidiness but at getting used to feeling different
things. This is our method to initiate play. This is our main task.
frame
K:
There was one boy playing alone with cars for a long time. Did
he have a role or was it part of a play? Did you pay attention to
him?
I would say that he was a truck driver, certainly. He only drove around. I
proposed him to take somebody along and play together, because he plays
at home a lot alone with cars. He is a single child. There are no playmates
around in the neighborhood. But he wanted to play alone. He told later
that he has lots of play cars at home and he plays with cars. I did not want
to interfere in any way. Joni is quick. Sometimes I would say hyperactive.
He is kind of foolish. He overreacts a lot. He has the role of fun maker.
With small hand movements he causes laughter and giggling in the group.
240
Pentti Hakkarainen
Emotional mother-child
relation
(child-centered frame)
Instrumentality
Intrinsic value
V
Position in the group
From below
(children)
241
242
Pentti Hakkarainen
Anna agreed that she would be the fairy, but then she found out that the
role of the princess was the most attractive. Her desire to be the princess
governed the construction of the whole play episode. As a matter of fact,
Anna dictated the construction of the play.
Motivation of play in kindergarten
In this section, I demonstrate the social construction of motiva
tion in a shopping play (sell and buy) in kindergarten. The basic material
was collected in a kindergarten group of 4- to 6-year-old children. At
first glance, this play seems to be children's independent play in which
adults take part only minimally (they have a coffee break in the kitchen
during the play). Besides shopping play, four parallel plays seemed to be
going on in different rooms of the building.
There are two kinds of prehistories of shopping play that are essential
in the analysis of the social construction process. First, there is a prehis
tory of the sell and buy play in the childhood of the kindergarten teachers
now working at the site. Second, there is a local prehistory of the play in
this particular kindergarten group. Interviews of kindergarten teachers
showed that shopping play is one of the most popular plays in the child
hood of adults working in Finnish kindergartens. There is an indirect
link from play experiences 20 or more years ago with educators working
in kindergarten at present. Typically shopping play is a yard play or
ganized by children themselves. Shopping play usually has three parts:
preparation, selling and buying, and the use of the purchased goods at
home. The artifacts used in the play consist mainly of natural materials
such as rocks, cones, leaves, sand, and clay.
The common object in each stage of the shopping play is exchange re
lations between people. This object is constructed from different points
of view at each stage. There is a specific contradiction at each stage and a
contradictory transition from one stage to another. The stages and their
inner contradictions are described in Figure 14.4.
At the first stage, the problem is how the missing properties of available
objects are compensated for so that children can agree on their existence
in the play situation. The contradiction is solved at the level of shapes,
colors, and other properties of play materials. At the following stage, a
fair basis for exchange is sought between persons in different roles. The
contradiction is solved by using such concrete play actions as weighing
to find the correct price, packing, telling the price, and the exchange of
STAGE I
243
STAGE II
EXCHANGE
RELATION
WITH NATURE
(SYMBOLIC
PRODUCTION)
EXCHANGE
RELATION
IN SELLING
AND BUYING
Correspondence
of properties
Correspondence
of values
STAGE I
EXCHANGE
RELATION
IN FAMILY
*-7
Correspondence
of emotions
goods for money (often leaves of different trees in this version). At the
last stage, the contradiction is transferred to relations between family
members. Food is prepared and meals are served for family members.
Caretaking is exchanged for respect, for example.
Play experiences of adult personnel influence the guidance of children's
play in kindergartens today. In most Finnish kindergartens there are spe
cific sets of play materials for shopping play (e.g., cash registers, weights,
play money). The preparation stage, which was once the main part of
the whole play, is now shorter and symbolic production is missing. The
play starts immediately with selling and buying.
Hannikainen (1992) has studied the transition period to role play in
kindergarten. In her data there are descriptions of sell and buy play in
which the role of adults in the social co-construction is clearly visible.
In one videotaped situation there are three children, Hanna (3;2), Anu
(1;11), and Mari (2;4), and a teacher, Ritva. At the beginning of the play
period, the teacher prepared the sell and buy play by displaying empty
packages and shopping bags for the children. The teacher explained what
was shown, and the children started to become acquainted with the mate
rials. In the same room, there was a cupboard in which the same children
played hide and seek.
There were no clear roles of buyers and sellers in this play. For the
children, buying meant gathering packages in shopping bags and car
rying them away. The teacher (Ritva) seemed to be worried about the
absence of roles. She reacted in the following way to Mari's gathering of
packages.
244
Pentti Hakkarainen
245
SHOPPING PLAY
"Fair exchange," lawful
exchange: commoditymoney
BANK
Lawful exchange without
substitutes: draw money
from bank
POLICE/ROBBERS
Illegal exchange of com
modities-money: crimepunishment
246
Pentti Hakkarainen
247
Conclusions
Traditionally children's play is said to be an excellent example
of intrinsic motivation because it is internally rewarding and because the
play process itself motivates children. The general need for play is ex
plained by naming various general functions of play in individual devel
opment, such as preparation for adult life, development of imagination,
learning, and so on. There are opposing definitions of play, depending
on which aspect of play is chosen, and as a result, opposing ideas about
the need for and motivation of play.
My basic argument is that the motivation of children's play cannot be
revealed either by describing general, universal functions and develop
mental needs of play or by carrying out careful, detailed studies of chil
dren's play processes. The motivation of play can be revealed only by an
alyzing the social construction of play in its cultural-historical contexts.
Instead of looking for motivation in the inner space of each individual
child, it is necessary to turn to the social and cultural space present in
activity contexts. There were at least three essential activity contexts in
the Finnish kindergarten play described earlier: (1) reconstructed child
hood play activity of teachers now working in kindergarten; (2) teachers'
day-care work; and (3) children's play activity in kindergarten today.
Motivation is constructed in a complex interplay between these activ
ities. One cannot explain how and why children play only by focusing
on ongoing play. There may be long prehistories behind the particular
play, as the examples given earlier indicate. Different aspects and ele
ments of the same play theme are repeated in different concrete contexts
over many years. What seems to be totally independent play of children
at the moment was initiated, guided, and instructed by adults perhaps
years ago. The adults' own play experiences influence which play themes
are selected and how they are set up and guided. Play motivation has an
equally long time perspective. Momentary individual inner states have
only subordinate roles in the evolving process. In this sense, motivation
is a historical concept that should be studied historically.
The developers of activity theory - Leont'ev, El'konin, and Rubin
stein did not succeed in combining the general methodological ap
proach and analysis of concrete historical data on children's play. The
idea of object orientation as the basis for analyzing human motivation
was not applied in the analysis of play data. El'konin (1978, 1989) ar
gues that role relations in children's play reflect and refer to the array
248
Pentti Hakkarainen
References
Bateson, G. (1955). A theory of play and fantasy. Psychiatric Research Reports, 2, 39-51.
Bateson, G. (1978). Play and paradigm. In M. A. Salter (Ed.), Play: Anthropological per
spectives. West Point: Leisure Press.
Berentzen, S. (1989). The interactional context of children's peer group activities. In S.
Berentzen (Ed.), Ethnographic approaches to children's worlds and peer cultures.
Report No. 15. Trondheim: Norwegian Center for Child Research.
Bretherton, I. (1984). Representing the social world in symbolic play. In I. Bretherton
(Ed.), Symbolic play: The development of social understanding. Orlando: Aca
demic Press.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and
design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J. S. (1977). Introduction. In B. Tizard & D. Harvey (Eds.), The biology of play.
London: Spastics International.
Bruner, J. S. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
249
Cohen, S., & MacKeith, S. A. (1991). The development of imagination. The private worlds
of childhood. London: Routledge.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1981). Some paradoxes in the definition of play. In A. T. Cheska
(Ed.), Play as context. West Point: Leisure Press.
El'konin, D. B. (1978). Psikhologiya tgry {The psychology of play). Moscow: Pedagogika.
El'konin, D. B. (1989). Izbrannye psikhologiceskie trudy (Collected psychological works).
Moscow: Pedagogika.
Engestrom, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to develop
mental research. Hensinki: Orienta-Konsultit.
Fein, G. G. (1987). Pretend play: Creativity and consciousness. In D. Gorlitz & J. E
Wohlwill (Eds.), Curiosity, imagination and play. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Garvey, C. (1977). Play. London: Open Books.
Gaskins, S., & Goncii, A. (1992). Cultural variation in play: A challenge to Piaget and Vygotsky. Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition,
14, 31-34.
Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
Groos, K. (1922). Das Spiel. Zwei Vortrage von Karl Groos. Jena: Fischer.
Hakkarainen, P. (1990). Motivaatio, leikkija toiminnan kohteellisuus (Motivation, play and
object-orientation of activity). Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit.
Hakkarainen, P. (1991). Joint construction of the object of educational work in kinder
garten. Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition,
13, 80-87.
Hannikainen, M. (1992). Transition to role play as a stage in the development of play. Piagetian point of view. Unpublished thesis. Jyvaskyla: University of Jyvaskyla.
Isaacs, S. (1930). Intellectual growth in young children. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Leont'ev, A. N. (1978). Activity, consciousness, and personality. Englewood Cliffs: PrenticeHall.
Leont'ev, A. N. (1981). Problemy razvitiya psikhiki (Problems of the development of the mind).
Moscow: I M G U
Nelson, K., & Seidman, S. (1984). Playing with scripts. In I. Bretherton (Ed.), Symbolic
play: the development of social understanding. Orlando: Academic Press.
Rubinstein, S. L. (1989). Osnovy obshtshei psikhologii (Foundations of general psychology)
(Vols. I and II). Moscow: Pedagogika.
Strauss, A. (1978). The social world perspective. In N. K. Denzin (Ed.), Studies in sym
bolic interaction. Greenwich: JAI Press.
Sutton-Smith, B. (1978). Die Dialektik des Spiels. Schorndorf: Hofmann.
van der Kooij, R. (1983). Empirische Spielforschung. In K. J. Kreuzer (Ed.), Handbuch
der Spielpddagogik, Band 1. Diisseldorf: Schwann-Bagel.
15
Introduction
The cultural-historical understanding of play activity (Vygotsky,
1978; El'konin, 1980; Leont'ev, 1981) has had a growing impact on pro
fessional educators during the last decade. Play may be regarded as a
subjective reflection of reality. In play the child reproduces observations
and experiences in his or her own way. Play is a creative activity. Through
play, the child changes his or her surroundings, leaving out something
and inventing something. Fiction, imagination, and fantasy are essential.
The child works out actions of make-believe and gives new meanings to
actions and objects.
Play is voluntary and independent. If you try to force play, children
will stop playing. Play is a social activity in which human relations are
essential and are expressed together with peers. The motive of play is
in the process itself, in the contents of the action, not in the result. The
motive of play is unconscious, but the goal is conscious. "Nor does the
presence of such generalized emotions in play mean that the child her
self understands the motives giving rise to the game" (Vygotsky, 1978,
p. 93).
Important changes take place in the preschool child's psyche through
play. They pave the way for the child's transition to a new level of devel
opment (Leont'ev, 1981, p. 369). The leading function and impact of play
activity have a number of causes. In the first place, all three mediating
factors, that is, tools, signs, and other people (Vygotsky, 1978, pp. 5457;
Leont'ev, 1978, p. 59), are active in the child's play activity. Children are
involved in an interaction with peers and adults; they use tools and arti
facts, and represent the culture through signs and symbols. Second, in
play children are able to master ideas and to carry through more advanced
actions than are possible for them in nonplay situations.
250
251
252
Stig Brostrbm
A fun fair circus play
After lunch, 6-year-old Peter asks his friends Morten and Danny
to play with the circus animals. They start by building some cages of
bricks in which they place different animals. Now Peter suggests making
a fun fair with "lots of things you can do." Morten accepts and expands
the idea, adding a circus project with performing animals. On the basis
of this shared plan, Morten starts building a booking office and arranges
a line. Peter builds a little lake, places a canoe on it, and declares: "Now
you can go canoeing." "Yes," Danny says, "but you have to line up." Now
some 5-year-old girls arrive, asking to join in. "Then you can finish the
fun fair." The girls construct the seats and the bandstand, which inspires
Morten. He grabs a Playmobile figure and bursts out: "I am the man. I
am bandmaster." Peter: "Okay, but then I will be your monkey, can't I?"
And Peter continues: "And also the man who flings with knives in cir
cus. Is it okay to be two persons at the same time?" "Yes," Morten says
while he conducts the band of the circus, which for a while consists only
of Danny playing the trumpet.
Soon Danny leaves the band but Morten continues being a bandmas
ter, still keeping the Playmobile figure in his hand. Then he puts away
the figure, plants himself at a table, and begins to color a miniature pa
per checkered black and white. With great concentration he produces a
black-and-white signal flag, which he places in the hand of his Playmo
bile figure. He returns to the fun fair, where he is all by himself for a
lengthy period, absorbed in a play creating a race.
One of the girls asks to be a keeper at the zoo, "and I enter the cages
of the animals." She finds a Playmobile figure, puts in some animals, and
feeds them. Peter tells her: "Remember, all the animals are inoffensive.
They can walk around everywhere if they like." "Yes, and I'm a crocodile,
but nobody is afraid of me," Danny says. Now Peter becomes inspired.
At the platform he becomes a monkey, shouting: "I'm a wild monkey,
and you, Peter, chase me." Peter manages the monkey; it rushes at the
other animals and at last falls down in the middle of the ring. Then Peter
says: "Now the monkey is tired; let us show him a circus trick."
This play sequence has a happy and cheerful atmosphere. This alone
might be a sufficient reason for supporting play. But in addition to this,
play is the leading activity of the preschool child, the activity that has
the greatest influence on developing new structures in the child's psyche
(Leont'ev, 1981, p. 369). How is this manifested in the sequence just
described?
<?
253
Children play in order to cope with their own existence - among other
things, experiences of fear. In the preceding play sequence the children
are dealing with a harmony-conflict relationship. The wild animals are
set free, but they are not dangerous. The monkey shows its wildness, but
it is still accepted by the group.
According to El'konin (1980), the most important meaning of play is
its influence on the development of motives and needs. Play results in
a movement from unconscious motives to more conscious ones. If a 3year-old girl feeds the animals in this play, she does so just as the keeper
at the zoo would, but her motive is unconscious. A girl of 5 performs ap
parently identical actions, but though the actions seem alike, the child is
not content with just doing what adults did. In her consciousness she is
the keeper of the zoo; she identifies herself with the role and appropri
ates the actions of the keeper. This is the foundation for developing a
new, conscious motive: the wish to be adult and act like adults. Gradu
ally the child realizes that this demands new knowledge and skills. This
new understanding eventually leads to the development of a new motive:
the learning motive.
In addition, play helps children to overcome their egocentricity. When
Morten identifies himself with the role of conductor, he has to take over
the motives, feelings, and actions attached to that role. Danny, too, has to
understand the motives and actions of the conductor in order to be able
to join the band.
Role play also contributes to the inhibition of spontaneous action. In
order to be able to play, children have to reflect on and arrange some
play actions. Peter suggests playing a fun fair, and Morten suggests do
ing a circus with performing animals. Play implies that the two boys
reflect, then express their thoughts linguistically, and finally carry out
the play actions. In other words, there is a gradual movement from un
consciousness and impulsive actions to conscious, willful actions. The
order action-speech-thought is changed to the reverse order: thoughtspeechaction.
Play develops imagination and fantasy. The child can carry out the role
play only if he or she is able to imagine the role and the actions. Children
have to ascribe another meaning to the play actions and play accessories.
For instance, the child has to imagine that a block is a booking office.
Otherwise, it is meaningless to wait for a ticket at the block.
Moreover, play develops the social capacity of children. The individual
roles demand particular play actions. For example, Morten starts con
ducting the band, which inspires Danny to blow the trumpet. Because
254
Stig Brostrom
play is an activity children want to do, they enter into an agreement with
each other. Play helps children in a meaningful way to subordinate to one
another's play wishes.
Finally, in play children often create completely new actions and ac
tivities that expand the play and, with that, the children's capacity. The
sequence in which Morten became absorbed in coloring the flag illus
trates this.
Drama g a m e s
At the age of 6, role play gradually changes its character. Chil
dren become conscious of their own activity and, as a result, the rules
behind the roles become conscious to the children. This forms the basis
of mastery of new forms of play. Six-year-old children are able to orga
nize and play games with rules independently of adults.
These are games, whose fixed content is no longer the role and the play situation but the
rule and the purpose. Such, for example, is hopscotch; it is necessary to achieve a certain
goal set by definite conditions. (Leont'ev, 1981, p. 386)
In this kind of play the rules are relatively specific and arbitrary. They
are based on agreement among children about specific actions that are al
lowed. The rules must be known and understood before the games begin.
Awareness of the purpose of the play leads to specific results. In playing
tag, for example, it is necessary not just to run, but also to run away from
the one who is "it." Still, the motive is in the play process itself. "But that
process is now mediated for the child by purpose" (Leont'ev, 1981, p. 387).
Parallel to the growing awareness of the purpose of play, a change con
cerning its contents and complexity comes into existence. To young chil
dren, role play means acting with objects and later carrying out a role.
During the period from 5 to 7 years of age, the content of play mani
fests itself through actions connected to the roles of playmates (El'konin,
1980).
Moreover, 6-year-old children become more conscious of the imag
inary play situation, that is, the concrete situation they imagine. Slavina's investigations reported by El'konin (1980) show that the existence
of the imaginary play situation ascribes meaning to the play actions. In
the previous fun fair sequence, for instance, the 6-year-olds had a joint
understanding of the imaginary play situation.
The development of this new level of play makes it possible to intro
duce new types of play. Leont'ev (1981, p. 389) mentions different bor
derline games, including the development of dramatized and improvised
255
256
Stig Brostrbm
the preschool teachers worked out play activities with themes such as
"Life in hospital," "Railway station," and "On the ferry to Sweden." In
the kindergarten class attached to a school, the drama games were orga
nized as projects in the joint teaching of kindergarten classes and Grades
1 and 2. For instance, in the project "We are constructing a town," chil
dren between ages 5 and 9 were divided into groups of about six. They
turned the classrooms into workshops where they manufactured and sold
many products, such as different kinds of toys, portrait paintings, and
key racks. Other rooms they converted into a restaurant, a bank, a cin
ema, and different shops. The children worked in shifts, moving from
production to consumption and back. One week the children worked in
shops, the restaurant, and the cinema for their wages; the next week they
created a play where they spent their wages.
This kind of organization attempts to give the individual child access
to roles and actions that correspond to his or her capacity. Neverthe
less, many questions were raised: Does the more organized drama game
demand too much? Will it cause a storm in the zone of proximal devel
opment? Will the children be brought into an activity characterized by
motives that, in Leont'ev's (1981, p. 402) words, are "only understand
able"? Will the independence, creativity, and voluntary nature of play be
spoiled? Will the drama game serve only the function of adjustment?
To illuminate these questions, I observed drama games in preschool
and kindergarten settings and subsequently conducted interviews with
the children.
"We are constructing a town"
In this drama game, I followed 6-year-old Peter for about 25 min
utes. Peter joins a group that is going to town. He goes along with five
other children aged 5 to 8 years. Two 8-year-old girls take the initiative:
"First, we shall draw our wages from the bank." They walk to the bank,
where they receive their wages. Two boys leave the group: "We are go
ing to the movie, and later we are going to the restaurant." Now Peter is
alone with the two girls, Brit and Anja. They ask if he would like to go
shopping. "We are going to the shop From Head to Foot." Peter nods
his head.
In the shop, the girls immediately turn to the beauty salon. Brit says:
"We varnish our nails." "Yes, just like pretty ladies," Anja adds. "My
sister already has red nails, also when she is at work," Britt says. Now
151
258
Stig Brostrom
"Firemen in action"
In the fire station, fire chief Frederik sits at the control table typ
ing while the drivers, Jesper and Mads, wait eagerly. Nema and Lennon,
two firemen, sit in the fire engine, and Nema makes a call on the walkietalkie.
Nema: I am going to call the chief.
Lennon: What? I will do the same thing. You know something? I will call
you.
Nema: Lennon, don't. Now it is my turn.
Lennon: I haven't tried.
(Lennon calls to the control desk, where Anders is placed.)
Lennon: Anders, Anders!
Nema: Firemen won't do it like that.
(Frederik picks up the call and turns toward Anders.)
Frederik: Then^ou will say.
259
Hey, it's the fire station. Return quickly, there is a fire. Bring the
fire engine to the scene of the fire.
(Nema and Lennon, sitting in the fire engine, make sounds like a siren, jump off,
and drag the fire hose through the room. They uncoil the hose; Nema grabs it
and climbs the ladder.)
Nema: Where is the fire?
(While Nema searches for the fire, he observes Anders running around with the
bicycle lamp and the tissue paper. Then he climbs off the ladder, hangs the hose
on the ladder, and turns, irritated, to Lennon.)
Nema: Now you fix the hose with me.
Lennon: Nema, you will put out the fire all the time.
Nema: (ignoring this objection) I tell you what, we have to hose with water,
lots of water.
(Lennon seems to feel too controlled, but before the conflict becomes manifest,
a child shouts: "There is a fire in the hospital." Another boy adds: "We only
pretend." At the control table Frederik talks to Anders.)
Frederik: Anders, Anders, we have a call. Won't you come? We will take a
ride to the hospital.
Anders: I have to tell the man in the hospital.
260
Stig Brostrbm
261
time making walkie-talkie calls and taking a ride. He was conscious of the
rules of reality and play, and he accepted them.
We see a corresponding consciousness in Frederik when Nema asked
him whether they should return. "Yes," Frederik replied because he
thought the fire engine ought to be in its place. This consciousness was
manifest in the command "It's the fire station. Return quickly, there is a
fire." And later, when there was a fire in the hospital and Anders asked
if he should tell the man in the hospital, Frederik rationally responded:
"No, tell the firemen."
In play, children reflect their experiences and take independent initia
tives. They play up to each other and understand how to make use of
these challenges. They bring each other into a zone of proximal devel
opment. But they do not exceed the zone even when the teacher enters
into the play. When the teacher started the fire, she acted in agreement
with the children's capacity. The teacher enriched the play, but on the
children's premises and without going beyond their zone of proximal
development.
Most of the play actions were worked out in agreement with the chil
dren's experiences and the frame of the play. Nevertheless, within the
described play sequences we see some new actions come into existence.
In the fun fair, we see Morten deeply involved in painting. When Anja
and Brit left the shop From Head to Foot to perform as models, they ex
panded beyond the current given context. Finally, in taking up the thief
and police idea, Anders and Nema acted contrary to the expectation of
fireman's work and activity.
Through these play activities, the children brought themselves into
the zone of proximal development. Such play activities are character
ized by changes and by the appearance of new contents. If the teachers
make room for children's creative activities, they themselves will gener
ate such expanding elements. The opposite will occur if the teachers put
too much structure into the play. Expansive play will not appear.
The drama game also forms a basis for the emergence of new games
when the concrete drama game ends. Children may use the equipment
and costumes to develop a completely new play.
Educational implications of drama g a m e s
In a successfully organized drama game, the child's motive corre
sponds to the object. Consequently, the activity is meaningful. Children
262
Stig Brostrom
are engaged in the activity and express genuine feelings. This indicates
that their motives have the character of "really effective motives."
Children need to understand the whole play and to see the connec
tions between the various play actions. The contents and elaboration of
the play challenge the children but should not go beyond their zone of
proximal development.
The theme of the drama game has to be formulated on the basis of
children's interests and motives. The themes may arise as extensions of
earlier project work, as joint excursions, or as continuations of children's
own stories and imaginations. In order to build up the common frame
and to play on the basis on the theme, the children must have insight
into and experiences in connection with the topic of the play. The best
foundation is children's own physical experience, gained, for example,
through a visit to the hospital, to the harbor, or to the airport, where the
children have an opportunity to observe firsthand the relations between
people engaged in a practice (Launer, 1968). Naturally, a drama game can
be established on the basis of a story or a movie, but 6-year-old children
prefer firsthand experience.
In the arrangement of the drama game, the teachers are responsible for
encouraging and supporting the children and for promoting a good at
mosphere. The children have to formulate the frame of the drama game
themselves. The teachers should support and guide, but they have to be
very gentle in the way they make suggestions and introduce play scenar
ios and ideas for the frame of the play activity. In order to inspire the
children to play, the teacher has to take an active part in the play and be
genuinely involved. The teacher's role in play is to support, enrich, and
expand the play - but without exceeding the zone of proximal develop
ment. On these premises, the organized drama game has the potential
to contribute to the development of qualitatively new structures in the
child's psyche and activity.
References
Ajdarova, L. (1982). Child development and education. Moscow: Progress.
Brostrom, S. (1992). Quick response: An ethnographic analysis of a drama-game in a
Danish preschool. Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Hu
man Cognition, 14, 1725.
Davydov, V. V. (1990). Types of generalization in instruction: Logical and psychological prob
lems in the structuring of school curricula. Reston: National Council of Teachers
of Mathematics.
263
16
Lompscher
Introduction
Teachers' experiences and countless studies show that in the ma
jority of classrooms real learning results do not correspond with either
the expectations of society or the efforts of most of the teachers and learn
ers. High rates of forgetting, low levels of applicability of knowledge and
skills, insufficient quality of problem finding and problem solving, and
aversion to school learning are often demonstrated in discussions and
reports.
Results from one of our studies illustrate this point. Fourth-grade
pupils (10 to 11 years of age) had to solve two text problems. Both prob
lems had the same mathematical structure but were different in content.
The mathematical structure of both problems corresponded with the stu
dents' available mental preconditions. In both cases, the same operations
(addition and multiplication of whole numbers) had to be used. The first
problem referred to familiar things often used in such tasks. The second
problem, however, was about liquids, a type of problem with which the
children had little calculatory experience.
The study was part of a larger investigation performed in normal class
rooms in several schools (Reinhold, 1988). Earlier results obtained with
different methods allowed us to select pupils as representatives of rela
tively homogeneous performance groups (high, average, and low perfor
mance). The difficulties in uncovering the mathematical structure and in
finding necessary operations increased sharply from performance group
I (high) to group III (low) (Figure 16.1). Students with similar psycholog
ical characteristics but taught on the basis of another instructional strat
egy reached significantly higher results, although differences between the
performance groups show the same trend that occurs in the classes that
received traditional instruction.
264
266
Joachim Lompscher
267
268
Joachim Lompscher
A proposed solution
Our solution of the contradiction mentioned earlier consists of
an arrangement of learning activity in which the acquisition of the learn
ing material is organized, first of all, as formation of the learning activity it
self (Davydov, 1988a, 1988b, 1991; Hedegaard, 1990; Hedegaard & Chaiklin, 1993; Lompscher, 1982, 1984, 1985, 1988, 1989a, 1989b, 1992). This
activity formation strategy may be briefly characterized by the following
features.
1. Whereas the transmission strategy, as a rule, emphasizes goal ori
entation in the sense of presenting learning goals in a ready form, ex
plaining them, if necessary, and expecting or demanding an appropri
ate learning behavior, our orientation is directed to goal formation. We
confront the learners with phenomena, situations, and tasks going be
yond their actual possibilities to such a degree that a problem situation
can arise. The learners' available knowledge and skills are not sufficient
for an immediate solution, but they are sufficient for understanding and
accepting the problem. This is a question not only of cognitive prereq
uisites but of emotional and motivational ones as well. An active and
productive learning process will start and go on if there is appropriate
motivation. In the study mentioned earlier, we gave fourth-grade stu
dents relatively complex mathematical problems compared with those
solved so far and with thought-provoking contents, so that the chil
dren were interested and tried to solve the problems but failed to do so.
269
270
Joachim Lompscher
271
273
and 4). The change of functions and the problem solver-opponent divi
sion was the most effective variant in this experiment. This was true not
only with regard to the number of steps necessary until a solution was
found but also with regard to the quality of the strategies.
5. All the aspects mentioned so far were integrated into a special in
structional strategy called ascending from the abstract to the concrete. Its
philosophical, psychological, and pedagogical prerequisites and conse
quences, as well as the experience with and results of its implementation
in instructional experiments, are described in detail in the literature (in
particular, see Davydov, 1988a). Its main difference from the transmis
sion strategy consists of the following: In the first phase, the most essen
tial constitutive features and relations of a learning object or domain are
abstracted on the basis of the learners' own practical and/or mental ac
tions and fixed in easily manageable models in graphic or symbolic forms.
This is the process of transition from the concrete to the abstract. This
abstraction is based on theoretical generalization (see the earlier discus
sion), though in very elementary forms, considering the developmental
level of the students (mostly third to sixth graders, but the strategy is
not restricted to these age groups). We call these abstractions initial or
starting abstractions because the most important phase or part of the ac
quisition process is only beginning now: Ascending from the abstract to
the concrete2 depends decisively on the quality of that starting abstrac
tion. It now becomes a means of further mental penetration of the learn
ing object, a means of orientation, planning, and analysis in the ongoing
learning activity.
The initial abstraction serves as a conceptual macrostructure that of
fers a general framework for analysis of the many concrete phenomena
and their fixation in appropriate memory structures. The initial abstrac
tion fosters a mental grasp of the concrete by tracing back to the basic
relations and features of the learning domain, and in turn, it is gradually
enriched in content by means of the production of many links while ana
lyzing the concrete phenomena. This learning process may be continued
until the explorative potential of a starting abstraction is exhausted and a
higher or different abstraction is needed to further penetrate the object,
if necessary or desirable. In any case, determination of the content and
structure of a starting abstraction, its modellike representation, the ways
and conditions of the transition from the concrete to the abstract, and
then the ascent from the abstract to the more and more mentally pene
trated concrete presuppose serious theoretical work and, of course, much
empirical research. On this theoretical basis, we conducted instructional
274
Joachim Lompscher
275
Figure 16.3. Efficiency of different strategies for the solution of text problems.
(a) Reproduction of procedural knowledge; (b) application of procedural knowl
edge; (c) correct solution. Lighter columns: control classes; darker columns:
experimental classes.
276
Joachim Lompscher
277
Figure 16.4.
278
Joachim Lompscher
219
Notes
1. This concept, originated by Galperin (1967, 1969,1982), refers to the representation
of essential features and relations of an object or task domain and of the relevant condi
tions, phases, checkpoints, necessary means, and possible consequences of the actions
to be executed in order to reach a certain goal.
2. This phase gave the name to the whole strategy because of its importance and role.
But this does not mean that abstractions arise out of a vacuum.
References
Boekaerts, M. (Ed.). (1988). Emotion, motivation and learning. International Journal of
Educational Research, 12(3) (whole issue).
Boekaerts, M. (1992). T h e adaptable learning process: Initiating and maintaining behav
ioral change. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 41, 377-397.
Bohme, B. (1990). Besonderheiten leistungsschwacher Schiller 4. Klassen bei der Ausbildung
von Lernhandlungen zum selbstdndigen Erkennen von Ursache-Wirkung-Zusammenhdngen. Dissertation A. Berlin: Akademie der Padagogischen Wissenschaften
der DDR.
Davydov, V. V. (1988a). Problems of developmental teaching: T h e experience of theoreti
cal and empirical psychological research. Soviet Education, Part I: J0(8), 15-97;
Part II: 30(9), 3-38; Part III: 30(10), 3-77.
Davydov, V. V. (1988b). Learning activity: The main problems needing further research.
Multidisciplinary Newsletter for Activity Theory, 1, 29-36.
Davydov, V. V. (1990). Types of generalization in instruction: Logical and psychological prob
lems in the structuring of school curricula. Reston: National Council of Teachers
of Mathematics.
Davydov, V. V. (1991). T h e content and unsolved problems of activity theory. Multidisci
plinary Newsletter for Activity Theory, 7/8, 30-35.
De Corte, E. (1990). Acquiring and teaching cognitive skills: State of the art of theory
and research. In P. J. D. Drenth, J. A. Sergeant, & R. J. Takens (Eds.), European
perspectives in psychology (Vol. 1). London: Wiley.
Detterman, D. K., & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.). (1993). Transfer on trial: Intelligence, cogni
tion, and instruction. Norwood: Ablex.
El'konin, D. B. (1989). O strukture ucebnoj dejatel'nosti. In Izbrannye psichologiceskie
trudy. Moscow: Pedagogika.
Galperin, P. J. (1967). On the notion of interiorisation. Soviet Psychology, 5, 28-33.
Galperin, P. J. (1969). Stages in the development of mental acts. In M. Cole & I. Maltzman
(Eds.), Handbook of contemporary Soviet psychology. New York: Case Books.
Galperin, P. J. (1982). Intellectual capabilities among older preschool children: On the
problem of training and mental development. In W. W. Hartup (Ed.), Review
of child development research (Vol. 6). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Hedegaard, M. (1990). T h e zone of proximal development as basis for instruction. In
L. C. Moll (Ed.), Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applica
tions of sociohistorical psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
280
Joachim
Lompscher
Hedegaard, M., & Chaiklin, S. (1993). Foundations for investigating the role of culture
in Danish school teaching. In N. Engelsted, M. Hedegaard, B. Karpatschof, &
A. Mortensen (Eds.), The societal subject. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.
Heckhausen, H. (1991). Motivation and action. Berlin: Springer.
Jantos, W. (1989). Kooperation und Kommunikation in der Lerntatigkeit. In J. Lomp
scher (Ed.), Psychologische Analysen der Lerntatigkeit. Berlin: Volk und Wissen.
Klauer, K. J. (1989). Teaching for analogical transfer as a means of improving problem
solving, thinking and learning. Instructional Science, 18, 179-192.
Koster, E. (1985). Problemlosen als Lernhandlung betrachtet. Psychologie fur die Praxis,
3, 239-247.
Kovac, D. (1990). Theoretische Fragen der allgemeinen Psychologie. Berlin: Volk und Wis
sen.
Lomov, B. (1984). Methodologische und theoretische Prohleme der Psychologie. Berlin: Volk
und Wissen.
Lompscher, J. (1982). Conditions and potentialities of the formation of learning activ
ity. In R. Glaser & J. Lompscher (Eds.), Cognitive and motivational aspects of
instruction. Berlin: Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften.
Lompscher, J. (1984). Problems and results of experimental research on the formation of
theoretical thinking through instruction. In M. Hedegaard, P. Hakkarainen, &
Y. Engestrom (Eds.), Learning and teaching on a scientific basis: Methodological
and epistemological aspects of the activity theory of learning and teaching. Aarhus:
Aarhus Universitet, Psykologisk Institut.
Lompscher, J. (1985). Formation of learning activity - a fundamental condition of cog
nitive development. In E. Bol, J. P. P. Haenen, & M. Wolters (Eds.), Education
for cognitive development. Den Haag: SVO/SOO.
Lompscher, J. (Ed.). (1988). Persbnlichkeitsentrvicklung in der Lerntatigkeit. Berlin: Volk
und Wissen.
Lompscher, J. (1989a). Formation of learning activity in pupils. In H. Mandl, E. de Corte,
N. Bennet, & H. F. Friedrich (Eds.), Learning and instruction - European research
in an international context (Vol. 2.2). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Lompscher, J. (Ed.). (1989b). Psychologische Analysen der Lerntatigkeit. Berlin: Volk und
Wissen.
Lompscher, J. (1992). Concept and strategy acquisition in pupils - intergroup differ
ences in the formation of learning activity. Multidisciplinary Newsletter for Ac
tivity Theory, 11/12, 8-12.
Mandl, H., & Huber, G. L. (Eds.). (1983). Emotion und Kognition. Munich: Urban und
Schwarzenberg.
Markova, A. K. (1983). Formirovanie motivacii ucenija v skolnom vozraste. Moscow: Prosvescenie.
Mevarech, Z. R., & Light, P. H. (Eds.). (1992). Cooperative learning with computers.
Learning and Instruction, 2(3) (whole issue).
Nguyen Danh Moc (1989). Ausbildung kooperativer Lerntdtigkeit durch das gemeinsame
Lbsen von Sack- undAnmendungsaufgaben im 3. Schuljahr. Dissertation A. Berlin:
Akademie der Padagogischen Wissenschaften der DDR.
Perret-Clermont, A. N., & Schubauer-Leoni, M. L. (Eds.). (1989). Social factors in learn
ing and instruction. International Journal of Educational Research, 13(6) (whole
issue).
Activity
formation
as an alternative
strategy
281
17
Hedegaard
Introduction
Why is teaching history part of elementary education, and how
does it become useful for children outside the school context? How can
concrete events and abstract principles be related in history teaching, and
how can history be a means of relating to the past and orientating toward
the future? How can the child become explorative and active in history
teaching? These questions are central for history teaching and have been
approached in different ways within various traditions of instructional
theory.
In this chapter, I argue for an activity-theoretical approach to history
teaching. The activity approach is characterized with the help of four
principles. In the last part of the chapter, I use these dimensions to de
scribe and analyze a history teaching experiment we conducted in Grades
4 and 5 in a Danish comprehensive school. In this experiment, historical
knowledge was viewed as a tool for understanding the societies of today.
The objective of history teaching has changed over time (Engelund,
1988; Sodring Jensen, 1978; Manifest, 1983). In Denmark schools be
came public in 1814 and in Sweden in 1842 (Ramirez & Boli, 1987). From
the beginning, history teaching in the Scandinavian countries had the
task of developing students' national identity and moral character. This
last task coincided with the ideals of the obligatory teaching of religion,
and the two were the main objectives in public school teaching besides
teaching reading (Sodring Jensen, 1978). The task of history teaching
was transformed in the late 1950s. In Denmark, a new school law was
confirmed in 1958. The change in the objectives of schooling influenced
history teaching. It became a descriptive subject with the task of impart
ing objective knowledge. In the 1980s there was a return to a discussion
of the importance of history teaching for the formation of the child's
282
283
284
Mariane Hedegaard
A teaching e x p e r i m e n t
4.
285
&
286
287
Mariane Hedegaard
Learning actions
Model use
T h e concepts of nature, form of living,
collective tool use and division of work
T h e historical dimension
Model extension
1. Collecting experiences
Model formulation for human's way of living
with focus on tool production
Problem formulation
again
What did we investigate last year? What do we
investigate now? What do we plan to
investigate?
Cooperation
four themes.
with in third
to work with
288
Mariane Hedegaard
4th grade
Sth grade
Learning actions
Learning actions
Model use
The concept in the model is used on the
problem: How can it be that people live
differently in different historical periods?
Historical method
Interpretation of archaeological discoveries
Model extension
The concept of society is defined based on its
institutions. In the Middle Ages these are the
church, the village, the town, and the castle.
Ways of living are defined in relation to
people's needs.
Model evaluation
5th grade
Goals and concepts of teaching
Learning actions
289
290
Mariane Hedegaard
nature/resources
tools/machines
rules/power
human living
conditions
division of work/
results of work
as indicated by the core example of the contrast between the !Kung peo
ple and the Iron Age people.
In this chapter, the focus is on the treatment of historical change in
society, with special emphasis on Danish society. Danish history is an
obligatory subject in the Danish elementary school.
We chose to work with models that integrate the development of na
ture and society (see Hedegaard, 1988). It is important to stress that the
conceptual relations we used to describe and explain the evolution of an
imals were not replaced but incorporated into the following models so
that concepts of nature became related to concepts of society.
The basic relations that make up the model for the evolution of ani
mals are species, population, and nature, which define each other (Mayr,
1976,1980; Gould, 1977). These concepts became extended and specified
291
for the model of the origin of humans, so that the concept of species
was transformed into the concept of human individuals, the concept of
population was transformed into the concept of group, and the concept
of nature was transformed into the concept of surroundings. Tool cre
ation, division of work, and beliefs became the mediating concepts be
tween the central concepts of individual, surroundings, and group (see
Leont'ev, 1978; Leakey & Lewin, 1978; Engelsted, 1984). These con
cepts were further developed and transformed into subjects' needs and
living conditions, society and its institutions, and human-made reality
with its resources. Again, the mediating concepts of tools (both physical
and psychological), work functions /division of labor, and beliefs /rules
were incorporated into the model. This last model is depicted in Fig
ure 17.1.
It is important to point out that the models were changed and devel
oped as part of the teaching experiment. Both theory and pedagogical
practice influenced the models. Professionals in the fields of biology, ge
ography, and history were consulted.
The functions of the models were to organize and differentiate the
problem area and to guide the teacher in his or her interaction with the
children in the teaching situation. Through tasks and actions in the ex
perimental instruction the children came to develop their own models,
which gradually became differentiated and more complex. Examples of
the evolution of children's own models are presented in Figures 17.2a
and 17.2b.
The historical changes of societies were divided into subproblems
guided by the concepts in the models. The subproblems the children
came to work with during the 2 years of experimental history teaching
were derived from the following question: How can it be that humans
have lived differently at different places in the world and in different his
torical periods in Denmark?
The teacher started by introducing problem formulation and some
of the conceptual relations of the model through specific tasks. The
children were given the task of sorting and discussing two sets of pic
tures. They were divided into groups of four, and the members of
each group were supposed to help and discuss the pictures with each
other. One series of pictures showed episodes from different societies
of today (industrial as well as nonindustrial). The other series of pic
tures showed episodes from Danish society in different historical peri
ods. The episodes chosen focused on themes that were connected to the
292
Mariane
Hedegaard
293
A M0DeL
S"nU J
^-...
fti
V-"
Historical timeline and historical periodization
-i
WP
Figure 17.2a. A fourth-grade child's model of society's basic relations.
294
Mariane Hedegaard
of labor and of rules and beliefs. In the Stone, Bronze, and Iron ages, we
focused on differences in tool use and on what this meant for changing
people's living conditions from one period to the next. But in the Iron
Age we also found that the development of new types of tools changed
people's relations to nature. The population of Denmark started to be
come settled, and a more clearly differentiated division of labor evolved.
In the Viking Age, differentiation in the division of labor meant the be
ginning of classes, slaves, and free-born men and women. The free-born
(the Vikings) went out on expeditions, which led us to focus on rules for
living together among the two classes. We compared the Viking Age with
the Middle Ages and saw that religion acquired a special status in rela
tion to classes. The clergy became a class of its own in the Middle Ages,
with the Church as a strong, all-encompassing institution.
We differentiated the society of the Middle Ages into four key institu
tions: (1) the Church (priests and monks), (2) the town (mostly crafts
men), (3) the castle (the nobility), and (4) the village (the peasants). We
explored how these groups lived together. Rules for distribution of re
sources and beliefs (relation to nature and its resources) came into focus.
In the New Age, the focus extended to rules for classes and countries.
The distribution and exploitation of resources and the concept of own
ership became central in the analyses of this period. The exploration of
the New World led us back to tool use and tool invention by focusing
on the development of skills such as navigation and knowledge about the
world and the universe, as well as extension of the knowledge of writ
ing and reading. The study of the exploration of the New World led
to transcendence of the Danish borders and to looking at history as a
world history.
Skills in historical methods
One aspect of our goal was to develop children's skills in the use
of scientific methods, with a focus on the specific methods developed for
the investigation of prehistoric periods. We used a general research pro
cedure with the following steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
295
This procedure was used both to guide the children's research actions
and to guide the teacher's structuring of the class periods. The children
made a role play about historical research, and we showed them research
methods in use by taking them to a prehistoric museum to see and partici
pate in historians' work on reconstruction of work in different workshops
and at a farmhouse. The children were shown films about rescuing his
torical materials and determining their age. Afterward they were given
tasks and had discussions on how historical evidence is used in dating and
interpreting archaeological findings.
Use of conceptual relations of history to analyze
today's society
The forward-oriented aspect of the teaching was realized after
the official conclusion of the teaching experiment, in sixth and seventh
grades. The students applied their knowledge of biology and history to
the society of today. They used their models of evolution and historical
change of societies on a range of different themes that they negotiated
among themselves. These themes included the relation between the fish
ing industry, ecological problems, and geographical characteristics of the
places where fishermen live. In this theme, the students compared the
Faroe Islands and Chile - their nature, living conditions, and cultural
and political characteristics. Another theme the students selected to re
search was the rain forest. Here they developed an ecological model for
analyzing the evolution of plants, which they subsequently applied to the
tundra in Lapland.
In the sixth and seventh grades, the children demonstrated that they
had acquired biological, geographical, and historical concepts as tool-using ca
pacities, which they could use to understand today's societal problems
(Hedegaard & Sigersted, 1992a, 1992b).
Conclusion
I have argued for the relevance of an activity-theoretical approach
to history teaching. The main characteristic of our approach is the mod
eling of basic historical-conceptual relations. The continuous elaboration
and use of the conceptual models gradually gives the subject matter of
history a tool character.
This characteristic has been used in other experimental teaching pro
grams based on activity theory (e.g., Davydov, 1982; Aidarova, 1982;
296
Mariane Hedegaard
Activity
297
Didactic models
18
Introduction
Some time ago, the psychologist Kurt Koffka made a short refer
ence to a peculiar snatch of conversation he once overheard (Koffka, 1921,
1935). Four men were sitting at a table, and one of them - a German was trying to prove that his native language was the best. He picked up
a knife and argued as follows: "Look, the French call this 'couteau,' the
English 'knife' and we Germans call it 'Messer.' Na, und ein 'Messer' ist
es eben auch." (And that's just what it is - a "Messer.") 1
This anecdote has an impact only if the addressee is able to make a
clear distinction between two modes of thought: functional reasoning,
on the one hand, and metalinguistic reflection, on the other. In the ar
gument put forward in the "Messer debate," both modes of reasoning
clearly conflict with one another. In the noun phrase (i.e., the topic) of
the argument, the functional classification of the referent "knife" as a thing
"in and for itself" is reflected, whereas in the verb phrase (i.e., the com
ment) the everyday reference "Messer" is discussed and evaluated. The
latter appears primarily to be a thing "for us Germans."
This reference to the sociocultural valence of the artifact called Messer
indicates that it is not the functional use as such, but the actual usage
and the personalization of knowledge that are discussed here. The every
day meaning (i.e., the practical value) of the object "knife" is compared
by juxtaposing three different word forms. At the same time, the so
ciocultural classification in question is made into a problem because the
speaker makes a clear-cut demarcation between "us" and "them." Ap
parently, in the frame of reference actualized here, everyday meaning and
sense are intrinsically interwoven. {Sense in Leont'ev's definition refers
to meaning for oneself and is put on a par with meaning for others.) As
a matter of fact, the actualization of the sociocultural classification in
volved emerges not by means of an intentional act of reflection, but in a
298
299
more or less spontaneous manner (for further discussion, see also Tolman, 1992).
What is the point of this anecdotal introduction? What matters in our
argument is that humans in their sociocultural environment (i.e., in their
private "microclimates") apparently deal not only with material objects
that they can manipulate physically but also with word forms and con
cepts that can be put into action in any given language game (Wittgen
stein, 1953), whereby meaning is seen to vary according to context. In
such language games, reference is not treated as a universal category, but
rather as a common denominator in certain sociocultural activity settings
(see Walkerdine, 1988; Wertsch, 1991). We assume that linguistic and cul
tural pluriformity is a distinctive feature of communicative activity (see
also Foucault, 1972; Wittgenstein, 1953; Peirce, 1958).
So the thorny question arises as to which explanatory framework and
which conceptual inventory should be chosen as a basis on which to carry
out a culturological analysis of certain discursive practices. Moreover,
if a given set of convictions and conceptual inventories indeed reflects a
long articulated mode of reflection on the (speech) culture involved, then
we cannot start philosophizing from the linguistic tabula rasa that the
Cartesian method may seem to suggest. Actually, this key issue turns out
to be even more complicated if we concentrate on the "cultural scripts"
involved in classroom-bound communicative activity, which takes shape
within the context of formal education. We assume that Vygotsky's sem
inal work and that of his followers fits in here as a heuristic framework for
research on the varieties of speech and thinking in the context of everyday
shared conventions of classroom discourse. In our own research over the
last decades (Carpay, 1975, 1987; Van Oers, 1987, 1990), we have found
ample evidence of the explanatory power of a Vygotskian approach in
analyzing the contribution made by formal education to the quality of
cognitive and moral development of the (model) personality.
Within this epistemological framework, however, two ethically sensi
tive topics have emerged, which present a serious obstacle to an extension
of the Vygotskian heritage (at least in Western Europe).
The first issue is the evaluative standard being used in straightforward
comparisons of the intended outcomes of the different teaching strategies
proposed. All strategies use certain value-loaded standards and discourse
modes, and require a careful and critical assessment of both disadvantages
and advantages regarding the educational and political claims involved.
This is especially the case, as previously mentioned, when the educational
research in question is done according to a Vygotskian mode of thought
300
Didactic models
301
to Bruner (1986; also Bruner & Haste, 1987), making sense is a sociocultural process. It is an ongoing activity that is always situated within a cer
tain socioecological context. Semiotic multivoicedness (or polyphony, as
Bakhtin [1963] calls it) is a distinctive feature of any "life form." Multi
voicedness refers to culture. The same holds true for cultural pluralism,
which some authors consider a necessary condition for sociogenesis (Asmolov, 1986; Elias, 1991). Paraphrasing the Russian poet Mandel'sthan,
"a nostalgia for world culture" is also involved.
In this polyphonic discursive practice the limit is not " I " but "we."
Speakers project their own views, attitudes, and convictions on their in
terlocutors and look for their own reflections in others. However, the in
verse process also takes place: Speakers anticipate the interpretations of
their interlocutors and integrate these expected outcomes into their own
orienting basis. Consequently, the unit of analysis in the process of pro
ducing meaning is the social unit of the joint coordination of polyphony,
that is, the negotiation of meaning and its context of reconstruction. No
doubt negotiation and an intersubjective search for meaning were at stake
in the Messer debate. Hence negotiation and management of meaning is
the core process in sociocultural activities, from early childhood (Walkerdine, 1988; Lisina & Kapcel'a, 1987; Podd'jakov & Michailenko, 1987),
up to and including school age (Davydov, 1988), after which it continues
in all life forms (Leont'ev, 1978; Mead, 1934; Peirce, 1958; Wittgenstein,
1953).
The phenomena discussed in this section can be considered as a form
of public metalinguistic commentary on sociocultural classification and
naming practices. From a Vygotskian perspective on the psychosociology of communication, 3 thinking and learning, the activity involved in
the Messer debate, can be classified as a vivid illustration of what Nuttin (1984) called communicated thinking, what Gal'perin, El'konin, and
Davydov in their theory of mental actions conceived of as disputation by
speaking and thinking aloud.
It is obvious, with regard to the speech intention involved, that our
speaker from Germany takes a firm stance in the Messer debate. As ex
emplified in this case, the joint attempt to produce meaning and sense is
no doubt an instructive instance of what the Estonian cross-cultural psy
chologist Tul'viste (1991) characterizes as heterogeneity of human thinking.
This kind of heterogeneity is, first and foremost, a distinctive feature of
educational discourse practices. The most complicated task facing the
teaching profession today is managing this polyphony in the various ac
tivity settings that constitute the prevailing classroom discourse.
302
Didactic models
303
a sparring partner, that is, an individual from whom the pupil can learn on
the basis of "loaned consciousness," as well as efficient didactic and so
cial support. Not only heterogeneity but also asymmetry appears to be the
fundament underlying any educational discursive practice. How can this
interindividual relationship be managed by the teacher in orchestrating
the classroom-bound communicative polyphony?
Intertextuality and the aims of education
We hope that the conceptual framework we have sketched so far
has sufficiently outlined the semantic makeup of the psychosociological
structure of the teacher-learner unity in settings in which the learning of
hypothetical and critical thinking is conceived of as a discursive activity
and in which the teacher's job is to try to teach worthwhile sociosemiotic
activities.4 Thinking and making sense (in society as well as in schools) has
to be conceived of as a sociosemiotic process in which oral and written texts
(i.e., utterances, not propositions) constantly interact in order to bring
about improved texts on the part of interlocutors or even to merge into
a revised text as a final product of the whole group. In essence, learning
activity as conceived in a Vygotskian framework depends strongly on in
tertextuality. The teaching strategy that leads to learning activity is based
on the joint activity of teacher and students focusing on the production
of new personal meanings by constructing improved personal texts in
the interaction between canonical (scientific) texts and a subjective text
(Davydov, 1988).
Later in this chapter, we shall return to this intertextual conception
of discursive learning activity in our discussion of the research done in
the scientific community centered on Gal'perin and Davydov. We shall
refer to the issue of change in the structures of attitude and motivation,
depending on whether the emphasis is placed on the relational or on the
epistemological dimensions. However, before moving on to this topic, we
would like to deal briefly with the problem of intentional search for mean
ing, especially in relation to the problem of educational aims.3 The scope
of this chapter does not permit comprehensive discussion of this issue,
so we must confine ourselves to the following remarks.
When we say that a person is a good thinker, we mean one of two
things: that the person is intelligent or that the person is thoughtful. A
person may be clever without being thoughtful and vice versa. In the
first sense, we mean a skill or competence. In the second sense, we mean
something more like an intellectual virtue or character trait. Educators
304
Didactic models
305
The Russian psychologist Stetsenko (1989, pp. 15-16) pointed out that
it is a mistake to think of identity development as an individual pro
cess because "it is not the child who really exists and develops, but the
child-adult unity, from which the child is only gradually and partially dif
ferentiated as an independent formation.'1'' The assumption that identity
development is more than a dialectic between ontogeny and phylogeny is
crucial to this argument: It is a triadic interaction in which ontogenetic
and phylogenetic influences are constantly refracted and reconstructed
through and in socioculturally mediated joint interaction. A major con
sequence of this argument is that the student does not have to be bur
dened with the responsibility for creating a new, meaningful "image of
the world" from scratch. Possible worlds (Bruner, 1986) already exist in
the way that "life forms" structure the sociocultural and societal dimen
sions of the prevailing educational system. These, in turn, shape to a high
degree the activity settings and learning experiences of both students and
teachers.
We live, according to Stetsenko's view, in ayzw-dimensional world (the
three spatial dimensions, plus time and sociocultural meaning as con
tained in the prevailing semiosphere).7
Experts on Russian psychology have presumably already noticed that
the perspective outlined here is congruent with the outlook of the late
A. N. Leont'ev (1978). He and his associates viewed identity develop
ment and learning to learn primarily as a matter of becoming acquainted
with already existing conceptual inventories and "cultural scripts." Al
though Leont'ev paid obligatory lip service to the making of personal
sense, he never (at least to our knowledge) devoted a serious study to
the critical distinctive features of the conditions in which making sense
emerges (or is achieved) in differently structured activity settings where
various expressive orders exist and are used juxtaposed next to, or in
terwoven with, one another. Hence, for the study of the semiosis from
meaning to sense, we can only partly rely on Leont'ev because he does
not take the whole picture of the social other into full account (Kozulin,
1990, p. 251). A clear view of the macrogenetic direction of development as
an educational construct (or, as Heinz Werner [1957] has called it, of an
orthogenetic principle) is remarkably absent in Leont'ev's argument.
So the picture becomes complicated when we seriously embark on the
task of trying to develop social and personal identity. In discussions on
this topic, proper emphasis has been placed on the. problems and prospects
involved in adopting the view that socioculturally mediated joint activ
ity is the basic starting point for a scientific analysis of human nature.
306
We think that the answer to this tricky question should be looked for
in constructs like socium, contextuality, and intersubjectivity. The devel
opment of social and personal identity is a process in which individuals
adopt moral value orientations and renounce unrestrained self-fulfillment
for the sake of others they have accepted as being just as real as the self,
or (in Marxist terms) as two sides of a single social formation. This is the
reason why we emphasized hypothetical and critical thinking, as well as
contrafactual discussion, when we discussed the Messer debate. But how
can individuals be motivated to cooperate in such a way at an interindividual level? What are the sources of reciprocal social relationships that
teachers and pupils should be aware of?
We are only beginning to conceive the importance of the educational ex
planatory frameworks and the conceptual inventories they involve within a
Vygotskian research program. We are still left with the problem of having
to know precisely what is to be taught before we can orchestrate class
room learning in such a way that it promotes the development of critical
thinking combined with moral value orientations. What are the optimal
activity settings that make this reciprocal teaching and learning possible?
L e a r n i n g activity a n d intertextuality
In the foregoing sections, we argued that students need to have
not only efficient interaction with but also a more constructive social rela
tionship with a modelfor growth. The need for active functioning has two
important characteristics: it is both selective and socially oriented.
We agree with many other researchers who follow the Vygotskian line
of thinking that cooperative, productive learning activity has to be im
plemented in the thinking curriculum we are aiming to establish (Davydov, 1988; Engestrom & Hedegaard, 1985; Engestrdm, 1990; Hedegaard,
1990; Carpay, 1990; Van Oers, 1990,1992). In this conceptual framework
we should also mention Amonashvili's work (1984) and his view on "the
pedagogics of collaboration." His perspective on cooperation is especially
important in activity settings where the outcome of a learning task de
pends not only on the individual but also on interindividual interaction,
as is the case in small groups or in whole classes. Reciprocal coordination
characterizes many activity settings, notably those involving negotiations
and transactions in school classes. As we have said, the issue of socio
cultural embeddedness motivation in relation to the schematic or script
like makeup of the learning tasks, the lesson formats, and the classroom
Didactic models
307
308
Didactic models
309
310
References
Amonashvili, S. A. (1984). Development of the cognitive initiative of students in the first
grades of elementary education. Voprosy Psychologii, S, 36-41 (in Russian).
Didactic models
311
312
Jacques
Carpay
and Bert
Van
Oers
Didactic
models
313
Wertsch, J. V. (1990). Voices of the mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univesity Press.
Wertsch, J. V. (1991). T h e problem of meaning in a socio-cultural approach to mind. In A.
McKeogh & J. L. Lupart (Eds.), Towards the practice of theory-based instruction
(pp. 31-49). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical investigations. London: Basil Blackwell.
Yaroshevsky, M. (1989). Lev Vygotsky. Moscow: Progress.
Zinchenko,V. P. (1989). Psychology-perestroika. Soviet Psychology, 27(5), 5-28.
19
315
Introduction
The novel Ardiente paciencia by the Chilean writer Antonio Skarmeta is actually a novel about metaphors. The plot centers on the story
of a friendship between Mario Jimenez, the son of a fisherman in Isla Negra, and the poet Pablo Neruda. Mario, a young man who does seasonal
work as a postman, delivers the mail to Neruda daily and always brings
his problems along. At the first encounter of the two, a dialogue concern
ing the question of what a metaphor really is ensues:
Mario placed his hand over his heart in an attempt to control the wild palpitations. He
was sure his chest would burst open right there. But he pulled himself together, and with
one impertinent finger shaking just inches away from his emeritus client's nose, said, "Do
you think that everything in the world, I mean everything, like the wind, the ocean, trees,
mountains, fire, animals, houses, deserts, the rain . . ."
"Now you can say 'etcetera.'"
". .. all the etceteras. Do you think the whole world is a metaphor for something?"
Neruda's mouth gaped and his robust chin seemed ready to drop right off his face.
(Skarmeta, 1987, pp. 15-16)
314
316
Bernd Fichtner
With the metaphor, recipient and donor do not somehow become mixed
or amalgamated. Rather, the metaphor asserts that "this is that." At the
same time, we realize that "this is not that." In this way, an equation
(The night is a blue satin blanket) and, at the same time, a disparity are
asserted. Anyone who understands this metaphor is conscious of the fact
that the night is not at all a blue satin blanket. Because of this simultane
ous equation and disparity, we often say: "This is only a metaphor."
This semantic incongruence is not dissolved or neutralized, but rather
remains present as a source of tension and contradiction. The metaphor
can be understood as the result of a tense interaction between heteroge
neous and contradictory elements. Within the realms of this interaction,
the relationship of the individual elements to one another is not fully ar
bitrary; they do not supplement each other in some undefined manner.
The metaphor is strictly complementary, that is, the individual elements
317
318
Bernd Fichtner
fashioned them primarily from such rubbish as old baskets, vases, bicycle
parts, and so on. In his study "Visual Metaphor," V. C. Aldrich notes that
metaphors in a work of art are made more apparent by compositions of
which the individual parts are objects with their own identity and qual
ities. According to Aldrich, the metaphor is aimed in two directions if,
for example, instead of molding plaster into the chest of a goat, a wicker
basket is placed where the ribs would normally be. The result is a wicker
basket that is to be regarded as the goat's chest. In the reverse manner, if
the entire body of the goat is examined, its ribs can be seen as a wicker
basket thus, a compound metaphor with two lines of sight. If the ribs
were made of plaster, the view would go only in one direction. Molded
plaster would be seen as the chest of a goat (Aldrich, 1983, p. 73). And
Picasso himself remarked that he traced the way back from the basket to
the chest, from the metaphor to reality. He maintained that he made re
ality visible because he used the metaphor (Gilot & Lake, 1964).
The iconic aspect of the metaphor is fundamental for the analogy, for
the similarity that the metaphor employs in order to evoke precisely the
incongruence. The tension between visual image and concept becomes
productive for the development of something new, of a new dimension of
meaning.
The complementary relationship between subject
and object
Metaphors refer to the priority of content in a specific way. At
the same time, they focus radically on the subject as the subject of the
activity.
Their assertions are apodictic and cannot be dissolved in a discoursive
manner. The truth of a metaphor is spontaneously acceptable and intu
itively convincing. Its assertion is not extensional in the sense of formal
logic, but rather is always intensional, aimed at essentials.
Thus, a metaphor cannot be replaced by expressions that state what is
actually meant. We can, of course, attempt to explain the statement about
the night in the metaphor "The night is a blue satin blanket" with the
use of paraphrasing, examples, and comparisons. At best, this would be
an approximation but never the semantic basis of the metaphor. Exactly
because of its intensionality, the metaphor can provide much food for
thought without becoming totally arbitrary. The intensionality is espe
cially apparent in metaphors we use for acoustic, visual, and taste-related
319
320
Bernd Fichtner
321
theoretical arguments,
modeling ideas,
and procedures.
322
Bernd Fichtner
imperceptible and abstract. Here pictures are simply stations along the
way to real knowledge, which, however, must be made concrete by means
of visualizations. This standpoint is based on a problematic understand
ing of generalization because it presupposes that something concrete can
be perceived in isolation from something in general and that the former
must even become the basis of the latter. However, the mediated char
acter of human insight consists in the mediation between concrete and
abstract.
For learning activity, this mediation between concrete and abstract
presents itself as the general tension between "empirical" and "theoret
ical" concepts (Dawydow, 1977). Precisely here, metaphors exercise a
particular function if they are not simply reduced to pictures or parables,
that is, to visualizations: They relate the mediation between abstract and
concrete to that between subject and object in learning activity. In this
way, metaphors exhibit theoretical potential. This potential will be fur
ther elaborated in the following concluding arguments.
Metaphor and the selection of one's own standpoint
Common sense presupposes a fixed and assigned relation be
tween object and description, between meaning and sign. The acquisi
tion of a theoretical concept in learning activity requires that learners
dissolve this fixation and develop a personal attitude with regard to the
knowledge to be attained, that is, the selection of their own standpoint and
thus real initiative on their part (Selbsttdtigkeit). As a perspective, every
metaphor is centered on the subjectivity of the individual. My argument
is that, for the acquisition of theoretical concepts, metaphors have a par
ticular potential for the development of perspectives on the object of the
concept involved - the metaphor as a modeling idea that avoids the naive
and direct reification of knowledge that common sense undertakes.
323
References
Aldrich, V. (1983). Visual metaphor. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 2, 73-86.
Aristotle. (1946). Rhetoric (W. D. Ross, Ed.). The works of Aristotle (Vol. III). Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Augst, G., Kaul, E., & Kiinkler, H. H. (1981). Zur Ontogenese der metaphorischen Kompetenz - erste Ergebnisse eines Forschungsprojektes. Wirkendes Wort, 6, 3 6 3 377.
Billow, R. M. (1975). A cognitive development study of metaphor comprehension. Devel
opmental Psychology, 11, 415-423.
Black, M. (1962). Models and metaphors. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Boyd, R. (1979). Metaphor and theory change: What is "metaphor" a metaphor for? In
A. Ortony (Ed.), Metaphor and thought (pp. 356-408). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Danto, A. C. (1981). The transfiguration of the commonplace: A philosophy of art. Cam
bridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Dawydow, W. W. (1977). Arten der Verallgemeinerung im Unterricht. Berlin: Volk und Wissen.
Fichtner, B. (1977). Asthetik und Didaktik. Baumgartens "Aesthetica" und Kants "Kritik
der Urteilskraft" als Paradigmen der Erfahrung und ihre didaktische Relevanz.
Pddagogische Rundschau, 31, 603-625.
Gardner, H., Kircher, M., Winner, E., & Perkins, D. (1975). Children's metaphoric pro
duction and preferences. Journal of Child Language, 2, 125-141.
324
Bernd
Fichtner
Gilot, E, & Lake, C. (1964). Life with Picasso. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Judin, E. (1978). Systemnyipodhod i princip dejatelnosti. Metodologicheskie problemy sovremennoj nauki. Moscow: Nauka.
Kant, I. (1963). Kntik der Urteilskraft (K. Vorlander, Ed.). Hamburg: Meiner. (Original
work published 1790)
Kuhn, T. S. (1979). Metaphor in science. In A. Ortony (Ed.), Metaphor and thought. Cam
bridge: Cambridge University Press.
Leondar, B. (1975). Metaphor and infant cognition. Poetics, 4, 273-287.
Ortony, A. (Ed.). (1979). Metaphor and thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Skarmeta, A. (1987). Burning patience. New York: Pantheon Books.
Smith, J. W. A. (1976). Children's comprehension of metaphor: A Piagetian's interpreta
tion. Language and Speech, 19, 236-243.
Weinrich, H. (1963). Semantik der kuhnen Metapher. Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift fur Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte, 37, 324-344.
Winner, E. (1979). New names for old things: T h e emergence of metaphoric language.
Journal of Child Language, 6, 469-491.
20
Miettinen
Introduction
It has been argued that school as an institution has been dom
inated by a historically specific type of learning called school learning
or school-going activity. The theory of school learning advocated in this
chapter provides a historically based conception of the essential prob
lem of teaching and learning in the modern school. School learning is
characterized by memorization and reproduction of school texts. It is ac
companied by an instrumental motivation of school success that tends
to eliminate substantive interest in the phenomena and knowledge to be
studied. The fundamental problem is that knowledge learned in such a
way is difficult to use and apply in life outside the school.
If we want to transcend the limitations of traditional school learning,
it is important to analyze the nature and conditions of school learning
and the germs of qualitatively new kinds of teaching and learning within
the school. This chapter discusses the problem of learning at school both
theoretically and with the help of empirical data. It contributes to an on
going theoretical discussion on learning activity by analyzing the object
and the subject of learning at school. The discussion is grounded in re
sults of the author's study of business teachers' work at the Finnish Busi
nessmen's Commercial College (SLK). In addition, the chapter draws
on other examples of new forms of teaching in Finland, Sweden, and
England.
326
Reijo Miettinen
alphabet gave birth to the school and at the same time to the most im
portant artifact of the school institution: decontextualized, independent
text. Fichtner analyzes how memorizing, repeating, and reproducing the
text became the essence of learning at school. This was connected to
the conception of knowledge during the Middle Ages: "Knowledge is
understanding text. Getting to know reality means to learn what the au
thorities wrote about it" (Fichtner, 1984, p. 53). Fichtner argues that
the birth of modern science and the universal school system involves a
change in the general attitude to reality. Cognition can now be seen as
knowledge construction.
Engestrom further specifies the nature of school learning with the help
of Leont'ev's concepts. The nature of activity is determined by its ob
ject and motive. According to Engestrom (1987, p. 101), the essence of
school learning (or school-going) is "the strange reversal of object and
instrument."
In school-going text takes the role of the object. This object is molded by pupils in a
curious manner: the outcome of their activity is above all the same text reproduced and
modified orally or in written form. (Engestrom, 1987, p. 101)
The reason for this reversal is the historical isolation of school from
other societal activities. As a result, the text to be studied is isolated from
the life activity of the students as well. The motive to reproduce the text
is primarily to succeed in examinations and to get high grades. Accord
ing to Engestrom (1987, p. 100), the transition to modernity and public
schooling has not been a qualitative breakthrough to a new kind of learn
ing activity.
Many critics of the modern school still regard the passive reception of
texts as the main problem of learning at school. John Dewey analyzed
the problem in the school at the turn of the century. For him, it was a
problem of "book school." Passive reception and memorization produce
the paradoxical combination of slavish dependence on books and a real
inability to use them. Students lose their capacity to observe and analyze
objects and phenomena themselves.
Their first reaction is that of helplessness when they are told that they must go to the ob
ject itself and let it tell its own story. It seems much simpler to occupy the mind with
what someone else has said about these things. (Dewey, 1898, p. 324)
Dewey saw the causes of the situation in the same way as the activitybased theory of school learning: the separation and isolation of school
from other activities of society and the decontextualization of the school
text. In his 1933 ess^y written with John Childs, Dewey argued: "The
essential point of the social conception of education is, however, that these
327
Studies over the past 30 years have demonstrated the unique inertia
and conformity of classroom teaching and interaction. Lecturing and the
question-answer method still seem to be the dominant forms of work in
classrooms. Teacher talk dominates, and students' activity is largely lim
ited to answering questions formulated by the teacher. Students seldom
ask questions spontaneously. This pattern was found in studies based
on data from the United States (e.g., Cuban, 1982), Sweden (Lundgren,
1979), and Finland (Leiwo, Kuusinen, Nykanen, & Poyhonen, 1987).
Historical reviews demonstrate the persistence of this pattern (Hoetker
& Ahlbrand, 1969; Cuban, 1984). John Goodlad and his colleagues sum
marized the results of their observations of 150 classrooms in 13 different
states in the United States as follows:
Our observers had grave difficulty gathering evidence regarding what teachers were en
deavoring to accomplish in the classroom apart from coverage of the topics selected
largely by courses of study and textbooks. . . . Even when using the materials of curricu
lum projects . . . emphasizing "discovery methods," pupils appeared to bet on covering
the content of textbooks, workbooks and supplementary reading material. . . . We do con
clude that telling and questioning were the predominant characteristics of instruction in
our sample classrooms. . . . Textbooks and workbooks dominated the teaching-learning
328
Reijo Miettinen
process... . We conclude that the prime medium of instruction in our sample of schools
was the textbook, supported by textbooklike related reading and workbooks. (Goodlad &
Klein, 1970, p. 78)
329
330
Reijo Miettinen
or having the students read the text. Questions within school-going are
evaluative "test questions."
Textbooks have become compendiums of topics, none of which are
treated in much depth (Tyson & Woodward, 1989; Elliot & Woodward,
1990). To avoid learning problems, difficult words and abstract concepts
are avoided and colorful pictures are included (Tyson-Berstein, 1988).
Piagetian theory is used to evaluate what is not possible to teach at dif
ferent age and grade levels. As a result, repeating and remembering of
superficial and scattered material easily becomes the only viable course
of action for the pupil.
Workbooks commonly require trivial intellectual operations such as
recognition and transfer of information from textbook to workbook.
Teacher manuals often give detailed - and conservative instructions
based on "teacher efficiency" studies (Zumwalt, 1988). Thus, it may be
argued that the rationalized curriculum practice, including officially ap
proved standard textbooks, has formed a new kind of infrastructure that
maintains and consolidates traditional school learning.
It has also been argued that the rationalized control has made receptive
school learning more technical (e.g., Wolcott, 1977; Popkewitz, Tabachnick, & Wehlage, 1982). The ever more abundant material in packages no
longer has the status of "truth" in the eyes of teachers and students. It
has the status of an officially approved "standard."
The object and motive of learning activity
School learning is a specific historical type of learning. Where,
then, can the possibility of a qualitatively new, productive type of learn
ing emerge? A dialectical viewpoint calls us to seek the new within the
old, as an emergent consequence of the evolution of internal contradic
tions in existing activities. Thus, preconditions and initial forms of a new
type of learning must develop within the basic activities in society, that is,
within labor, science, and art, and also within school-going activity itself.
In activity theory, this issue has been analyzed as the problem of learning
activity (Davydov, 1982,1988).
According to Leont'ev (1978), an activity is defined by its object. In
his analysis of learning within school-going, Engestrom (1987, p. 103) ar
gues that the object of genuine learning activity cannot be reduced to text.
What then could be the alternative object of learning at school? For En
gestrom, the forces leading to a new kind of learning activity cannot be
found exclusively wjthin school-going. According to him, "the symptoms
of deeper qualitative change in school learning are still premature" (1987,
331
332
Reijo Miettinen
them with intellectual and practical tools by which they themselves can
chart the direction of these forces (Dewey & Childs, 1933, p. 69).
Education has the responsibility for training individuals to share in this social control
instead of merely equipping them with an ability to make their private way in isolation
and competition. The ability and desire to think collectively, to engage in social planning
conceived and conducted experimentally for the good of all, is a requirement of good cit
izenship under existing conditions. Educators can evade it only at the risk of evasion and
futility. (Ibid., p. 71)
Dewey stated that new industrial technology is based on science and,
accordingly, "industrial occupations have indefinitely larger cultural pos
sibilities than they used to possess" (Dewey, 1961, p. 314). The deep di
vision between planning and operating is no longer necessary. The task
of occupational education is to develop "general industrial intelligence."
This kind of education "would include the historic background of present
conditions, training in science to give intelligence and initiative in deal
ing with material and agencies of production" (ibid., p. 318).
Dewey wrote that the organizing unit of school work should be an oc
cupation of the child. He defined it in two ways. First, it is a meaningful
activity in which intellectual and practical aspects are united. Second, it
is a "mode of activity on the part of the child which reproduces, or runs
parallel to, some form of work carried on in social life" (Dewey, 1906,
p. 81). Thus, Dewey's solution was to construct activities or occupations
(projects) at school that reproduce or run parallel to work activities and
in which the contents are taught "in and with definite reference to their
social context of use" (Dewey & Childs, 1933, p. 51).
Dewey's ideas are very timely today. Lauren Resnick analyzed educa
tional programs claiming to teach higher-order thinking skills or cogni
tive performances. She found certain key features in successful projects.
First, most of the effective programs have features characteristic of out-of-school cogni
tive performances. They involve socially shared intellectual work, and they are organized
around joint accomplishment of tasks, so that elements of the skill take on meaning in the
context of the whole. . .. This suggests a general need to redirect the focus of schooling
to encompass more of the features of successful out-of-school functioning. .. . Realizing
this vision will require a civic consciousness that goes beyond the individualist one of cur
rent classroom learning models and draws on models of shared intellectual functioning
such as we see in our best work organizations. (Resnick, 1987, pp. 18-19)
But what are the societal activities that should be represented in schools
or taken as models when reorganizing school work? Resnick refers to
shared intellectual functioning such as we see in our best work organiza
tions. On the othejr hand, research activity or scientific activity is often
regarded as an ideal model for learning (e.g., Driver, 1983). Evidently,
333
334
Reijo Miettinen
335
336
Reijo Miettinen
337
338
Reijo Miettinen
339
The connection to research work, however, does not guarantee that the
students will learn the essential theoretical concepts relevant to the ob
ject. In this case, one such concept is that of a river system under the
influence of human activities. Such basic concepts are not "visible" in
the researcher's work. The models needed cannot be experientially ex
tracted directly from research activities or reports. They must be created
in planning the learning project and during the study process itself. Al
though learning may be parallel and connected to research activity, it is
by no means equal to the latter. It has its own requirements and its own
unique contribution. The teaching-learning process can transform the
results of research activity into models needed by citizens to understand
the object of study as an ecological system under the influence of culture.
The need for cooperation: Networks of learning
All the methods used by the teachers of SLK to bridge the gap be
tween school and society included collaboration with practitioners from
different activities and organizations. Most of the methods described
earlier imply such cooperation. By definition, if the object of the learn
ing is an activity system, some form of cooperation with practitioners of
the activity must be included. The first method employed by the SLK
teachers (bringing reality inside the school) can be limited to collabo
ration between teachers and outside practitioners. When the two other
methods are used, students participate in this collaboration as well.
A curriculum unit dealing with the purchase tax was taught in the SLK
in the 1988-1989 school year. It was organized using the second method
identified earlier (students' independent study of objects and activities in
society). The students and the teacher first discussed what issues con
cerning the purchase tax are current, interesting, or problematic to them.
They also discussed whether the students knew persons (parents, rela
tives, friends, former employers) who are working with these problems.
Groups of three students were formed, each focusing on a problem area
of interest to them. The groups studied the areas by using the law book,
court cases, and news articles, as well as by consulting with the Purchase
Tax Office. This consultation was required by the teacher. They also
consulted with people working on the problem areas they had selected.
The groups wrote their reports and presented them in class. The result
was that the students wrote their own 43-page "textbook" on the pur
chase tax. The teacher concluded that the results were better than the
average lessons prepared by the student teachers in the SLK.
340
Reijo Miettinen
341
local school administration paid their fees. Again, more than knowledge
was transmitted in this process. The fears, aspirations, hopes, and worldview of the researchers and practitioners were conveyed.
An excellent example of a large network was the project "Man in
Changing Society (MIS)," carried out in northern Sweden from 1985
to 1987. The premises and experiences of this project have been analyzed
by Sutter and Grensjo (1988). They describe how three "ingredients" or
societal intentions were united into the idea of the project. The first one
was pedagogical and psychological. The intention was to surpass the tra
ditional school learning and to foster explorative learning in school. The
second one was to study local history by utilizing historical source ma
terials, especially parish records. The third ingredient was the intention
to utilize computers at schools in a productive way. The project involved
forming an expanding network of actors with different interests.
MIS started as [a] consequence of societal discovery of the usefulness of the parish records
and their "modernization" by microcards and computers. In its turn this is a part of a
larger [trend toward] using the archives in general more effectively. . . . MIS is not re
stricted to the domain of school.. . . From the beginning others interested in knowledge
have contributed to the work: employees of museums, archives and libraries, parents,
genealogists, local historians, retired people, researchers at the university (outside the
project team) and others. . . . From its start MIS has deliberately used what we have
named a "cooperative way of working." A network of relations - not only schools but
other institutions as well, and also laymen - was established through personal contacts
and, as the project grew, more and more with the aid of the project journal. (Sutter &
Grensjo, 1988, pp. 43, 50)
It was the object and idea of this project - local history research by
means of parish records and computers - that made this kind of a net
work necessary. The network was the only way to make the necessary
knowledge, intellectual resources, and source materials available to teach
ers and students.
The researchers describe how this kind of expanding teaching-learning
process raises new kinds of problems in the planning, organization,
and evaluation of the process and its results. The project was criti
cized for not having systematically evaluated the learning outcomes in
students. The researchers agree with this criticism, pointing out that
they had to abandon much of the intended evaluation when the project
grew in size and acceptance. The expert group assessing the project
wrote in its report: "The interest among teachers as well as pupils has
been broad and the response of the school community in northern Swe
den almost overwhelming." The researchers made their choice. The
devoted their efforts to the practical development of the new activity.
This exemplifies the methodological dilemma of research driven by the
342
Reijo Miettinen
development of truly new and expansive forms of activity (see also Gard
ner, 1990, p. 104).
The social composition of a network of learning is basically dependent
on the object of the learning. The object of learning and the composition
of the network are also culturally specific. The examples presented earlier
are taken from schools of European cities. Luis Moll and James Greenberg (1990) reported on networks of learning in a Hispanic working-class
community in Tucson, Arizona. The aim of their project was to foster
educational innovation by studying the possibility of utilizing the "funds
of knowledge" embedded in the network of households and activities of
the community. The researchers founded an after-school "laboratory" to
provide teachers with assistance in developing educational innovations in
literacy instruction. The authors describe "modules" of study in which
writing was connected to the use of community resources. Members of
the community came into the school, and the students went to study and
acquire knowledge in the community. Robert SerpelPs recent study of
schooling in Zambia is another example of cultural variations in the for
mation of networks of learning (Serpell, 1993).
Conclusion
School learning or school-going activity is a historical result of
separating knowledge from its movement, from its societal generation
and use. The object of school learning is primarily the school text, now
mainly in the form of grade-specific standard textbooks and packaged
materials. To expand the limits of school learning, new kinds of objects societal activities, knowledge in use and a corresponding collective sub
ject, a network of learning, are needed.
In light of the arguments presented in this chapter, it is evident that re
sponsibility for planning the contents and forms of instruction will rest
primarily at the school and community level. The prevalent rationalistic
conception of curriculum planning is giving way to a view of curriculum
planning as ongoing, multivoiced discourse and experimentation in a net
work that brings together actors representing various interests, types of
expertise, and cultural backgrounds.
References
Apple, M. (1983). Curricular form and the logic of technical control. In M. Apple & L.
Weiss (Eds.l Ideology and practice in schooling. Philadelphia: Temple Univer
sity Press.
343
Apple, M. (1986). Teachers and texts: A political economy of class and gender relations in
education. New York: Routledge.
Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J.-C. (1990). Reproduction in education, society, and culture (2nd
ed.). London: Sage.
Bowles, S., & Gintis, H. (1976). Schooling in capitalist America: Educational reform and the
contradictions of economic life. New York: Basic Books.
Coombs, P. H. (1985). The world crisis of education. New York: Oxford University Press.
Cuban, L. (1982). Persistent instruction: The high school classroom, 1900-1980. Phi Delta
Kappan, 64(2), 113-118.
Cuban, L. (1984). How teachers taught: Constancy and change in American classrooms 18901980. New York: Longman.
Davydov, V. V. (1982). T h e psychological structure and contents of learning activity in
school children. In R. Glaser & J. Lompscher (Eds.), Cognitive and motiva
tional aspects of instruction. Berlin: Deutcher Verlag der Wissenschaften.
Davydov, V. V. (1988). Learning activity: The main problems needing further research.
Multidisciplinary Newsletter for Activity Theory, 1( 12), 29-36.
Denscombe, M. (1982). T h e "hidden pedagogy" and its implications for teacher training.
British Journal of Sociology of Education, 3, 239-265.
Dewey, J. (1898). T h e primary education fetish. Forum, XXV(7>), 316-328.
Dewey, J. (1906). The school and the child. Being selections from the educational essays of John
Dewey (J. J. Findlay, Ed.). London: Blackie and Son.
Dewey, J. (1938). The determination of ultimate values or aims through antecedent or
a priori speculation or through pragmatic or empirical inquiry. In G. Whippie (Ed.), The twenty-seventh yearbook of the National Society for the Study of
Education. Bloomington: Public School Publishing.
Dewey, J. (1961). Democracy and education. New York: Macmillan.
Dewey, J., & Childs, J. (1933). T h e socio-economic situation and education. In W Kilpatrick (Ed.), The educational frontier. New York: Appleton-Century.
Driver, R. (1983). The pupil as scientist? Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Elliot, D. L., & Woodward, A. (Eds.). (1990). Textbooks and schooling in the United States.
89thyearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part 1. Chicago:
NSSE.
Engestrom, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding. An activity-theoretical approach to develop
mental research. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit.
Engestrom, Y, Hakkarainen, P., & Hedegaard, M. (1984). On the methodological basis
of research in teaching and learning. In M. Hedegaard, P. Hakkarainen, & Y.
Engestrom (Eds.), Learning and teaching on a scientific basis. Aarhus: Aarhus
Universitet, Psykologisk Institut.
Fichtner, B. (1984). Learning and learning activity - two different types of learning
in school and the historical-societal contexts of their development, in E. Bol,
J. P. P. Haenen, & M. A. Wolters (Eds.), Education for cognitive development.
Den Haag: SVO.
Gardner, H. (1990). The difficulties of school: Probable causes, possible cures. Daedelus,
119(2), 85-113.
Goodlad, J. L., & Klein, M. F. (1970). Behind the classroom door. Worthington: Charles A.
Jones.
Haber, S. (1964). Efficiency and uplift: Scientific management in the progressive era, 1890
1920. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
344
Reijo Miettinen
Part IV
21
Tikhomirov
Introduction
Progress in informatics and information technology has greatly
influenced theoretical psychology. On the other hand, psychological
knowledge is increasingly used to support the processes of applying and
developing information technology.
In this chapter, I discuss these mutually dependent tendencies from
the viewpoint of the psychological theory of activity. I focus on problems
and prospects of creativity and creative activity in conditions of rapid de
velopment and pervasive implementation of information technology in
various spheres of human activity.
The delegation of certain human functions to computers presents the
theory of activity with new problems. What is the nature of the activity
performed by humans in the context of advanced computerization? How
does human activity change when humans use computers?
Computer science constantly uses the notions of routine and creative.
Focusing on creativity reveals a large gap between psychological stud
ies of activity and psychological studies of creativity. Theories of activity
and theories of creativity have developed as separate domains of inquiry.
We witness both the tendency of negation of the theory of activity by
the theory of creativity and the tendency of negation of the theory of cre
ativity by the theory of activity. It has been claimed that among the most
important trends in the development of the psychology of creativity in
Russia are the "gradual substitution of the principle of activity by the
principle of interaction and . . . substitution of the activity concept by the
systems concept" (Lomov & Anzyferova, 1989, p. 28).
Are these counterpositions well grounded? In my opinion, they are not.
To make the general scientific notion of system absolute for theoretical
psychology usually means to ignore the study of specific and concrete sys
temic characteristics of human psychological functioning. L. S. Vygotsky
347
348
OlegK. Tikhomirov
349
350
Oleg K. Tikhomirov
351
352
OlegK. Tikhomirov
353
New forms of creative work, education, and play appear, forms that are
simply impossible without computers. At the same time, new types of
stereotyped, routine activity appear.
Computerization typically entails sharp increases in external prestige
motivation, as well as intensive development of personality's cognitive
needs. We witness both fear of using computers and the unbridled opti
mism connected with their use. A transformation takes place in the whole
system of motives, stable meanings of personality, and personality's goals
in participating in the regulation of creative activity. One can also note a
double tendency toward broadening the possibilities of creating and at
taining goals, on the one hand, and toward narrowing these processes, on
the other hand.
The contradictory character of the psychological effects of computeri
zation makes it necessary to analyze these effects in a concrete fashion, to
work purposefully toward positive results, and to correct possible nega
tive consequences. All this demands a differentiated analysis with regard
to different professional, ethnic, and age groups, as well as to comput
ers of different types and generations, different languages and principles
of programming. The computer is not only a universal data-processing
device, it is also a universal means of influencing human activity and, con
sequently, the human psyche. This influence can be both purposeful and
spontaneous. The specific character of such influence is defined, first of
all, not by a computer, but by the organizational and social conditions of
its use and by the characteristics of the activity.
Experimental psychological studies of goal formation as a manifesta
tion of creativity in the dialogue with computers have shown the potential
of broadening human creative activity. This potential is expressed in an
increase in the number of formulated goals and in the heightening of their
originality. It has been also demonstrated that the use of computers leads
to a qualitative transformation of goal formation processes, manifested
in new properties of the object situation that are unapproachable without
computers. This change is also manifested in the broadening of the zone
of independent selective search. At the same time, studies have shown
that the development of creative activity in the computerized context can
be considerably enhanced with the help of psychological maintenance of
computerization. In the opposite case, there is a likelihood of the for
mation of a stereotyped, cliched thinking supported by the computer's
"authority" (Tikhomirov, 1988, pp. 180-190).
In performing any of the social roles when participating in a joint activ
ity, one can isolate both routine and creative components. The transfer
354
OlegK. Tikhomirov
355
356
Oleg K. Tikhomirov
357
they are absent in artificial systems - which constitutes the main differ
ence between the work of a human and that of a machine, a difference
central to the theory of activity.
Taking into consideration the active development of expert systems,
it is necessary to discuss the correlation between the categories "knowl
edge" and "activity." Knowledge can be a specific product initially gener
ated by human thinking activity and a means of performing this activity.
Knowledge can be reproduced - as in reproduction proper or in recalling.
Along with formalized, easily described knowledge, there exists nonformalized (or ill-formalized) knowledge. It includes mundane notions, em
pirical generalizations, and complexes, which should not be regarded as
second-rate.
From the viewpoint of the theory of creative activity, even such com
plex information technologies as expert systems do not reproduce human
activity, though they transform it. Needs, goal formation, and the gener
ation of emotional evaluations remain specifically human characteristics.
However, activity theory and the theory of artificial intelligence are united
by the necessity to develop a theory of activities that use artificial intelli
gence systems.
The dialogue between human and computer is characterized by the
emerging personification of the computer, that is, its perception as an
entity with certain personal traits and conscious properties and its cor
responding treatment. Interaction between the human operator and the
computer takes on more and more traits of joint activity (cooperation or
rivalry). The need for communication with the computer is actualized.
A motive of competition with the computer appears, manifested in the
formation of goals such as "to win over the machine," "to take revenge
on the machine," and so on.
The notion of artificial is connected with more than the discussion of
computers' possibilities. Generally, this term denotes everything created
by humans (Simon, 1969). Correlation of the artificial and nonartificial in
human intellectual activity constitutes an important scientific problem,
which can be reformulated as the problem of correlation between routine
and creative processes. The former can be artificial, as they are produced
by other people and adopted by the individual. The nonartificial in intel
lectual activity is not limited, in our opinion, to the natural prerequisites
of this activity (Simon, 1969); it also relates to the new formations ap
pearing in the course of activity. To ignore this type of the nonartificial
is to ignore the creative nature of human intellectual activity.
In this context, it is necessary to specify the role of instruction in in
tellectual development, the thesis about the mind's social and historical
358
Oleg K. Tikhomirov
359
References
Kaloshina, I. P. (1985). Normative analysis of creative activity. Moscow: MGU (in Rus
sian).
Leont'ev, A. N. (1975). Activity, consciousness, and personality. Moscow: Misl (in Russian).
Lomov, B. E, & Anzyferova, L. (Eds.). (1989). Tendencies in the development of psychologi
cal science. Moscow: Nauka (in Russian).
Ponoraarev, J. A., & Saarinen, L. (Eds.). (1986). Proceedings of the first Finnish-Soviet
symposium on creativity. Helsinki: Suomen ja Neuvostoliiton valinen tieteellistekninen yhteistoimintakomitea.
Simon, H. A. (1969). The sciences of the artificial. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Tikhomirov, O. K. (1988). Psychology of thinking. Moscow: Progress.
Tikhomirov, O. K. (1989). Vygotsky's theory as methodological basis for crosscultural study
ofthe impact of information technology in education on child psychological develop
ment. Paper presented at the Third International Conference, "Children in the
Information Age," Sofia, May 19-23.
Tikhomirov, O. K., & Gurieva, L. P. (1989). The experience of analyzing the psycho
logical effects of computerization of psychodiagnostic activity. Psychologicheshi
zhurnal, 2, 33^15 (in Russian).
22
Kuutti
Introduction
We are living in a period of transition - a search for a new para
digm for information systems (IS) is going on. New research approaches,
based on different assumptions, are emerging, and the discussion is be
ing broadened and intensified. At the core of the debate lies the question
of how to handle contextuality in IS design and therefore in IS research.
It now seems to be generally accepted that designing the technical "core
system" alone is insufficient, and that in order to design and implement
a successful IS some kind of "context" has to be taken into account a
context that includes people and their relations. Thus, the question is
how to obtain reliable, useful results when the object of study belongs at least partially - to the realm of the social sciences.
Earlier there was also much discussion about the technical or social na
ture of IS and the practical consequences of this distinction how social
systems can be studied and developed. During the 1970s, the original,
strictly technologically oriented view was challenged by the "sociotechnical" school of design, which gained a firm footing especially in the United
Kingdom and Scandinavia. During the 1980s, however, the differentia
tion of research approaches gained new momentum and considerable vis
ibility, with the emergence of a new wave of approaches. These sought
their conceptual foundation in the realms of the various social sciences
and proceeded much further than the sociotechnical school has done.
The Manchester colloquium of 1984 (Mumford, Hirschheim, Fitzger
ald, & Wood-Harper, 1985) was an open manifestation of this diversity,
and the search for a new conceptual base for IS research and design was
one of the main themes of the ISRA-90 conference (Nissen, Klein, &
Hirschheim, 1991).
The purpose of this chapter is to inquire why this discussion has devel
oped just now. It is suggested that the main reason may be the ongoing
360
361
A review of this long debate in depth is beyond the scope of this chap
ter. Only a short overview will be given. This can be done conveniently
and, for our purposes, accurately enough by using some recent attempts
to classify the discussion, namely, those presented by Bansler (1989),
Hirschheim and Klein (1989), Iivari (1991), and Nurminen (1988).
Bansler and Nurminen
Because the classifications proposed by Nurminen and Bansler
overlap significantly, they are here considered together. Bansler restricts
his analysis by considering only Scandinavian research traditions, where
as Nurminen attempts to be more general.
362
Kari Kuutti
Sociotechnical
tradition
Critical
tradition
Knowledge
interest
profit
maximizing
job satisfaction
participation
industrial
democracy
Notion of the
organization
cybernetic
system
sociotechnical
system
framework for
conflicts
Notion of
the labor force
objects
(systems com
ponents)
actors
(individuals)
actors
(groups)
Notion of
capital/ labor
relations
common
interests
common
interests
opposing
interests
363
Systems
theoretical
Socio
technical
Humanistic
Ideal type
integrated total
system
no clear type
personal systems
Notion of
knowledge
objectivistic
objectivistic, some
instrumental
subjectivistic
Notion of
human being
rational system
element
Theory Y
individualistic
Notion of
actions
according to
rules
humans as actors,
IS also actor
humans only
actors, IS tool
Notion of
communication
IS equal comm.
partner
IS equal comm.
partner + unofficial
comm.
all communication
between humans
Notion of
organization
Tayloristic,
bureaucratic
two parallel
systems,
bureaucratic
handicraft-like
Notion of IS
development
by experts; use
and development
separated
users notified,
design of social
system
by users,
incremental
Software engineering
Database management
Management information systems
364
Kari
Kuutti
Functionallsm
Ontology
Social relativism
System expert
Supporting person
^OBJECTIVISM
SUBJECTIVISM^
Radical structuralism
Neohumanism
"warrior of progress'
emancipator
365
Methodology
View of information/data
descriptive facts
constructive meanings
Constructive methods
conceptual development
technical development
Nomothetic methods
formal-mathematical
experiments
field studies/surveys
ideographic methods
case studies
action research
Ethics
CONFLICT
4.
5.
6.
7.
Role of IS science
means-ends oriented
interpretive
critical
Epistemology
positivism
antipositivism
Values of IS research
management oriented
user oriented
others
= in some cases
- = in no cases
366
Kari Kuutti
same one. Bansler makes his distinctions only in the order-conflict clas
sification, whereas Nurminen is interested only in features found in the
subjectivistic-objectivistic classification.
To summarize, there seems to be a consensus regarding an orthodoxy,
from which the sociotechnical approach can be distinguished more or less
accurately. In addition, a variety of clearly distinguishable emerging new
approaches are identified as the opposition.
Reasons for the emergence of the new approaches
How is the emergence of alternative approaches explained by
the authors? Iivari does not consider the reasons for this development,
because he concentrates only on orthodoxy. But Bansler sees his three
phases in a temporal succession:
1.
2.
3.
367
and social change in society, such that all of the alternatives to the currently accepted ISD
orthodoxy are inspired by the same kind offerees or influences that in general drive social
change in industrial societies. Social change thus affects which approaches to ISD are so
cially acceptable and appropriate. The question of how social change actually affects the
emergence of new directions in IS and ISD research has not received much attention by
the IS community.
The basic contention, and the line of reasoning to argue its case, is that research inter
ests in general are inextricably bound up with societal norms, values and beliefs. If society
changes, so too will its values and beliefs. As such changes are likely to cause dissatis
faction with old beliefs and norms which govern existing practices of ISD, the latter is
eventually forced to change in a way which is consistent with societal change, or to justify
its current approaches and results in a different way. (Klein & Hirschheim, 1987, p. 276)
I agree with the first part of the argument - that the emergence of new
perspectives is caused by a change in society. But the second part - that
the change is channeled into ISD research through changing values and
attitudes - is more problematic. Although values are certainly changing,
one could perhaps establish more direct and objective links between so
cietal change and new perspectives. In the following section, I consider
the ongoing change in work organization in order to gain a better insight
into this question.
Discussion on new forms of work organization
In order to distinguish the new from the old, some kind of his
torical perspective is necessary. Here I use the following simple model of
ideal types to describe the historical development of work organization
(Figure 22.5).
The term handicraft refers to a type of work in which the methods and
tools develop or have been developed mainly in practical situations. Us
ing the terms of Braverman (1974), conception and execution are still
united. The outcome is not strictly defined beforehand but may evolve
during the process. The tools used are simple and not based on theoreti
cal mastery of the properties of the object of the work, but have gradually
evolved during a long tradition.
The archetypal work organization is the masterapprentice relation
ship in traditional craft workshops, in which a novice learns the tacit
knowledge required to perform his tasks and tacit skills for their execu
tion during his apprenticeship by growing into a particular work culture.
The craftsman is the active subject of his work.
The term Taylorized refers to the type of work that has evolved since
the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the ideas of which are perhaps
368
Kari Kuutti
''
''
Taylorized work
Humanized work
''
"New type" of work
369
involves change in organizational culture and redefinition of management functions at all levels
work groups in which some parts of the design and planning of the work
process are done by the workers themselves. Autonomy is restricted to
the work process, however; the workers have no influence on product
design and many other matters. A limited amount of conception with re
gard to the process has been "given back" to the workers in this model.
How can the emerging new type of work be separated from the hu
manized type? Buchanan and McCalman (1989) maintain that although
some ideas developed during the initial period of humanization are still
useful, the overall situation has changed so radically that the humanized
and new types are incompatible. They condense the differences into the
table shown in Figure 22.6.
What are the most obvious distinguishing features of the new work or
ganization, and what kind of new worker is needed? The following quota
tions each describe some aspect of the emerging new form of organization.
If there is a hidden thread connecting these principles, it is that knowledge workers are
the only corporate assets that last. They embrace machines and engender new systems,
which they ultimately outgrow. (Clark, 1989, p. 98)
Workers will need a broader range of skills in order to perform a greater variety of tasks
as they adopt a systems approach to the new technology. Many technicians already work
in common design networks and have to cooperate across job boundaries with theoretical
knowledge matched by diagnostic skills. (Gerwin, Sorge, & Warner, 1986)
Such intelligent organizations are ephemeral, formed when problems surface, disbanded
when they are solved; they often include suppliers and other people from the outside.
T h e structure they assume is based on how the problem is posed. A company's ultimate
370
Kari
Kuutti
understanding of work
large, flexible assortment of skills
new motivation, responsibility for a larger
area than own tasks
371
Alvarez and Klein (1989), Bansler (1989), Hirschheim and Klein (1989),
and Nurminen (1988).
The lists in Figure 22.7 show a remarkable similarity. It is evident
that the link between the demands for developing work and attempts to
generate a new paradigm for IS research is much more direct than has
thus far been recognized within the IS debate. The transforming of work
needs new kinds of support and poses new problems. Old conceptual
tools are inadequate for solving them, and the IS debate is searching for
new frameworks for doing precisely that.
attributes
skill conservation and development
emancipation of interests, democratization of
working life
Figure 22.7. Comparison between features of the new work organization and
the properties needed in new information systems.
success, therefore, depends on how effectively it can shift from measuring and controlling
costs to choosing and managing projects that enhance its organizational capabilities... .
They push at the margins of their expertise, trying on every front to be better than be
fore. They strive to be dynamic, learning organizations. . . . Worker skills are critical to
a company's success; a layoff could mean permanent loss of that resource. At the same
time, companies need to encourage cooperation among workers, to reinforce the value of
long-term employment. People work best with people they know. The most important
variable costs for an advanced manufacturing company may well be the costs of training
and retraining people. (Hayes & Jaikumar, 1988, pp. 84-85)
Workers at all levels add value not solely or even mostly by tending machines and carrying
out routines, but by continuously discovering opportunities for improvement in product
and process. (Reich, 1987, pp. 80-81)
For workers, this path means acceptingflexiblejob classifications and work rules; agreeing
to wage rates linked to profits and productivity improvements; and generally taking greater
responsibility for the soundness and efficiency of the enterprise. (Reich, 1987, p. 83)
The informated organization does move in another direction. It relies on human capac
ities for teaching and learning, criticism and insight. It implies an approach to business
improvement that rests upon the improvement and innovation made possible by the en
hanced comprehensibility of the core processes. It reflects a fertile interdependence be
tween the human mind and some of its most sophisticated productions. (Zuboff, 1988,
p. 414)
The characteristic features of the emerging new type of work are com
pared in Figure 22.7 with the desired properties of IS, as expressed by
the opposition in the IS debate. The IS properties are collected from
372
Kan Kuutti
these into account and use them as parts of the whole picture. But if re
search results from several different disciplines should be used, how can
they be fitted together? Currently, each researcher tends to use his or her
own framework and concepts, which rarely are integrated or even com
parable to any marked extent.
As if the problem of contextuality is not difficult enough, the situation
is made far worse by the fact that contexts are not static. The larger the
context we try to study, the more probable it is that it will be in a state of
change, driven by factors that we should be able to recognize and utilize.
On the other hand, designing an IS should mean mastering change in its
context. Again, the conceptual tools for analysis and design contain the
implicit assumption of a static, well-defined environment.
A wide variety of approaches have been suggested to enable IS research
to cope with the situation, many of them based on some recognized theo
retical framework such as transaction cost theory (Ciborra, 1987), speech
act theory (Lyytinen & Lehtinen, 1984), critical social theory (Lyytinen
& Klein, 1985; Ngwenyama, 1991), grounded theory (Calloway & Ariav,
1991; Toraskar, 1991), phenomenology (Boland, 1985; Ratswohl, 1991),
hermeneutics (Boland, 1991), or semiotics (Andersen, 1991), to name just
a few. However, no one approach has yet been able to make a major break
through and establish a new standard paradigm. Could activity theory do
any better?
Thus far, only a handful of researchers have made the first groping
attempts to apply activity theory in the IS research field (for a recent col
lection, see Nardi, 1996). However, it can already be seen that the theory
has interesting features that may be beneficial.
Activity theory may help maintain adequately the relationship between
the individual and social levels in the objects to be studied, especially in
situations where there is a need to grasp emergent features in individual
and social transformation. This notion is supported by the fact that activ
ity theory has already been applied, at different levels, to HCI problems
(Bodker, 1989; Bannon & Bodker, 1991), CSCW (Engestrom, Engestrom,
& Saarelma, 1988; Kuutti, 1991b), and information systems (Bodker, 1991;
Kuutti, 1991a).
By its very nature, activity theory is multidisciplinary. If we hold to the
basic assumption that activities are minimal meaningful objects of study the molar units of Leont'ev (1978) - in which essentially human qualities
have to be taken into account, we must then admit that activities as wholes
cannot be exhaustively studied by any individual discipline. In fact, one
arrives at the conclusion that several disciplines should actually have the
same context with respect to the research object, namely, the context
373
374
Kari
Kuutti
Bannon, L. (1990b). From human factors to human actors: The role of psychology and
human-computer interaction in systems design. In J. Greenbaum & M. Kyng
(Eds.), Design at work (pp. 25-44). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bannon, L., & Bodker, S. (1991). Beyond the interface: Encountering artifacts in use. In
J. M. Carroll (Ed.), Designing interaction: Psychological theory at the humancomputer interface (pp. 227-253). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bannon, L., & Schmidt, K. (1991). CSCW: Four characters in search of a context? In
J. M. Bowers and S. D. Benford (Eds.), Studies in computer supported cooperative
work (pp. 3-17). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Bansler, J. (1989). Systems development research in Scandinavia: Three theoretical
schools. Scandinavian Journal in Information Systems, 7(1), 3-20.
B0dker, S. (1989). A human activity approach to user interfaces. Human-Computer Inter
action, 4(3), 171-195.
Bodker, S. (1991). Activity theory as a challenge to systems design. In H.-E. Nissen, H. K.
Klein, & R. Hirschheim (Eds.), Information systems research arena of the 90's
(pp. 551-564). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Boland, R. J. (1985). Phenomenology: A preferred approach to research on informa
tion systems. In E. Mumford, R. Hirschheim, G. Fitzgerald, & A. T. WoodHarper (Eds.), Research methods in information systems (pp. 193-201). Amster
dam: North-Holland.
Boland, R. J. (1991). Information systems use as a hermeneutic process. In H.-E. Nissen,
H. K. Klein, & R. Hirschheim (Eds.), Information systems research arena of the
90's (pp. 439-458). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Braverman, H. (1974). Labor and monopoly capital. New York: Monthly Review Press.
Buchanan, D. A., & McCalman, J. (1989). High performance work systems: The digital ex
perience. London: Routledge.
Burrell, G., & Morgan, G. (1979). Sociological paradigms and organizational analysis. Lon
don: Heinemann.
Calloway, L. J., & Ariav, G. (1991). Developing and using qualitative methodology to
study relationships among designers and tools. In H.-E. Nissen, H. K. Klein,
& R. Hirschheim (Eds.), Information systems research arena of the 90 's (pp. 175
194). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Carroll, J. M. (Ed.). (1991). Designing interaction: Psychological theory at the humancomputer interface. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ciborra, C. U. (1987). Research agenda for a transaction cost approach to information
systems. In R. Boland & R. Hirschheim (Eds.), Critical issues in information sys
tems research (pp. 253-274). Chichester: Wiley.
Clark, K. B. (1989). What strategy can do for technology. Harvard Business Review, 67(6),
94-98.
Engestrom, Y. (1991). Developmental work research: Reconstructing expertise through
expansive learning. In M. I. Nurminen & G. R. S. Weir (Eds.), Human jobs and
computer interfaces. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Engestrom, Y., Engestrom, R., & Saarelma, O. (1988). Computerized medical records,
production pressure and compartmentalization in the work activity of health
center physicians. In Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on Computer-Supported
Cooperative Work (pp. 65-84). New York: ACM.
Gerwin, D., Sorge, A., & Warner, M. (1986). The role of human resources in the com
puterized factofy. Human Systems Management, 6(3), 193196.
Activity
theory,
design
375
Hayes, R. H., & Jaikumar, R. (1988). Manufacturing's crisis: New technologies, obsolete
organizations. Harvard Business Review, 66(5), 77-85.
Hirschheim, R., & Klein, H. (1989). Four paradigms of information systems develop
ment. Communications of the ACM, 32(10), 1199-1216.
Iivari, J. (1991). A paradigmatic analysis of contemporary schools of IS development.
European Journal on Information Systems, 7(4), 249-272.
Klein, H., & Hirschheim, R. (1987). Social change and the future of information systems
development. In R. Boland & R. Hirschheim (Eds.), Critical issues in informa
tion systems research (pp. 275-305). Chichester: Wiley.
Kuutti, K. (1991a). Activity theory and its applications to information systems research
and design. In H.-E. Nissen, H. K. Klein, & R. Hirschheim (Eds.), Information
systems research arena of the 90's (pp. 529-550). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Kuutti, K. (1991b). T h e concept of activity as a basic unit for CSCW research. In L. J.
Bannon, M. Robinson, & K. Schmidt (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd ECSCW
(pp. 249-264). Amsterdam: Kluwer.
Leont'ev, A. N. (1978). Activity, consciousness, and personality. Englewood Cliffs: PrenticeHall.
Lyytinen, K. (1989). Computer-supported cooperative work - issues and challenges. Manu
script. University of Jyvaskyla, Department of Computer Science.
Lyytinen, K., & Klein, H. K. (1985). T h e critical theory of Jiirgen Habermas and in
formation systems. In E. Mumford, R. Hirschheim, G. Fitzgerald, & A. T
Wood-Harper (Eds.), Research methods in information systems (pp. 219-235).
Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Lyytinen, K., & Lehtinen, E. (1984). Discourse analysis as information system specifi
cation method. In M. Saaksjarvi (Ed.), Report of the 7th Scandinavian research
seminar on systemeering (pp. 146-198). Helsinki: Helsinki School of Economics.
Mumford, E., Hirschheim, R., Fitzgerald, G., & Wood-Harper, A. T. (Eds.). (1985). Re
search methods in information systems. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Nardi, B. (Ed.). (1996). Context and consciousness: Activity theory and human-computer in
teraction. Cambridge, MA: M I T Press.
Nissen, H.-E., Klein, H. K., & Hirschheim, R. (Eds.). (1991). The information systems
research arena of the 1990s: Challenges, perceptions and alternative approaches.
Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Ngwenyama, O. K. (1991). The critical social theory approach to information systems:
Problems and challenges. In H.-E. Nissen, H. K. Klein, & R. Hirschheim
(Eds.), Information systems research arena of the 90's (pp. 267-280). Amsterdam:
Elsevier.
Nurminen, M. (1988). People or computers: Three ways of looking at information systems.
Lund: Studentlitteratur.
Ratswohl, E. J. (1991). Applying Don Idhe's phenomenology of instrumentation as a
framework for designing research in information science. In H.-E. Nissen,
H. K. Klein, & R. Hirschheim (Eds.), Information systems research arena of the
90 's (pp. 421^138). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Reich, R. B. (1987). Entrepreneurship reconsidered: T h e team as hero. Harvard Business
Review, 65(3), 77-83.
Sorgaard, P. (1987). A cooperative work perspective on use and development of computer
artifacts. In P. Jarvinen (Ed.), Report of the 10th IRIS seminar. Acta Universitatis Tamperensis B 27 (pp. 719-734). Tampere: University of Tampere.
376
Kari
Kuutti
Toraskar, K. (1991). How managerial users evaluate their decision support. A grounded
heory approach. In H.-E. Nissen, H. K. Klein, & R. Hirschheim (Eds.), Inarem
Zuboff
S n0 9T8 8s ^wIn Tthem age Zof the
T smart
ftke
Zuboff, S.
machlne:
9 S (PP
'
Thefuture
195 226
ofmrk
) - Amsterdam:
^ Elsevier.
and
York.
23
Introduction
Innovative organizational learning is collaborative learning in
work organizations that produces new solutions, procedures, or systemic
transformations in organizational practices (Engestrom, 1995). Studies
of innovative organizational learning have thus far produced relatively
general conceptual tools (e.g., Argyris & Schon, 1978; Senge, 1990). Al
though it is commonly acknowledged that innovative learning at work
has a complex cyclic character (e.g., Dixon, 1994), there have been few
detailed attempts to theorize about such cycles and to model their steps
as they occur in learning processes in work teams.
One of the most interesting attempts is the recent book by Nonaka and
Takeuchi (1995). These authors focus exclusively on innovative learn
ing, which they prefer to call knowledge creation in organizations. Non
aka and Takeuchi propose a theory of knowledge on which they build a
model of cycles of knowledge production. Their examples are drawn pri
marily from practices and cases of new product development in Japanese
companies.
In my research projects on work teams in American and Finnish organi
zations, we have identified and analyzed a number of innovative learning
processes within and between teams (for recent examples, see Engestrom,
1994a, 1995; Engestrom, Engestrom, & Karkkainen, 1995). We typically
videotape series of team meetings and interactions at work and analyze
transcripts of these interactions as our prime data. This approach en
ables us to conduct very detailed data-driven analyses of the discursive
processes, practical actions, and mediating artifacts that are employed in
the step-by-step production of an innovative solution or idea.
On the other hand, my analyses employ theoretical tools from culturalhistorical activity theory and developmental work research (see Enge
strom, 1987, 1991a, 1993a). Three characteristics make this theoretical
377
378
Yrjd Engestrom
379
Tacit
knowledge
To
Explicit knowledge
Socialization
Sympathized knowledge
Extemalization
Conceptual knowledge
Intemalization
Operational knowledge
Combination
Systemic knowledge
From
Explicit
knowledge
Figure 23.1. The cycle of four modes of knowledge conversion (adapted from
Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995, pp. 62, 71, 72).
380
Yrjo Engestrom
support for it. Their cases seem to be partly hand-picked and stream
lined to fit the theory; in part, they are so ambiguous that they could be
made to fit many competing and contradictory theories.
Nonaka and Takeuchi's categories may themselves be used produc
tively to analyze different types of knowledge representation that are em
ployed in the course of collaborative knowledge creation. Such an anal
ysis would be useful as a way of identifying and rectifying possible biases
in a team's style of learning and problem solving. For example, an exclu
sive emphasis on explicit conceptualization may be unproductive if the
exchange of sympathized knowledge is neglected.
Nonaka and Takeuchi's framework does not seem to account effec
tively for sequences of formulating and debating a problem, in which
knowledge is represented as an open, multifaceted problematic. Nor does
the framework make explicit provision for sequences of analyzing and
debating a problem systematically, in which knowledge is represented
as a problematic field to be circumscribed and dimensionalized. Nona
ka and Takeuchi's model has no place for debate and analysis, although
their descriptive case materials do indicate that such processes take place,
particularly in the early phases of the cycle (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995,
pp. 106-107).
Nonaka and Takeuchi's theory takes the initial existence of a fairly clear
problem, task, or assignment as a given. Their cycle begins with the shar
ing of tacit knowledge about a relatively clearly defined task, captured by
the authors in their notion of organizational intention that is formulated
by the management. Thus, the framework excludes the phases of goal
and problem formation, delegating them to the management as an unexamined black box.
Activity theory and expansive learning as a framework
of explanation
The cultural-historical theory of activity (activity theory, for
short) approaches human cognition and behavior as embedded in collec
tively organized, artifact-mediated activity systems (Leont'ev, 1978; En
gestrom, 1987; Cole & Engestrom, 1993). Activities are social practices
oriented at objects. An entity becomes an object of activity when it meets
a human need. The subject constructs the object, "singles out those prop
erties that prove to be essential for developing social practice," using me
diating artifacts that function as "forms of expression of cognitive norms,
standards, and object-hypotheses existing outside the given individual"
381
382
Yrjo Engestrom
Finally, the fourth type is where to artifacts, used to envision the future
state or potential development of objects, including institutions and so
cial systems.
Although certain artifacts are typically used in certain ways, there is
nothing inherently fixed in an artifact that would determine that it can
only be, for instance, a why artifact. A conceptual model may typically
function as a dynamic diagnostic tool, but it may also become a frozen
definition used only as a what artifact to identify and classify phenom
ena. A hammer may typically be used as a what artifact for identifying
objects that may be hammered (such as nails). But it may also become a
where to artifact used as a symbol for workers' power.
The artifact-mediated construction of objects does not happen in a
solitary manner or in harmonious unison. It is a collaborative and dialogical process in which different perspectives (Holland & Reeves, 1996) and
voices (R. Engestrom, 1995) meet, collide, and merge. The different per
spectives are rooted in different communities and practices that continue
to coexist within one and the same collective activity system.
"Perspective" is a further elaboration of concepts that link activity systems to one an
other and to structures and dynamics of power and privilege. It allows one to speak more
directly to agency in Marx's work, to the capacity of humans to apprehend the condi
tions of their activity and through their practice change those very conditions. (Holland
& Reeves, 1996, p. 272)
As Holland and Reeves (p. 274) point out, perspective is a hedge against
simplified views of context that ignore the unsettled and conflicted rela
tions between different positions and actors. The concept of perspective
opens up intriguing questions: Can and should perspectives merge? Is it
possible or desirable to have a completely shared object in an activity?
The theory of expansive learning (Engestrom, 1987) is based on the di
alectics of ascending from the abstract to the concrete. This is a method
of grasping the essence of an object by tracing and reproducing theo
retically the logic of its development, of its historical formation through
the emergence and resolution of its inner contradictions. A new theo
retical idea or concept is initially produced in the form of an abstract,
simple explanatory relationship, a germ cell. This initial abstraction is en
riched step by step and transformed into a concrete system of multiple,
constantly developing manifestations. In an expansive learning cycle, the
initial simple idea is transformed into a complex object, a new form of
practice. At the same time, the cycle produces new theoretical concepts
theoretically grasped practice concrete in systemic richness and multi
plicity of manifestations
383
384
Yrjo Engestrom
7. CONSOLIDATING THE
NEW PRACTICE
6. REFLECTING ON
THE PROCESSI
1. QUESTIONING
\
5. IMPLEMENTING THE
NEW MODEL ^ ^ ^
4. EXAMINING THE
NEW MODEL
The sixth and seventh actions are those of reflecting on and evalu
ating the process and consolidating its outcomes into a new, stable
form of practice.
These actions bear a close resemblance to the six learning actions put
forward by Davydov (1988) as constituents of learning activity that fol
lows the logic of ascending from the abstract to the concrete. Davydov's
theory is, however, oriented to learning processes within the confines of
a classroom where the curricular contents are determined ahead of time
by more knowledgeable adults (Engestrom, 1991b). This probably ex
plains why it does not contain the first action of critical questioning and
rejection, and why the fifth and seventh actions, implementing and con
solidating, are replaced by constructing a system of particular tasks and
evaluating - actions that do not imply the construction of actual, cultur
ally novel practices.
The process of expansive learning should be understood as construc
tion and resolution of successively evolving tensions or contradictions in a
complex system that includes the object or objects, the mediating artifacts,
and the perspectives of the participants. The entire ideal-typical expansive
cycle may be diagrammatically depicted with the help of Figure 23.2.
The theory of expansive learning has thus far been applied mainly to
large-scale transformations in activity systems, often spanning a period
of 2 or 3 years (Engestrom, 1991a, 1993b). On such a scale, the action
phases of the expansive learning cycle are interpreted as lengthy periods
of collaborative work dominated by a given action type (e.g., historical
analysis, modeling). This corresponds roughly to the scale of events an
alyzed by Nonaka and Takeuchi.
385
However, although for Nonaka and Takeuchi (p. 72) "tacit knowledge
of individuals is the basis of organizational knowledge creation," the
theory of expansive learning sees different modes of knowledge repre
sentation (including the whole issue of tacit vs. explicit knowledge) as
instrumentalities or toolkits that may be used in many different orders
and combinations. The theory of expansive learning puts a lot of weight
on the local discursive construction of a shared object and intention in
knowledge creation - something Nonaka and Takeuchi seem to take for
granted, tacitly delegating it to management. It also emphasizes the cen
tral role of contradictions and debate in knowledge creation. The whole
process is seen as energized and often radically refocused by negation:
questioning, criticizing, even rejecting the accepted wisdom.
386
Yrjd Engestrom
387
with the help of a Withholding Notice (WN). The official procedure for
handling WNs is called corrective action. It requires that the operator re
sponsible for the discrepant part attend a meeting outside the work team,
where the issue is discussed and rectified.
The two cases used in this chapter represent innovative organizational
learning at different levels. In the first case, the team produced a novel
solution to a contested issue: whether or not to purchase new backup
tools of a certain type and make. Team members initially disagreed on
the issue, and it seemed to become a deadlock. The solution was based on
a proposal to first test just one new tool in use and to decide on the pur
chase on the basis of the experiences gained. I previously called this type
of outcome a solution innovation (Engestrom, 1995). In the second case,
the team produced a novel procedure for reporting and discussing causes
of scrap parts. The team designed a procedure that deviated from the ex
isting standard procedure in the plant. I have called this type of outcome
a trajectory innovation (Engestrom, 1995). A solution innovation typi
cally applies only to the specific case for which it was invented, whereas
a trajectory innovation is aimed at becoming a more or less permanent,
repeatedly used procedure. Of course, it is possible that a solution in
novation is subsequently repeated consciously in similar new situations,
thus becoming a trajectory innovation. Conversely, a trajectory innova
tion may fail to generalize beyond the first application, thus effectively
becoming a one-time solution innovation.
Analysis of the cases
I analyzed the transcripts of the two meetings in great detail with
the help of Nonaka and Takeuchi's categories. I found instances of all
the four basic phases depicted in Figure 23.1. In particular, creating con
cepts, justifying concepts, and constructing operational knowledge were
relatively easy to identify. Sharing sympathized knowledge was much
more difficult to find, although I finally identified two brief sequences
that could be classified as representing that category.
Nonaka and Takeuchi develop and demonstrate the uses of their cat
egories in cases of new product development that are much more global
and long-term than the discursive processes analyzed in this chapter.
The fact that it was possible to use their categories with these data in
dicates that the categories do have some analytical power and validity
even when applied to processes of innovative learning in singular team
meetings.
388
Yrjo Engestrom
Meeting 2
Turns
Phase
Turns
Phase
01-08
09-92
Formulating/debating a problem
Analyzing/debating a problem
systematically
Sharing sympathized
knowledge
Analyzing/debating a problem
systematically
Constructing operational
knowledge
Analyzing/debating a problem
systematically
Creating concepts
Constructing operational
knowledge
01-12
13
14-19
20-46
Formulating/debating a problem
Creating concepts
Justifying concepts
Constructing operational
knowledge
[Different topic discussed]
Formulating/debating a problem
Creating concepts
Sharing sympathized
knowledge
Justifying concepts
Creating concepts
Constructing operational
knowledge
93-99
100-132
133-153
154-189
190-200
201-207
[47-63]
64-175
176-178
179-181
182-224
225
226-239
" The phases follow the framework of Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995). Phases not recogniz
able within this framework are indicated by italics.
Table 23.1 shows the two discussions broken into phases that follow
Nonaka and Takeuchi's model as far as possible. "Turns" refers to num
bered turns of talk in the discussion. The phases that could not be identi
fied using Nonaka and Takeuchi's categories were scrutinized separately
and given provisional names that try to describe their character without
any particular theoretical assumptions. These "unrecognizable" phases
are indicated by italics in the table.
Table 23.1 reveals that two types of sequences in the team discussions
were impossible to categorize with the conceptual framework of Nona
ka and Takeuchi. I descriptively call these sequences of formulating/
debating a problem and sequences of analyzing/debating a problem system
atically. Interestingly enough, clearly the largest single chunks of discus
sion (measured by the number of turns of talk), namely, those consisting
of turns 09-92 in meeting 1 and turns 64175 in meeting 2, belonged to
the two types that did not fit the framework.
Formulating/debating a problem covers sequences of discussion in which
the participants present or argue about an issue or question to be discussed
and resolved. In other words, there was a debate about whether an issue
was a problem or n<j|t. In these sequences, knowledge was represented as
389
390
Yrjo Engestrom
Meeting 2
Turns
Phase
Turns
Phase
01-08
09-61
62-73
74-189
190-192
193-203
204-207
Formulating/debating a problem
Actual-empirical analysis
Questioning
Actual-empirical analysis
Modeling a new solution
Examining the new model
Implementing the model
01-12
13
14-19
20-46
[47-63]
64-88
89-175
176-178
179-236
237-239
Formulating/debating a problem
Modeling a new solution
Historical analysis
Reinforcing the existing practice
[Different topic discussed]
Questioning
Actual-empirical analysis
Modeling a new solution
Examining the new model
Implementing the model
"The phases follow the framework of Engestrom (1987). Phases not recognizable within
this framework are indicated by italics.
391
392
Yrjo Engestrom
Innovative learning in work teams
work in the meeting was devoted to turning the fuzzy tension into an an
alytically manageable problem.
In both meetings, the action of questioning was initiated by one partic
ipant but accomplished through collaborative argumentation. Basically
these were actions of collective refocusing, though the new object was cap
tured only in a fuzzy and ambiguous form. In Meeting 1, the focus was
shifted from mere technical comparison of features to an underlying op
position of alternative policies, although the shape of these alternative
policies remained unclear. In Meeting 2, the focus shifted from an oper
ational maintenance issue that had nothing to do with scrap parts (turns
49-63) to reopening the issue of scrap parts and corrective action. Most
participants thought this discussion was already closed and left behind as
an issue of simply reinforcing the existing policy.
Analysis in expansive learning
The actions of analysis are also missing in Nonaka and Takeuchi's
framework. In our data, historical analysis appeared only in Meeting 2.
History was used to clarify the origination of the present policy. Interest
ingly enough, the very dilemma and tension of the meeting, which would
come to the table only later when the machinist initiated the action of
questioning, was implied in the way the area coordinator hesitated in his
historical account: "But then again, uh, we have said officially and unoffi
cially that if, uh, the cost of parts is less than the cost of WN [withdrawal
notice] that we would go the variance route rather than writing it up. But,
then again . . . "
Actual-empirical analysis was used extensively in both meetings. In
Meeting 1, it was structured with the help of a mediating artifact, the
force field analysis, which took the physical shape of a matrix of pros and
cons. During the analysis, the object of analysis itself was renegotiated
and revised. Also, the mediating artifact itself, the force field analysis
matrix, was revised in the middle of the analysis.
Although the force field matrix gave structure to the analysis, it had its
own problems. It did not differentiate between specific descriptive fea
tures and general principles as possible pros and cons. It seemed almost
too easy to throw in some feature as a pro or a con, without explaining
why it should be interpreted as such. This led to ambiguous interpre
tations that required repair. Correspondingly, the outcomes of the force
field analysis were far from conclusive. The analysis resulted in evolving
lists of pros and cons from which the team could not derive a clear-cut
solution.
393
The inconclusive, almost endless nature of the force field analysis led
the area coordinator to press repeatedly for some sort of closure to the
discussion, if only in the form of a postponement of a decision. Two
members of the team responded by rejecting the postponement, thus in
creasing pressure to find a solution immediately. Though seemingly con
straining, this kind of pressure toward a decision may in practice facilitate
innovation rather than compromise (Perrow, 1984).
In Meeting 2, actual-empirical analysis took a different shape. It be
came a struggle between principles, much more explicitly so than in Meet
ing 1. To a large extent, this difference was probably a consequence of
the different nature of the issues discussed. On the other hand, the use of
the force field matrix as a mediating artifact in Meeting 1 may also have
played a role, as indicated previously.
The analytical debate spanning turns 89-175 was basically a confronta
tion between two major principles of work organization: individual re
sponsibility/accountability and equal responsibility/fairness. After the ques
tioning sequence, the area coordinator began to justify the practice of
the individual corrective action procedure that requires reporting scrap
parts outside the team. He invoked the principle of individual respon
sibility/accountability - only to receive an immediate rebuttal from the
machinist, who invoked the principle of equal responsibility/fairness.
The machinist received support from some of the team members, most
notably from another machinist who repeatedly paraphrased and clari
fied his point of view, acting as a scaffold to support the formation of an
emerging idea. This represents an interesting variation of the mechanism
of the zone of proximal development, first discovered by Vygotsky (1978).
In themselves, the competing principles of individual responsibility
and equal responsibility were logically fully compatible: Individual re
sponsibility can apply to everyone equally. In this case, their incompati
bility was caused by a subprinciple attached to individual responsibility,
namely, the subprinciple of cost efficiency. This subprinciple was enforced
as a reservation: If individual responsibility becomes too costly, that is,
if the external corrective action procedure costs more than an average
scrap part, then full individual responsibility is not applied. The team
was divided into Zone A and Zone B. Parts handled in Zone A were
cheaper. Thus the principle of individual responsibility was fully applied
only to workers in Zone B - which, in turn, violated the principle of equal
responsibility.
This analysis undertaken in Meeting 2 was not mediated by graphic
artifacts such as the force field matrix used in Meeting 1. Words and ges
tures were the primary mediating artifacts in this debate. Beyond that,
394
Yrjo Engestrom
395
396
Yrjo Engestrom
397
this case. It was very much "knowledge in the world" (Norman, 1988) or
"between people" (Engestrom et al., 1995), not necessarily conceptual
ized or internalized "knowledge in the head."
The second solution was to adopt a new procedure of internal correc
tive action for the entire team in dealing with scrap parts - a trajectory
innovation meant for permanent use. This was a deliberate deviation
from the accepted company policy. Had this innovation been accepted
by management, the reporting (corrective action) behavior of the team
would certainly have become qualitatively different from what it had
been and from what it was expected to be in the surrounding organiza
tion. Since the proposal was rejected, the innovation remains a potential
innovation only. However, it was given a name {internal corrective action)
and conceptualized to such a degree that it has taken a life of its own in
the discourse, thinking, and practice of the team: It has become a new
mediating knowledge artifact in the local activity. When an innovation is
rejected but has conceptual coherence and need-based anchoring in the
daily realities of a collective activity system, it is not likely to disappear.
Reappearances in modified forms are much more likely.
398
Yrjo Engestrbm
principles. Here the theory of expansive learning differs very clearly from
Nonaka and Takeuchi's theory of knowledge creation. The latter empha
sizes socialization and sharing of sympathized, tacit knowledge as the step
leading to an innovative solution. In the theory of expansive learning and
in the data analyzed earlier, such a phase has no prominent role. There
are at least two possible explanations that may mediate this difference.
First, analysis is never purely conceptual and explicit; it always includes
more tacit and experiential aspects, too. Second, Nonaka and Takeuchi
may refer to groups that have little shared experiential background to be
gin with, being selected from various departments of a company. In such
a case, the socialization phase may indeed be necessary. This, however,
in no way diminishes the importance of subsequent or parallel analytic
actions.
The role of artifacts
In the two meetings, an array of mediating artifacts were used.
The primary what artifacts included, above all, talk and gestures used
to construct the object/problem and its solution. Reported speech and
analogy were among the rhetorically powerful what artifacts used in the
meetings. Joking about purchasing the new tools was used in Meeting 1
in a way that diverted the discourse from the emerging innovative so
lution - an instance that may be seen as an antidote to optimistic as
sumptions about the innovation-facilitating potential of humor (Hatch
& Ehrlich, 1993). In Meeting 2, the significant hand gestures indicat
ing "outside" and "inside" were used by two participants in the decisive
phase of examining the new solution model.
A number of seemingly fixed and finished theoretical concepts, obvi
ously obtained from above through training and instruction, were also
used as what artifacts in the meetings. These included concepts used to
convey authority, such as ISO ("That's a hit against ISO"), but also con
cepts used as tools appropriated for practical use, such as inventory and
WN. Some concepts like continuous improvement might be in the mid
dle, in the process of becoming increasingly common for the participants.
The seemingly fixed and finished character of these concepts should not
be taken for granted either. Corrective action was obviously a theoreti
cal concept given from above. But the team transformed it into the idea
of internal corrective action, which gave it an entirely different meaning.
This corresponds to Vygotsky's (1986) idea of the bidirectional and nego
tiated character of the formation of theoretical concepts. Such concepts
399
"grow" from both above and below, and the creative moment is in the
meeting of these two directions.
The how artifacts included numerous forms of metatalk that were used
to guide and constrain the discussion. They might be labeled as "One per
son at a time"; "Don't argue about who's right and who's wrong"; "Let's
not get personal"; "Interpreting what someone else said is not the same
as defending that opinion." These are actually procedural rules with var
ious degrees of generality. "One person at a time" is a very general rule
in institutional conversations, whereas "Don't argue about who's right
and who's wrong" applies specifically to a type of discussion in which
the group tries to produce ideas rather than decide on their validity. One
could say that procedural rules such as these remain rules as long as they
are implicitly constraining the discussion. They become active tools as
soon as they are deliberately used by participants in order to maintain or
redirect the course of the discussion.
The why artifacts included the force field analysis in Meeting 1 and
the principles and subprinciples in Meeting 2. The force field analysis is
aimed at elucidating justifications for a choice between two alternatives.
In other words, it should yield why artifacts that can be used to reach a
decision. In Meeting 1, the force field analysis seemed to yield mainly
descriptive what artifacts that were difficult to interpret in any convinc
ing or conclusive manner. Thus, a tool such as this does not inherently
determine how it is used - descriptively or analytically. In Meeting 2,
the general principles were explicated largely as a response to the persis
tent and aggressive questioning initiated by the first machinist. He first
demanded that a force field analysis be conducted on this issue, too. He
then provocatively and repeatedly used the why question to challenge the
managerial wisdom.
Interestingly enough, in both meetings the solution models were jointly
fixed only in spoken discourse. The later written minutes were con
structed by the minutes keeper only. The available graphic tools (white
board, overheads) were not used to explicate and examine collectively the
solutions. Thus, the crucial, newly produced where to artifacts remained
fairly vague and ambiguous.
Innovative learning as m e e t i n g of perspectives
Even though research on work teams has increased greatly in re
cent years (see Beyerlein & Johnson, 1994; Beyerlein, Johnson, & Beyerlein, 1995), very few studies have focused on detailed analyses of discourse
400
Yrjo Engestrdm
in the team. This is probably due partly to the difficulty of analyzing rel
atively long multiparty conversations that are embedded in practical ac
tivity. The previous analyses indicate that innovative learning processes
in teams may not be harmonious brainstorming sessions or situations
where "members think alike" (Rentsch & Hall, 1994). To the contrary,
in the two meetings, persons presenting different perspectives disagreed
and entered into debates. In Meeting 1, the perspective proposing the
purchase of new tools and the perspective questioning the purchase col
lided. In Meeting 2, the perspective advocating individual responsibil
ity/accountability and the perspective advocating equal responsibility/
fairness collided.
These perspectives were not merely individual-psychological proper
ties. In both cases, one of them was more anchored in the community of
management and supervision, and the other was more anchored among
the shop floor workers. However, this distinction alone would be greatly
oversimplified. In Meeting 1, the purchase of new tools was both sup
ported and criticized by the workers. In Meeting 2, the perspective of
individual responsibility was initially strongly supported by the work
ers of Zone A but criticized by the resource planner, a representative of
the community of management and supervision at the meeting. The de
marcation lines were broken from the beginning and remained so. In
both cases, the solution went beyond the initial perspectives - a new team
perspective emerged. Yet it would be exaggerated to claim that the new
perspective was unanimously shared. Reservations were also expressed
and played with.
Interestingly enough, the perspectives were not fixed in the sense of
stable alliances between individuals. The relationship between the first
and second machinists is a case in point. In Meeting 1 these two were the
closest of allies, especially toward the end of the discussion, when they
pushed together for the innovative solution. In Meeting 2 they were in
opposite camps from the beginning, to the point of personal attacks. To
ward the end of that meeting, the second machinist changed his mind and
suggested a compromise solution. The perspectives as collective forma
tions were robust enough to allow individual movement between them.
Innovation as collaborative achievement
What gave the team's quality control expert the authority to bring
the discussion to a unanimous close in Meeting 2? It would be easy to
speculate about his position and special expertise. However, there may
401
402
Yrjo Engestrom
by those who are supposed to solve the problem. This creative recon
struction often involves questioning, confrontation, and debate. If this
is overlooked, the important dimension of power will be artificially sepa
rated from object-oriented collaborative work and innovative learning in
work organizations and teams.
Referenc es
Argyris, C , & Schon, D. A. (1978). Organizational learning: A theory of action perspective.
Reading: Addison-Wesley.
Bakhurst, D. (1991). Consciousness and revolution in Soviet philosophy: From the Bolsheviks
to Evald Ilyenkov. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bartunek, J. M., & Reid, R. D. (1992). The role of conflict in a second order change at
tempt. In D. M. Kolb & J. M. Bartunek (Eds.), Hidden conflict in organizations:
Uncovering behind-the-scenes disputes. Newbury Park: Sage.
Beyerlein, M. M., & Johnson, D. A. (Eds.). (1994). Advances in interdisciplinary studies of
work teams: Vol. 1. Theories of self-managing teams. Greenwich: JAI Press.
Beyerlein, M. M., Johnson, D. A., & Beyerlein, S. T. (Eds.). (1995). Advances in interdis
ciplinary studies of work teams: Vol. 2. Knowledge work in teams. Greenwich: JAI
Press.
Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Cole, M., & Engestrom, Y. (1993). A cultural-historical interpretation of distributed cog
nition. In G. Salomon (Ed.), Distribute cognition: Psychological and educational
considerations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Davydov, V. V. (1988). Problems of developmental teaching. Soviet Education, XYAT(8-10)
(whole issue).
Davydov, V. V. (1990). Types of generalization in instruction: Logical and psychological prob
lems in the structuring of school curricula. Reston: National Council of Teachers
of Mathematics.
Dixon, N. M. (1994). The organizational learning cycle: How we can learn collectively. Lon
don: McGraw-Hill.
Engestrom, R. (1995). Voice as communicative action. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 2,
192-214.
Engestrom, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to develop
mental research. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit.
Engestrom, Y. (1990). Learning, working and imagining: Twelve studies in activity theory.
Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit.
Engestrom, Y. (1991a). Developmental work research: Reconstructing expertise through
expansive learning. In M. I. Nurminen & G. R. S. Weir (Eds.), Human jobs and
computer interfaces. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Engestrom, Y (1991b). Non scolae sed vitae discimus: Toward overcoming the encapsu
lation of school learning. Learning and Instruction, 1, 243-259.
Engestrom, Y. (1993a). Developmental studies of work as a testbench of activity theory:
The case of primary care medical practice. In S. Chaiklin & J. Lave (Eds.), Un
derstanding practice: Perspectives on activity and context. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Pfess
403
404
Yrjo Engestrijm
Rentsch, J. R., & Hall, R. J. (1994). Members of great teams think alike: A model of team
effectiveness and schema similarity among team members. In M. M. Beyerlein
& D. A. Johnson (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Vol.
I. Theories of self-managing teams. Greenwich: JAI Press.
Senge, P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization.
New York: Doubleday.
Simon, H. A. (1973). T h e structure of ill-structured problems. Artificial Intelligence, 4,
181-201.
Tjosvold, D., & Tjosvold, M. M. (1994). Cooperation, competition, and constructive con
troversy: Knowledge to empower self-managing work teams. In M. M. Beyer
lein & D. A. Johnson (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams:
Vol. 1. Theories of self-managing teams. Greenwich: JAI Press.
von Hippel, E., & Tyre, M. J. (1995). How learning by doing is done: Problem identifica
tion in novel process equipment. Research Policy, 24, 1-12.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: M I T Press.
Weick, K. E. (1995). Sense-making in organizations. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
PartV
24
Ryle
Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to consider the relationship between
two theories of very different origins, namely, object relations theory and
activity theory. The idea of linking the two theories was derived from
my development of the procedural sequence model, which evolved in
parallel with the development of an integrated approach to psychother
apy - cognitive analytic therapy (Ryle, 1982, 1990). The procedural se
quence originated as a restatement, in cognitive terms, of ideas from both
cognitive-behavioral and psychoanalytic therapies; the resemblance of
this model to aspects of activity theory was pointed out by my colleague
Mikael Leiman, and the present exploration was initiated by discussions
with him.
In this chapter I (1) present the basic features of the procedural se
quence model; (2) outline the way in which ideas from object relations
theory were incorporated in it; (3) describe briefly the ideas of Vygotsky
and activity theory; and (4) consider the compatibility and complemen
tarity between activity theory and the procedural sequence and object
relations models.
408
Anthony Ryle
procedures are seen as being formed and enacted in the course of the in
dividual's ongoing activity and can be understood only in relation to his
or her history and current context.
A full account of a procedural sequence includes the following: a de
scription of the individual's active involvement with his or her surround
ings; his or her appraisal of this involvement; the formation and pursuit
of goals in this context; the individual's anticipation of the personal ca
pacity to attain these goals and of the consequences of so doing; his or
her consideration of the means available and selection and enactment of
one of these; the individual's evaluation of the efficacy and consequences
of his or her action; and the individual's confirmation, revision, or aban
donment of his or her aims and/or means. Such sequences are seen to
underlie the organization of aim-directed action.
The model is derived from the ideas of Kelly (1955), Miller, Galanter,
and Pribram (I960), and the general field of cognitive-behavioral and so
cial learning theory (Ryle, 1982). Such sequences are normally revised
in the light of experience, but neurotic procedures are characteristically
both ineffective and resistant to such revision.
Three patterns of neurotic procedures are recognized: (1) traps, which
involve negative beliefs and appraisals and forms of action leading to con
sequences seemingly confirming these negative beliefs and appraisals; (2)
dilemmas, which represent false dichotomization of the options for roles
or actions; and (3) snags, which are false predictions leading to the aban
donment or undoing of appropriate aims. Psychoanalytic concepts can
be restated, with some modification, in terms of this model.
Object relations theory and the procedural
sequence model
The reconstruction of early development offered in object rela
tions theory (Fairbairn, 1952; Segal, 1964; Guntrip, 1961, 1968; Winnicott, 1965, 1971; Ogden, 1983) has considerable explanatory value where
adult personality and relationship patterns are concerned. In varying
degrees, however, object relations theorists have used the unsatisfactory
"metapsychology" of psychoanalysis, with its neglect of cognition, its
pseudobiology, its reifications, and so on. The linking of these key ideas
with the procedural sequence model involved restatements in a differ
ent language (see Ryle, 1988,1990) in which the main biological influence
is understood in terms of inborn attachment behaviors (Bowlby, 1969)
and in which the infant-mother interaction is described in terms of role
409
410
Anthony Ryle
9.
411
412
Anthony Ryle
413
with the help of an adult who provides accurate verbal commentary and
who transfers responsibility to the child at an appropriate rate (see also
Bruner's [1966] concept of the scaffolding role of the teacher).
The concept of activity is poorly rendered by the English word; in ac
tivity theory the implication is of high-level, motivated thinking, doing,
and being of an individual in a given social context. This is the chosen
focus of the theory, within which, and only within which, the traditional
categories of psychological investigation (perception, cognition, memory,
feeling, etc.) may be studied and understood (Davydov, Chapter 2, this
volume). Two lower levels within activity are identified, namely, action,
concerned with the pursuit of specific goals, and operations, whereby
goals are pursued in specific contexts (Leont'ev, 1981). This seems a
fruitful distinction that might clarify issues in comparative research in
psychotherapy.
There are a number of authors in the West whose ideas are closer to
those put forward in activity theory, including, for example, Mead (1964)
on the self and Berger and Luckmann (1967) on the social construction
of reality, and both Vygotsky and Luria were acknowledged influences
on Bruner's work in developmental psychology (e.g., Bruner, 1966). In
general, however, until the recent growth of interest in activity theory
in some European countries in the past few years, the work has been re
markably neglected. In the Soviet Union, the theory was seen to extend
into philosophy and sociology as well as psychology, and this broad basis
may have saved psychology there from fragmentation.
However, in the two decades following Vygotsky's death there was ex
tensive censorship of his work, and although this was lifted in the 1950s
a certain dogmatism persisted and was only recently explicitly discarded
(Zinchenko, 1989). One manifestation of recent change has been a switch
in attention from the historical-cultural formation of mind to the gener
ation of new thought (creativity) (Engestrom, Chapter 1, this volume).
Despite the strong emphasis on interpersonal transactions, the chief
emphasis in activity theoretical psychology has been on intellectual de
velopment. I am not aware of any work centrally concerned with emo
tions and personality development. However, the following quotation
(Radzikhovskii, 1984, p. 42) suggests a natural convergence with object
relations theory:
T h e thought naturally arises whether the basic structure of human activity is formed in
early ontogeny or the basis of internalisation of the structure of joint activity into which
the child is drawn from his very birth.
414
Anthony Ryle
The relation of activity theory to the procedural
sequence model of object relations theory
415
416
Anthony Ryle
Discussion
In developing the procedural sequence object relations model,
the first aim was to find a way of integrating the ideas and practices of
different approaches to psychotherapy and the second was to place psy
chotherapy in a broader theoretical setting. Neither cognitive-behavioral
nor psychoanalytic theories are free from serious reductionism in the ac
counts of human experience, whereas activity theory, however patchily
developed at present, proposes a view of individual development that
places humans in their full human and historical context. For this rea
son, its development might offer the best framework within which to
place the study of psychotherapy.
At present, there is a remarkable general ignorance of Vygotsky's work,
an ignorance that reflects and serves to maintain the fragmentation of
psychology. As an example, Posener (1989) described Piaget as offering
the only elaborated theory of cognitive development. Moreover, seeing
Piaget (a little unfairly) as being concerned only with the child's rela
tion to "affectively neutral objects," this author claimed as the preserve
of psychoanalysis the study of the "the patient's highly charged experi
ence of intimate relations with the central figures in his life" and hence
the area of drive development, object relations, and incipient structure
formation.
417
Having divided the field in this way, Posener proceeds to note inter
esting "correlations" between psychoanalytic and Piagetian ideas of the
second and third years of life. But these, I would argue, are correlations
between inseparable phenomena that develop from the same experiences.
Vygotsky was concerned (in a way that Piaget was not) with the "highly
charged experiences of intimate relations" of the child because of the em
phasis he placed on the adult's role in the process of intellectual growth
internalization, and he was interested (in a way that psychoanalysts are
not) in the absolute importance of object relations (i.e., sign-mediated
joint activity) for culturally shaped cognitive development.
In this chapter, the understandings of activity theory and the proce
dural sequence object relations model are presented as complementary.
Their combination offers a preliminary comprehensive framework for
understanding human psychology that, among other things, can illumi
nate and help integrate psychotherapy.
References
Beard, H., Marlow, M., & Ryle, A. (1990). T h e management and treatment of person
ality disordered patients: T h e use of sequential diagrammatic reformulation.
British Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 541-545.
Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T. (1967). The social construction of reality. London: Penguin
Press.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss. London: Hogarth Press.
Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1952). Psychoanalytic studies of the personality. London: Tavistock.
Guidano, V. F. (1987). Complexity of the self: A developmental approach to psychopathology
and therapy. London: Guilford Press.
Guntrip, H. (1961). Personality structure and human interaction. London: Hogarth Press.
Guntrip, H. (1968). Schizoid phenomena: Object relations and the self. London: Hogarth
Press.
Horowitz, M. J. (1979). States of the mind: Analysis of change in psychotherapy. New York:
Plenum Press.
Kelly, G. A. (1955). The psychology of personal constructs. New York: Norton.
Leont'ev, A. N. (1981). The problem of activity in psychology. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.), The
concept of activity in Soviet psychology. Armonk: Sharpe.
Liotti, G. (1987). The resistence to change of cognitive structures: A counterproposal to
psychoanalytic metapsychology. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 1, 87-104.
Luria, A. R. (1976). Cognitive development: Its cultural and social foundations. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
Mead, G. H . (1964). On social psychology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, F. H. (1960). Plans and the structure of behavior.
New York: Holt.
418
Anthony Ryle
25
Leiman
Introduction
In his recent work, Ryle (Chapter 24, this volume) has intro
duced the idea of integrating object relations theory and activity theory.
A specific aspect of this integrative perspective will be examined, implied
in Ryle's work but not elaborated by him. It is the issue of sign media
tion, Vygotsky's primary contribution to the methodological problems of
modern psychology.
My aim is to show that object relations theory, especially the work
of Winnicott, may bring fresh understanding to Vygotsky's early no
tions. I further claim that, by introducing the contribution of Mikhail
Bakhtin and his circle to the notion of sign mediation, the profundity
in Winnicott's understanding of the transitional object and of the po
tential space may be more fully appreciated. At the same time, Winni
cott's and Bakhtin's ideas will jointly clarify limitations in Vygotsky's sign
conception.
Ryle (Chapter 24, this volume) addresses the possibility of integrating
object relations theory with activity theory by using the procedural se
quence object relations model, developed by him in the context of an in
tegrated approach to brief dynamic psychotherapy, the cognitive-analytic
therapy (Ryle, 1982,1990).
Ryle's attempt to transcend, by introducing activity theory, some of the
limitations in a cognitivist understanding of mental functioning seems to
open promising perspectives for examining the classical issue of the re
lations between psychoanalysis, psychology, and linguistics, addressed
by Soviet psychologists in the 1920s (Voloshinov, 1976; Vygotsky, 1979).
This early integration failed due to a number of limitations within both
classical psychoanalysis and linguistics. A new, and perhaps more fruit
ful, conception may be built by bringing object relations theory into a
419
420
Mikael Leiman
421
422
Mikael Leiman
423
another person. Consequently, the primary meaning of that unsuccessful grasping move
ment is established by others. Only later, when the child can link his unsuccessful grasping
movement to the objective situation as a whole, does he begin to understand this move
ment as pointing. At this juncture there occurs a change in that movement's function:
from an object-oriented movement it becomes a movement aimed at another person, a
means of establishing relations. The grasping movement changes to the act of pointing.
As a result of this change, the movement itself is then physically simplified, and what re
sults is the form of pointing that we may call a true gesture. It becomes a true gesture
only after it objectively manifests all the functions of pointing for others and is under
stood by others as such a gesture. Its meaning and functions are created at first by an
objective situation and then by people who surround the child. (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 56)
424
Mikael Leiman
The concept of sign
developed in the early interaction between the baby and the mother and,
being a psychoanalyst, he was sensitized to the emotional aspects and im
plications of this interaction.
One of the earliest writings of Winnicott that addresses the complex
pattern of tool mediation and early emotional interaction is "The Ob
servation of Infants in a Set Situation" (Winnicott, 1982). I present a
lengthy quotation from this work because the behavior of the infant, as
described by Winnicott, is quite important for the understanding of very
early forms of tool mediation. The quotation also helps to introduce
Winnicott's views of transitional objects.
. . . I ask the mother to sit opposite me with the angle of the table coming between me and
her. She sits down with the baby on her knee. As a routine, I place a right-angled shin
ing tongue-depressor at the edge of the table and I invite the mother to place the child in
such a way that, if the child should wish to handle the spatula, it is possible. Ordinarily,
a mother will understand what I am about, and it is easy for me gradually to describe to
her that there is to be a period of time in which she and I will contribute as little as pos
sible to the situation, so that what happens can fairly be put down to the child's account.
You can imagine that mothers show by their ability or relative inability to follow this sug
gestion something of what they are like at home; if they are anxious about infection, or
have strong moral feelings against putting things to the mouth, if they are hasty or move
impulsively, these characteristics will be shown up. . . .
The infant's behaviour
The baby is inevitably attracted by the shining, perhaps rocking, metal object. . . and I
will now describe what, in my opinion, is a normal sequence of events. . . .
Stage 1. The baby puts his hand to the spatula, but at this moment discovers unexpect
edly that the situation must be given a thought. He is in afix.Either with his hand resting
on the spatula and his body quite still he looks at me and his mother with big eyes, and
watches and waits, or in certain cases, he withdraws interest completely and buries his
face in the front of his mother's blouse. It is usually possible to manage the situation so
that active reassurance is not given, and it is very interesting to watch the gradual and
spontaneous return of the child's interest in the spatula.
Stage 2. All the time, in "the period of hesitation" (as I call it), the baby holds his body
still (but not rigid). Gradually he becomes brave enough to let his feelings develop, and
then the picture changes quite quickly. The moment at which this first phase changes
into the second is evident, for the child's acceptance of the reality of desire for the spat
ula is heralded by a change in the inside of the mouth, which becomes flabby, while the
tongue looks thick and soft, and saliva flows copiously. Before long he puts the spatula
into his mouth and is chewing on it with his gums, or seems to be copying father smoking
a pipe. This change in the baby's behaviour is a striking feature. Instead of expectancy
and stillness there now develops self-confidence, and there is free bodily movement, the
latter related to manipulation of the spatula. . . .
The baby now seems to feel that the spatula is in his possession, perhaps in his power,
certainly available for the purposes of self-expression. He bangs with it on the table or
on a metal bowl which is nearby on the table, making as much noise as he can; or else he
holds it to my mouth and to his mother's mouth, very pleased if we pretend to be fed by
425
it. He definitely wishes us to play at as to take the thing into our mouths and spoil the
game as a game. (Winnicott, 1982, pp. 52-54)
In this passage, all the important constituents of intersubjective space,
all the basic relations between the infant, the physical object, and the
adults may be seen in their embryonic forms. Much of Winnicott's later
work on transitional objects, as well as his ideas of the potential space,4
are elaborations of this description, itself backed up by 20 years of clini
cal experience with infants and their mothers.
In this example we may see how the baby, attracted by the object, im
mediately checks the attitude of the adults in order to determine the basic
meaning of the situation. We may see how intimately emotional aspects
are interwoven into the path from perceiving the spatula to grasping it.
We recognize the appearance of an active relation to the object and its
gradual transformation from a tool of manipulative acts into a device of
playful unitedness. I now examine Winnicott's theory of the transitional
object more closely.
The following case clearly illustrates the dialogical origin of the in
fant's transitional objects, as well as the path from mediated joint activity
to mediated individual activity, proceeding first on an external and later
on an internalized plane.
The mother of a 22-week-old baby noticed that he began to caress his bib toward the end
of feeding, when he became relaxed and sleepy. The mother interpreted this act as a sign
of falling asleep. Because of frequent dribbling, she had him wear the bib almost all the
time he was awake. Thus it was indeed a "frequent companion" for the baby. Having
interpreted the baby's caressing of the bib as a sign of drowsiness, the mother then be
gan to give him a similar-sized bright terry towel that soon became a "mediating sign" of
the joint preparation for a snooze. Being sensitized, by a book on baby care, to the im
portance of the meaning of the towel, she handed it to the baby only in these situations.
She was, however, (fortunately) only partly aware of the fact that all the good, soothing,
and comforting qualities of the towel were created by the good, peaceful, and loving com
munion between herself and the baby. Only in forgetful intimacy, free of the mother's
controlling and overconscious aims, may the transitional object become saturated by its
magic.
This standard example of the birth of transitional objects illustrates the
necessary components involved in the emergence of such objects. It also
demonstrates how intimately their developing properties are connected
with the complex joint activity, during which the adult provides the basic
meaning of the object.5
The infant's own activity is, however, very important in making the
object subjectively meaningful and, in the long run, an object enriched
426
Mikael Leiman
by more and more complex experiences, following from both joint and
individual activities.
The simple illustration, just quoted, of the mediated character of tran
sitional objects only partly explicates the subtle interplay between the sub
jective and objective aspects of the intersubjective space. For Winnicott,
the meeting point between the internal and the external, between what is
subjectively created and objectively existing, is indeed a delicate issue.
A transitional phenomenon or object is a symbol of the union of the baby and the mother
V (or part of the mother). This symbol can be located. It is at the place in space and time
\ where and when the mother is in transition from being (in the baby's mind) merged in
1 with the infant and alternatively being experienced as an object to be perceived rather
1 than conceived of. The use of an object symbolizes the union of two now separate things,
i baby and mother, at the point in time and space of the initiation of their state of separate,ness. (Winnicott, 1974, p. 114)
427
has at the same time an objective existence in the shared reality. Whether
as physical objects or symbolic artifacts, all that exists will become sub
jectively meaningful - and usable - only when mediating the eternal in
terplay of union and separateness.
This is Winnicott's lesson for Vygotskian scholars. The concept of
mediation is enriched by emotional aspects and by the idea of the third
area, where reality is found creatively. Perhaps the most important as
pect in this understanding of mediation is its developmental nature. Be
ing initially an unrecognized aspect of reality, combining creation and
finding (Winnicott's paradox), mediational patterns change as the infant
grows toward a conscious and creative use of objects. Mediation itself
changes, as it mediates the developing distinction between the internal
and external.
The following theoretical formulation may be summarized from Win
nicott's work on transitional objects: Every act of signification will always
involve a three-term relation between (at least) two persons and the "ob
ject." Quotation marks are used here because the object may be anything
from parts of the body, from gestures and other actions, to physical things,
whether artificial or not, and to signs.
The person-object interchanges constitute indeed an indivisible to
tality, made up of its indissoluble constituents, becoming consumed by
each other yet becoming enriched by this ever-evolving mutual consum
mation. It is this mediated coactivity that makes up the intersubjective
space within which life is possible.
All meaning is generated within this developing, intercommunicational
space, which unites what is seen with what is not yet seen, which trans
forms practical, material transactions into signs, and which materializes
symbolic and invisible forms of activity into practical acts and tangible
objects. Everything that exists in the human mind - indeed in the world,
"humanized" by practical, object-oriented activities - is created within
this living, concrete, and material space. It is this radical materialism that
places Winnicott's work so close to Vygotsky and especially Bakhtin, as
will be shown.
*Vygotsky's important discoveries of tool-mediated activity were ham
pered by his linguistic conception of signs that prevented him from seeing
clearly the early development of signs and their true materiality as medi
ators. Winnicott was, in his turn, restrained by psychoanalytic views that
did not contain any understanding of mediation.
Brought into the methodological context of mediated activity, Winni
cott's views of the creative nature of subjectivity, of the origins of object
428
Mikael Leitnan
Any ideological product is not only itself a part of a reality (natural or social), just as is
any physical body, any instrument of production, or any product for consumption, it also,
in contradistinction to these other phenomena, reflects and refracts another reality out
side itself. Everything ideological possesses meaning: it represents, depicts, or stands for
something lying outside itself. In other words, it is a sign. (Voloshinov, 1973, p. 9)
The basic thing to note in this quotation is Voloshinov's use of the term
ideological. Accustomed to its close connections with political jargon, we
often invest it with negative connotations. For Voloshinov, ideological
does not have these implications. It embraces a far wider domain, in fact
everything in human life that may assume the function of a sign.
There are two important aspects in Voloshinov's opening remarks about
the sign. First, the sign is part of reality, and in this sense it is as material
as any other natural or artificial object. Second, its distinctive and basic
property is the ability to mediate between two realities: The sign brings
the reality it stands for into the situation where it is used.
To emphasize the materiality of signs, Voloshinov declares later in the
text that every ideological sign is not only a reflection, a shadow, of reality,
but is also itself a material segment of that very reality. In Voloshinov's
definition, there is no place for a dualism of the (material) thing and its
(ideal) representation that has characterized the epistemological distinc
tions made in the Western traditions of philosophy and psychology.
429
This is, of course, an extremely bold statement. The sign is not merely
a mirror, it is the true carrier of the reality it signifies. This peculiarity is
pointed out by Holquist (1990), but he does not examine its possible ori
gin. In a more recent paper, Lock (1991) put forward the thesis that this
conception of a sign is a direct expression of Bakhtin's religious interests.
As a Russian Orthodox, he was well aware of the philosophical writings
of the 4th-century Greek Fathers, whose work played an important part
in the spiritual revival of prerevolutionary Russia.
In the writings of Gregory of Nyssa, Athanasius the Great, Maximus
the Confessor, and others, neo-Platonist dualism was transcended by the
biblical understanding of the Incarnation as "the Word that became flesh."
The early Fathers developed such a radically materialistic conception of
the sign to account for the spiritual experience, shared by the Christians,
of the presence of Christ in the sacramental life of the early Church. 9
In the political climate of the Soviet Union in the early 1920s, such
views could not, of course, be espoused openly. It seems, however, that
Voloshinov's special emphasis on the sign as a mediator, not as a repre
sentation, can best be understood in the light of Patristic writings.
We may now move on to Voloshinov's next thesis of the genesis of signs.
He writes:
Signs can arise only on interindividual territory. It is the territory that cannot be called
"natural" in the direct sense of the word: signs do not arise between any two members
of the species Homo sapiens. It is essential that the two individuals be organized socially,
that they compose a group (a social unit); only then can the medium of signs take shape
between them. (Voloshinov, 1973, p. 12)
431
430
Mikael Leiman
This aspect of the word comes very close to Winnicott's views. Voloshinov's thesis of the reality of the word, as residing between individuals,
may be understood fully in line with Winnicott's understanding of how
transitional objects assume their qualities in the potential space. Keep
ing in mind that signs are true mediators of two interpenetrating realities,
the notion of words as transitional objects becomes quite conspicuous.
There is one more aspect of Voloshinov's writings that has important
methodological implications for psychology. It is the radical redefinition
of consciousness based on his notion of the sign.
Consciousness cannot be derived directly from nature.... It takes shape and being in the
material of signs created by an organized group in the process of its social intercourse.
The individual consciousness is nurtured on signs; it derives its growth from them; it
reflects their logic and laws. (Voloshinov, 1973, p. 13)
432
Mikael
Leiman
Notes
I want to thank Dr. Anthony Ryle for our discussions and for his helpful comments on the
drafts of the chapter. The theoretical research on which this chapter is based was funded
by the Academy of Finland and the National Insurance Institution.
1. It might be argued that the later accusations, made by Soviet psychologists, of Vygotsky's intellectualism reflect his dualism concerning the tool as a material object
and the sign as an ideal phenomenon. However, the efforts to resolve this dualism
by adopting the conception of object-oriented activity led to another dead end. It
caused an impoverishment in the psychological understanding of symbolic processes
and blocked empirical research on the manifold patterns and transformations of tool
and sign mediation.
2. The materiality of signs is much better understood by Winnicott and especially well
by Bakhtin. Such a conception of signs as something just as material as everything else
in the world may be incomprehensible to us, who have been brought up in the Western
tradition of thinking, which distinguishes sharply between object and representation,
between "the world out there" and our knowledge of it. The materiality of signs in
cludes their physical characteristics, i.e., the specific sign material, of their external
forms. In addition, the materiality of a sign is defined by the intercommunicational
activity into which it enters as a mediator. This form of materiality is retained by the
sign even in its internalized forms - as a mediator of mental activity. This aspect of
the sign will be clarified later when I introduce Bakhtin's conceptions.
3. The quoted passage is so compact that much understanding brought from other
sources must be used in order to comprehend its brilliance and depth. By relating
Vygotsky's insight with Winnicott's views, I hope to be able to show how much it
contains.
4. The concept of intersubjective space, which I will be using, must be separated from
Winnicott's concept of the potential space. The former is a general concept, in
tended to convey the idea that any kind of psychological phenomenon is necessar
ily embedded in the matrix of mediated intercommunication. Winnicott's potential
space is one concrete instance of this, aimed specifically at setting the stage for transi
tional phenomena and the developmental path by which, in the end, we fully employ
the distinctions between the subjective and the objective, between the object and its
representation.
5. It is important to note that transitional objects are not only created for soothing pur
poses. As Eigen (1981) points out, the core of transitional experiencing has to do with
an inherent fit between the infant's creativeness and the world, i.e., the mother's sen
sitivity to the embryonic actions of the baby and her ability to amplify these actions.
6. As will be shown, the Bakhtinian concept of the sign, as a mediator between two in
terpenetrating realities, and Winnicott's understanding of the symbol come very close
to each other.
7. Bakhtin (1895-1975) was an original scholar whose work, together with that of his close
associates, embraces a broad field of interests. He is probably best known from his
theory of the novel, based on the studies of Rabelais and Dostoevsky, but his work on
signs, discourse, and language has begun to attract increasing interest within Western
semiotics, linguistics, and psychology (Morson & Emerson, 1990). Recently, his rele
vance to the Vygotskian tradition has been noted both in the Soviet Union (Zinchenko,
1985) and in the West (Emerson, 1986; Wertsch, 1985).
433
References
Bakhtin, M. (1984). Problems of'Dostoevsky's poetics. Manchester: Manchester University
Press.
Bakhtin, M. (1986). Speech genres and other late essays. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Eigen, M. (1981). T h e area of faith in Winnicott, Lacan, and Bion. International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis, 62, 413-433.
Emerson, C. (1986). The outer world and inner speech: Bakhtin, Vygotsky, and the intemalization of language. In G. S. Morson (Ed.), Bakhtin: Essays and dialogues
on his work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Holquist, M. (1990). Dialogism: Bakhtin and his world. London: Routledge.
Lee, B. (1985). Intellectual origins of Vygotsky's semiotic analysis. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.),
Culture, communication, and cognition: Vygotskian perspectives. Cambridge: Cam
bridge University Press.
434
Mikael
Leiman
Lock, C. (1991). Carnival and incarnation: Bakhtin and Orthodox theology. Journal of
Literature and Theology, 5, 68-82.
Morson, G. S., & Emerson, C. (1989). Rethinking Bakhtin: Extensions and challenges.
26
F r o m addiction to self-governance
Anja
Koski-jfannes
Introduction
It is well known that human beings may become addicted to just
about anything, ranging from chemical substances such as caffeine, nico
tine, alcohol, and other drugs to commodities such as clothes, shoes,
and fancy cars, as well as to various behaviors such as gambling, jog
ging, working, and even criminal activities. The consequences of these
"fatal involvements" are, however, different. Some may lead to fame and
riches, others to illness, despair, or even suicide - depending on the soci
ety's but also on the individual's biopsychosocial responses to the behav
ior in question.
Originally, the Latin verb addico, from which addiction is derived, re
ferred to devoting or giving oneself up to someone or something either
good or bad. The meaning of the word was value free. From the 19th
century on, with the rise of the temperance and antiopium movements,
it became used in place of intemperance and inebriety, thereby gaining a
mainly negative connotation. It referred to the heavy consumption of
intoxicating substances and, in the narrow sense, to drug abuse alone
(Alexander & Schweighofer, 1988).
Today, however, the scope of the term addiction has widened again. It
now refers to all kinds of more or less harmful dependencies. It is my
aim here to look at this issue from this wider perspective, even though
the focus of this chapter is mainly on the addiction to alcohol.
Addictive behavior as a form of activity
How should we characterize these harmful dependencies? Typ
ical features of addictive behaviors are a strong desire or sense of compul
sion, impaired capacity to control the behavior, discomfort and distress
when the behavior is prevented or stops, and the tendency to persist with
435
436
Anja Koski-Jannes
437
438
Anja Koski-Jannes
NEGATIVE EMOTION
*" due to, e.g., unsolved life problems
\
SEARCH FOR FAST SOLUTION
/
BELIEF THAT ALCOHOL
RELIEVES THE PAIN
COGNITIVE JUSTIFICATIONS
FOR INDULGENCE
/
DRINKING
\
SHORT-TERM RELIEF
\
LONG-TERM INCREASE IN NEGATIVE EMOTION
439
440
Anja Koski-Jdnnes
the reason for change. These events possess no intrinsic or fixed mean
ing. They may even appear trivial to others, but they gain their crucial
significance from the perceptions and interpretations of the individual in
question.
A case description by Ludwig (1988) may be used here as an illustra
tion. An engineer had drinking-related problems with his family and
difficulties at work. Because of his diabetes and kidney trouble, he was
warned by his physician that he would die if he continued to drink. "Ig
noring this threat he got out of his bed in the middle of one night to get
some liquor when he saw his wife crying. He felt so guilty and awful over
what he was doing to her that he decided to quit drinking" (pp. 70-71).
Yet, events like this had probably occurred several times before. Why
did this specific incident suddenly have such a profound effect on this
man? Ludwig (1988, p. 73) speaks about subconscious ripening of mo
tives. A semiotic perspective on this event, however, provides another
hint to what could have been going on in this situation. According
to Peirce (1931-1932, I, 448), the most powerful or "perfect signs are
those in which the iconic, indicative and symbolic characters are blended
equally." It may be assumed, therefore, that similar events that before had
only iconic and indicative functions for this person now somehow also
conveyed a more generalized symbolic meaning for him. He was forced
to ask himself what he was doing to his wife in a more global sense than
just with regard to this specific situation. A whole new life perspective
may have been opened up for him through this decisive insight into his
wife's suffering.
The story shows the role of strategic, emotionally laden images in the
change process. A similar experience is involved in the feeling of "com
ing home" described earlier. This experience is a particularly powerful
iconic, indicative, and symbolic sign for a person who has been adrift for
a long time.
Therapeutic case stories provide further illustration of this point. The
next one is taken from my own experience. A couple of years ago, I had
a young client with features of borderline character pathology in an inpatient clinic where I worked. He was an impulsive, difficult, but also
amiable person who, despite his youth, had already completely messed
up his life with drinking and drug taking. He stayed in the clinic twice for
several weeks, but both treatments ended prematurely due to his return
to drinking and drug use.
Because he lived in another city, I could not maintain regular contact
with him after his discharge. He nevertheless phoned me every now and
441
then, and we met four times during the following 2 years. And eventually,
something began to happen. First, he dropped the drugs. He still drank,
but much less than before. Consequently, he did not need to be hospi
talized because of pancreatitis, whereas before this had occurred several
times a year. After some trials, he met an understanding woman whom
he married. He even began to keep some jobs for more than a couple of
weeks at a time.
Some time ago, we discussed this change. To him the crucial message
was mediated on a single occasion after the treatment when he suddenly
realized that "if Anja can really care about me, perhaps I am not such
a total failure; perhaps there is also somebody else who can care about
me." Shortly after that, he met the woman he married. In his opinion, he
would not have been able to maintain the relationship without this basic
change in his self-image and his perception of self-worth.
This is, of course, only one aspect of the whole story. But it says some
thing interesting about psychological healing. This process often involves
certain momentary revelations that are believed to push the person onto
another track. In A A literature these experiences are described as hitting
a personal low or "bottom," but the lever of change may just as well be
an uplifting experience. Religious conversions are described in the lat
ter way.
The core of these significant events seems to be basically identical.
The old, highly overlearned self-schemata are somehow challenged by a
deeply personal new perspective, idea, or image, which simultaneously
bears a generalized meaning for the person in question. These powerful
events often serve as incentives for change, but they may also be used to
maintain the change. In the latter case, they serve as an intrinsic contract
with oneself taking the form: "Because I had this important experience,
I'll stick to this choice rather than do something else."
In his early work The Psychology of Art, Vygotsky (1981) pointed out
that some signs wake up emotions, and by analyzing them we can ap
proach the emotional regulation of behavior. It is obvious that in the
recovery stories described earlier this is just what is going on - people
learn to regulate their behavior with the memories of these crucial events.
From addiction to self-governance
Summing up, addictive behavior represents a trapped form of
goal-directed activity. To break the vicious circle, one has to push a lever
or wedge into this pattern of self-serving consummatory behavior. Many
442
Anja Koski-Jannes
things can be used as tools of change, but a decisive incentive for change
is often provided by some emotionally significant event. The memory of
this event may later be used as means of maintaining the change. It serves
as a special kind of mediating sign, as an inner conract with oneself con
cerning the decision once made.
It is important to note, however, that these changes seldom happen in
a vacuum. The person's immediate social network also plays a role. In a
sample of Finnish inpatient alcoholics (Koski-Jannes, 1992), it appeared
that subjects who had children at home, who identified with AA, and
who had spouses who seldom or never drank with them had a much bet
ter prognosis than subjects without these supporting and obliging social
relationships. Group therapy also significantly improved the outcome.
In other words, people need other people to internalize the necessity to
cut down their drinking. This is why the term self-governance was chosen
here as the opposite to addiction, instead of more commonly used terms
such as self-control or life control.
The problem with self-control is that it is usually conceived as soli
tary behavior. It is equal to saying "no" to one's desires, which in itself
does not provide a worthwhile goal to strive for. Life control, preferred
by some researchers, sounds somewhat unrealistic, implying control over
one's entire life. In contrast to these concepts, the term self-governance,
introduced by Mack (1981), acknowledges the essential interdependence
of the self and others. Mack uses it in the context of AA, arguing for
the role of surrounding social structures in aiding a person to govern the
impulse to drink. Self-governance as a psychosocial term thereby refers
to the sense of being and the power to be in charge of oneself together
and with the help of others (Mack, 1981, p. 133). In this sense, it comes
closest to the Vygotskian idea of internalizing socially created external
means of governing one's thought and behavior with regard to the object
of addiction.
References
Alexander, B. K., & Schweighofer, A. R. F. (1988). Defining "addiction." Canadian Psy
chology, 29(2), 151-162.
Bratus,V. S. (1974). Psihologicheskij analiz izmenenij lichnosti pri alcogolizme. Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Moskovskogo universiteta.
Bratus,V. S. (1980). O dvizyshih protivoretsiyah razvitiya lichnosti. In B. V. Zeigarnik &
V. S. Bratus, Ocherki po psihologij anomalnogo razvitija lichnosti. Moscow. Izdatel'stvo Moskovskogo universiteta.
443
Collins, R. L., Parks, G. A., & Marlatt, G. A. (1985). Social determinants of alcohol
consumption: T h e effects of social interaction and model status on the selfadministration of alcohol. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53,
189-200.
Gossop, M. (Ed.). (1989). Relapse and addictive behavior. London: Tavistock/Routledge.
Koski-Jannes, A. (1989). Learning to control one's drinking - semiotic analysis. In F.
Duckert, A. Koski-Jannes, & R. Ronnenberg (Eds.), Perspectives on controlled
drinking. Helsinki: Nordic Council for Alcohol and Drug Research.
Koski-Jannes, A. (1992). Alcohol addiction and self-regulation. A controlled trial of a
relapse prevention program for Finnish inpatient alcoholics. Helsinki: Alkoholitutkimussaatio.
Leont'ev, A. N. (1978). Activity, consciousness, and personality. Englewood Cliffs: PrenticeHall.
Ludwig, A. M. (1988). Understanding the alcoholic's mind: The nature of craving and how
to control it. New York: Oxford University Press.
Mack, J. E. (1981). Alcoholism, A. A., and the governance of the self. In M. H. Bean, E. J.
Khantzian, J. E. Mack, G. Vaillant, & N. E. Zinberg (Eds.), Dynamic approaches
to the understanding and treatment of alcoholism. New York: Free Press.
Marlatt, G. A. (198S). Relapse prevention: Theoretical rationale and overview of the
model. In G. A. Marlatt & J. R. Gordon (Eds.), Relapse prevention. New York:
Guilford Press.
McNamee, H. B., Mello, N. K., & Mendelson, J. H. (1968). Experimental analysis of
drinking patterns of alcoholics: Concurrent psychiatric observations. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 124, 1063-1069.
Peele, S. (1985). The meaning of addiction: Compulsive experience and its interpretation. Lex
ington: Lexington Books.
Peirce, C. S. (1931-1932). Collected papers of Charles Sanders Peirce (Vols. I and II). Cam
bridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Peirce, C. S. (1985). Logic as semiotic: T h e theory of signs. In E. Innis (Ed.), Semiotics:
An introductory anthology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Pomerleau, O. E, Fertig, J., Baker, L., & Cooney, N. (1983). Reactivity to alcohol cues in
alcoholics and non-alcoholics: Implications for a stimulus control analysis of
drinking. Addictive Behaviors, 8, 1-10.
Rasanen, S. (1989). Toipuminen. Suomalaiset alkoholistit puhuvat (Recovery: Finnish alco
holics speak). Helsinki: WSOY.
Ryle, A. (1982). Psychotherapy: A cognitive integration of theory and practice. London: Aca
demic Press.
Tamerin, J. S., & Mendelson, J. H . (1969). T h e psychodynamics of chronic inebriation:
Observations of alcoholics during the process of drinking in an experimental
group setting. American Journal of Psychiatry, 125, 886-889.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1981). The psychology of art. Cambridge, MA: M I T Press.
Author index
445
446
Author index
Author index
Ehrlich, S. B., 398, 403
Eigen, M , 4325, 433
EisenbergJ. E, 138,746
Ekman, P., 60, 63
Elias, K , 117,130, 301, 307, 3107, 311
El'Konin, D. B., 184, 191, 204, 234, 235, 247,
249, 250, 253, 254, 255,263, Mil, 279
Elliot, D. L., 330, 343
Emerson, C , 4327, 4338, 433, 434
E n g e l J . , 120,/JO
Engels, F , 3,16, 40, 41, 43,48, 51, 52
Engelsted, N., 291, 296
Engelund, T., 282, 283, 296
Engestrom, R., 372, 374, 377, 382, 402, 403
Engestrom, Y., 9, 10,15, 27, 33, 37, 44, 46, 51,
75, 85,1053,105, 111, 227, 233, 249, 251,
263, 286, 296, 296, 306, 307, 311, 325, 326,
330, 331, 340, 343, 372, 373, 374, 377, 378,
380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 387, 390, 397, 402,
403
Escalante,V.,383,-fttf
Eskola, A., 113,113
Fagerhaugh, S., 7,16
Fairbairn, W. R. D , 408, 417
Falmagne, R. J., 383, 403
Fein, G. G., 234, 236, 249
Fertig, J., 439, 443
Fichtner, B., 320, 323, 325, 326, 343
Fielding, N. G , 22, 37
Fillmore, C. J., 184, 204
Fisher, F. W., 184, 204
Fitzgerald, G., 360, 375
Fleck, L., 55, 63
Foucault, M., 125,129,130, 299, 311
Fox, B., 184, 204
Freeman, C , 9,15
Freinet, C , 307, 311
Frese, M., 22, 37
Frost, J., 184,20-?
Fujimura, J., 7,15
Gaidenko, P. P., 43, 51
Galanter, E., 408, 417
Gallimore, R., 308, 309, 312
Gal'perin, P. la., 47, 49, 51
Gal'perin, P. J., 65, 69, 2791, 279
Gal'perin, P. Ya., 184,188, 204, 304, 311
Garai, L., 308, 311
Gard, A., 283, 296
Gardner, H., 321,323, 327, 342, 343
447
Heath, S. B., 166,181
Hedegaard, M , 21, 37, 268, 279, 280, 285, 286,
290, 295, 296, 296, 297, 306, 307, 308, 311,
312, 340, 343
Heider, F , 156, 762
Henderson, K., 7,15
Herdt, G., 106
Hickman, L. A., 6,75
Hildebrand-Nilshon, M., 21, 37, 222, 227
Hinde, R. A., 143,145
Hirschheim, R., 360,361, 363, 364,367, 371,375
Hockhausen, H., 278, 280
Hoetker.J., 327, 344
Holland, D., 382, 403
Holodynski, M., 21, 37
Holquist, M., 170,181, 429, 433
Holzkamp, K., 71,85,157,160, 762
Holzkamp-Osterkamp, U., 160, 762
Horowitz, M. J., 410, 417
Huber, G. L., 278,280
Hughes, T. P., 9,75
Hultsch, D. F., 70, 81,85
Husserl, E., 54, 63
Hutchins, E., 29, 37
Huxley, T. H., 57, 63
Ickes, W., 108, 774
IivariJ., 361, 363, 365, 375
Il'enkov, E. V., 28, 37, 46, 47, 50, 57, 76, 77, 85,
90, 705, 286, 297, 378, 383, 403
Inglehart, R., 123,131
Isaacs, S., 233, 249
Jaeger, M . E., 70, 85
Jaikumar, R., 370, 375
James, W., 308, 312
Janik, A., 127, 7J7
Jantos, W., 271, 280
Jantzen, W., 21, 37
Jarve, P., 128, 7J7
Jensen, U. J., 20, 37
Jodelet, D.,155,762
Johnson, D. A., 399, 402
John-Steiner,V.,27, 38
Joravsky, D , 120, 7J7
Jorm, A., 184, 204
Judin, E., 320, 324
Juul-Jensen, U , 286, 296
Kaloshina, I. P., 349, 359
Kant, I., 54, 63, 319, 324
448
449
Author index
Author index
Lake, C , 318,324
Latour, B., 9,15, 383, 403
Launer, I., 262,263
Lave, J., 1,11,12,15, 831, 85
Lazarsfeld, P. F., 107,113
Leakey, R., 291, 297
Lee, B., 420, 421, 422, 433
Lee, P. J., 283, 296
Lehrman, D. S., 143,146
Lehtinen, E., 372, 375
Leiwo, M., 327, 344
Lektorsky, V. A., 1,15, 21, 26, 27, 38, 41, 44, 51,
67, 69, 381, 403
Leondar, B., 321, 324
Leont'ev, A. N., 1, 4, 5, 6, 9,16, 23, 24, 38, 45,
48, 51, 65, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 78,
83, 85, 89, 10S1,105, 111, 114, 116, 121,
McCalmanJ., 369,374
McDonald, E. T., 206, 227
Mack,J.E.,442,W
MacKeith, S. A., 232, 249
Maclean, R., 184, 204
McNamee, H. B., 437, 443
Maiers, W., 160, 762
Maines, D., 7,16
Mandl, H., 278, 280
Manifest '83, 282, 297
Markova, A. K., 278, 280, 284, 297, 308, 312
Marlatt, G. A., 436, 437, 439, 443
Marlow, M., 410, 417
Marz, K., 3, 5,16, 40, 41, 43, 48, 51, 52, 70,
72,55
Mattews, R.,184,204
May, L., 219, 227
450
Author index
Author index
Ryle, A., 407, 408, 410, 417, 418, 419, 434, 437,
443
Saarelma, O., 372, 374
Saarinen, L., 355, 359
Sabini,J.,22, 37
St. Louis, K. W., 206, 227
Salomon, G., 1,76
Sartre, J. P., 56, 57, 64
Satou.Y, 176,752
Scheibe, I.-R, 278, 281
Schlosser, M., 206, 227
Schmeman, A., 433n9, 434
Schmidt, K., 371, 374
Schneirla, T. C , 134,146
Schoenberg, R., 107,774
Schon, D. A., 377, 402
Schooler, C , 122, 757
Schubauer-Leoni, M. L., 271, 280
Schubenz, S., 206,227
Schurig,V., 21, 38, 71, 86,157,160, 762
Schweighofer, A. R. E, 435, 442
Scott, J. P., 143,146
Scribner, S., 25, 35, 38
Segal, H., 408, 418
Seidman, S., 236, 249
Senge, P. M., 377, 404
Serpell, R., 342, 344
Shankweiter, D., 184, 204
Share, D., 184, 204
Shchedrovitskii, G. P., 33, 38
Shotter,J.,83nl,56
Shweder, R. A., 88, 706
Siegel, A. W, 845, 85
Sigersted, G., 295, 297
Simon, H. A., 357, 359, 381, 404
Skarmeta, A., 314, 324
Skinner, B. F., 80,86
Skovgaard-Nielsen, H., 283, 297
Smith, J.W.A., 321, 324
Snyder, M., 108,114
Sodring Jensen, S., 282, 283, 297
Sorgard, P., 371, 375
Sorge, A., 369, 374
Stadler, M., 161,762
Star, S. L., 7,76
Stengers, I., 9, 76, 33, 38, 69, 69
Sternberg, R. J., 268, 279
Stetsenko, A. P., 305, 308, 312
StiglerJ. W.,706
Strauss, A. L., 7, 76, 237, 249
404,
Wakabayashi,K.,176,752
Walkerdine,V, 299, 301, 572
Wallach, L., 184, 205
Wallach, M. A., 184, 205
Wallon, H., 117,132, 304, 572
Waltzer, M., 125,126, 752
Walzer, M., 1611, 762
Wardekker, W., 309, 310K4, 312
451
Williams, R., 92,706
Wilson, E. O., 143,746
Windsor, J., 206, 227
Winner, E., 321, 323, 324
Winnicott, D. W, 408, 414, 415, 418, 424, 425,
426, 433K9, 434
453
Subject index
Bourdieu, Pierre, 115,120-121
brainstorming, 400
Braudel, Fernand, 117-118
Brezhnevian period, 127
business idea concept, 335-338
Subject index
452
artifacts
as auxiliary stimulus, 29
in expansive learning, 384, 398-399
5th Dimension system as example, 93-104
hierarchical conception, 90-91
in knowledge creation, 381
mediational function, 29
types of, 381-382
in work team meetings, 398-399
artificial intelligence, 355-358
ascending from the abstract to the concrete
actions in, 383-384
versus empiricist methodology, 76-79
expansive learning theory, 382-384, 401
instructional strategy, 273-274
assembly line work, 368
asymmetry, educational discourse, 302-303
attachment behavior, 408^-10
Augmentative and Alternative Communication
project, 206
awareness, see consciousness
Bakhtin, Mikhail
ideology effect on thinking, 120
and nature of dialogue, 68
and object relations theory, 419434
sign concept, 419-434
theory of utterance, 167-169
Bansler's classification, 361362, 365-366
behaviorism, contextualism similarity, 80
biological factors, 133-146
activity theory problem, 47^19
integrative levels, 133146
social factors relationship, 4749
Blissymbolics, 206-219
borderline games, 254-255
boundary crossing, 7
boundary object, 7
454
Subject index
cultural-historical approach
artifact concept in, 90-91
cultural psychology similarity, 89-90
and Gramsci's common sense philosophy,
156-161
cultural psychology, 87106
cultural-historical approach similarity,
89-90
definition, 87-88
developmental approach in, 88
5th Dimension system as example, 93-104
recent proposals for, 8789
cultural scripts, 305, 308
culture-as-garden metaphor, 91-93
culturegene, 143
curriculum practices
influence of, 328-330
rationalization of, 328-330
cyclic time structures
activity systems characteristic, 33
in historical analysis, 32-35
and transformations, 3536
Davydovian teaching strategies, 307
day-care centers, play, 237-242
decentration problem, 302
decontextualized text
textbook consequences, 329
in traditional school learning, 326
"dependent variable," 111
Descartes, Rene, 54-55, 61
developmental approach
in activity theory, 35-36
"contextualist" view, 7982
and cultural psychology, 88
experimental methodology, 75-79
process factors, 82-83
societal influences, 73-75
developmental work research approach, 27, 373,
377-404
Dewey, John
pragmatism theory, 5-6, 331-332
progressive school principles, 331
dialectic of duration, 117-118
dialectical materialism, 139-145
dialogue
activity theory philosophy, 67-68
and power relations awareness, 120121
theory of utterance application, 167-171
and writing activity, 165182
discourse analysis, 113
455
Subject index
discursive practices
asymmetry in educational settings, 302-303
teaching of, 300
Distributed Literacy Consortium, 102
division of labor
consciousness of, 72-73
and history teaching model, 290-294
drama games, 250-262; see also play
educational implications, 261-262
expansive play in, 258
internalization-externalization interplay,
250-262
planning of, 255
role play in, 254
and zone of proximal development, 261-262
dual interaction scheme, 120-121
Durkheim, Emile, 119
dyadic cooperation, and learning, 271-273
dyslexia, see reading skills
Eastern Europe, political changes, 124-130
Eckensberger, Lutz, 88
ecological influences, see contextual influences
education; see also learning
aims of, 303-304, 3105
asymmetry, 302-303
Dewey's progressive ideas, 331-332
polyphony problem, 298-310
thoughtfulness as goal of, 303-304
educational technology, 329, 337
egocentric speech, 412
Einhildungskraft, 120
embeddedness, see contextual influences
emotional factors
"antialgorithmic" nature of, 356357
cerebral palsy case, 219225
cognition interdependence, learning, 278
in creative activity, 351-352
in literacy acquisition, 219-225
empiricist methodology
shortcomings, 77-78, 8283
underlying ideas, 107-108
enactive mind, 118-120
environmental factors
control of, evolution, 137139
in research paradigm, 108-110
epistemology, 5364
dialogic rationality theme, 67-68
inner-outer problem, 57, 60
and practice, 62
20th-century crisis in, 54-58
456
Subject index
Subject index
historicity (cont.)
and periodization, 32
versus relativism, 2526
history teaching, 282-297
activity theoretical approach, 283-284
and conceptions of nature, 286, 290
and Davydov's theory, 285
germ-cell model, 285-289
timeline and periodization in, 293-294
toolkit approach, 295-296
human-computer interaction, 371-372
humanized work, 368369
"iconic" thinking, 118
icons, in addiction recovery, 439-441
ideal
activity relationship, 47
research approach, 50
identity development
Leont'ev's argument, 305
sociocultural view, 305-306
ideological signs, 428
Iivari's classification, 363366
Il'enkov, Evald, 50, 76-77
imagination
in drama games, 254
in play, 235, 253-254
imitation, and play, 251
"independent variable," 111
indices, and addiction recovery, 439441
individual activity
basic principles, 160
collective activity difference problem, 44-45
in Gramsci's theory, 158-161
personality mediation, 160
individual differences, in learning, 278
individual responsibility, 393
individualism, 73
individualization
and speech,166-167
theory of utterance, 167-169,181
infant-mother attachment, 408-409
and activity theory, 414
reciprocal roles, 408^-10
information systems/technology, 347-376
and activity theory, 347-359, 371-373
and artificial intelligence, 355-358
classification, 361367
and creativity, 352-355
goal formation effects, 353-354
psychological effects, 352355
457
motivation, 330-333
object of, 330-333
and play, 78, 253
polyphony problem, 298-310
sociosemiotic approach, 300
learning by expanding, 251
learning disabilities
Hiragana syllables, 187-191
syntax program, 193-203
Lebensform, 5960
Leont'ev, A. N.
criticism of activity theory of, 65-66
Gramsci's ideas, similarities, 158
identity development ideas, 305
three-level model of activity, 4
life-course change, 115,117-118
linguistic awareness
mediating symbolic models, 183-205
and syllabic analysis, 186-191
syntax program, 193-203
training program results, 190-191
literacy acquisition; see also reading skills;
writing skills
cerebral palsy case, 206-227
sensorimotor aspects, 212-219
socioemotional aspects, 219-226
Locke, John, 55
Luria, A. R., neurophysiology, 59
macro-level analysis, 8-9
"Man in Changing Society," 341
Marxism
activity theory roots, 3-5, 40-41
capitalism analysis, 5
common sense problem, 148-149
human labor description, 40
individual versus collective problem,
158-159
and Vygotsky, 412
mastery, play function, 234
Mead, George Herbert, 6-7
mechanistic-deterministic research paradigm,
108,110-113
mediated action theory, 11-12
mediation; see also sign mediation; tool
mediation
as activity theory "germ cell," 13, 28-29
and artifacts, 90-91
developmental aspects, 427
and externalization, 66-67
personality principle, 160
458
Subject index
Subject index
mediation (font.)
Vygotsky's ideas, 66-67
and Winnicott's ideas, 427
memorization, in school learning, 326
metacommunication, and play, 232
metaphor, 314-324
functions, 315317
iconic aspects, 317-318
indirectness of, 322-323
intensionality, 318-320
and learning activity, 314-324
mediation between concrete and abstract,
321-322
"modeling idea," 320-323
and reflection, 323
methodology
activity theory implications, 75-79,107-114
empiricism shortcomings, 7782
freedom concept in, 111-113
genotype emphasis, 76-77
micro-level analysis, 89
miniature learning cycles, 385
molar units, 372
monism, in dialectical philosophy, 20
Montaigne, Michel de, 56
moral value orientations, 306
mother-infant attachment, 408-410
and activity theory, 414
reciprocal roles, 408-410
motivation
"antialgorithmic" character, 356
cognition interdependence, learning, 278
computerization effects, 353
and creativity, 350-351
in drama games, 261-262
in literacy acquisition, 219-225
and object-related learning, 336-339
and play, 231-249, 253
sociohistorical approach, 222-223
motor skills, see sensorimotor processes
multiperspective activity, 307
Needham, Joseph, 134
networks of learning, 339-342
versus traditional school learning, 339-342
work practices connection, 340-342
nonactive role playing, 113
Nonaka and Takeuchi's framework, 378-380
expansive learning theory comparison, 401
shortcomings, 380
nonverbal activity, and creativity, 352
Piagetian theory
activity theory relationship, 47
Vygotsky's theory comparison, 412, 417
play, 231-249; see also drama games
as activity type, 233-236
conceptualization of, 231-233
contradictions in, 240-242
day-care center context, 236-242
developmental aspects, 238-239
experiential aspects, 239
functions, 231-232, 250
internalization-externalization interplay,
250-262
and learning, 78
motivation, 231-249, 253
object orientation, 233-236, 248
origin of, activity theory, 235-236
role-play transition, 243
social construction of, 236-242
social need satisfaction in, 234
symbolic exchange relations in, 248
and zone of proximal development, 251
political power
Eastern European changes, 125-130
perestroika context, 125-128
polylogue, 307
polyphony, 298-310
in classroom discourse, 300-303, 307
orchestration of, 307
and semiosis, 300-301
potential space, 423^128, 4324
power relations
dialogue role, 120-121
Eastern Europe, 125-130
and perestroika, 125128
practice
Dewey's definition, 6
and epistemology, 59-60
pragmatism, 5-6
praxiology, 62
praxis
and activity theory, 156-161
common sense philosophy, 147,
153-156
primary artifacts, 91
problem finding, 389
problem solving
continuous process of, 381
and cooperation, 271273
versus problem finding, 389
in work teams, 389
459
procedural sequence model, 407-418
activity theory relationship, 414-416
in cognitive analytic therapy, 407-408
development of, 407-408
and object relations theory, 408^411
process factors
activity theory relationship, 348
in development, 82
psychic process
Brushlinsky's definition, 21-22
versus object-related activity, 21-22
psychoanalytic theory
activity theory relationship, 47, 416-417
and cognitive analytic therapy, 411
and procedural sequence model, 407-408
Winnicott's concepts, 423428
psychodiagnostics, 354355
psychological-educational therapy, 206
psychological system, 348
psychomotor processes
cerebral palsy case, 212-219
in literacy acquisition, 212-219
Pukinmaki Comprehensive School, 338
racist theory, 144
rationality, and creativity, 68-69
rationalized work, 368
reading skills
cerebral palsy case, 206-227
and linguistic awareness, 183-205
phonological analysis link, 184,191-193
sensorimotor processes, 212-219
socioemotional processes, 206-227
and syllabic analysis, Japan, 186191
recentration problem, 302
reciprocal role procedure, 409-410, 414-415
reciprocity concept, 79-81
relativism, versus historicity, 25-26
reproductive functions, and evolution, 139
research methodology, 49-51
Riegel, Karl, 118-120
role play
functions of, 253
kindergarten, 243
Rubinstein, L. S.
criticism of Leont'ev's activity theory, 66
dual interaction scheme, 120-121
Riegel's classification of, 119-120
Saussurean theory, 121, 422
scaffolding, 413
460
Subject index
Subject index
social influences
in literacy acquisition, 219-226
and play, 236-242
social networks
in addiction recovery, 442
learning role, 339-342
social representations, 154-156
social worlds, 7
socialization, in work teams, 389
society, 70-86
activity theory, 70-79
versus context, development, 70-86
evolutionary perspective, 137-139,141
integrative levels, 137-139
and labor, 139
learning activity link, 333-342
methodological implications, 75-79
and personality development, 73-75
and zone of proximal development, 75
sociobiology, 143-144
sociocultural theory
identity development, 305-306
mediated action, 11-12
teaching strategies, 308
sociohistorical approach
and activity classification, 46
motivation role, 222-223
sociotechnical systems, 362-368
socium, 306
solution innovation, 387
splitting (defense mechanism), 410-411
spontaneous philosophy, 149
Sprachspiel, 59-60
Stalinism, 124,126
states of mind, 410
statistical methods, 78-79, 81-82
Stetsenko, A. P., 305
Strauss, Anselm, 7
subjective phenomena, see inner-outer problem
subjectivity, and common sense, 148-149
syllabic analysis
development of, 186-187
Japanese instruction, 186-191
symbols correspondence, 189
training program results, 190-191
symbolic-interactionist studies, 7
"symbolic-verbal" thinking, 118
symbolism, in play, 232
symbols
in addiction recovery, 439^141
and syllabic analysis, Japan, 189
461
transformation
challenging problem of, 42-44
cyclic methodology, 35
developmental approach, 35-36
and essence, M-\A
in learning activity, 269-270
and new rationality, 68-69
transitional object, 414, 419
internalization, 426-427
Winnicott's concept, 423^128
words as, 430
translation, in cooperative activity, 7
twin studies, 144-145
unconscious motives, and play, 253
utterances
Bakhtin's theory, 167-169, 431
dialogizing of, 169-171
in dialogue sphere construction, 167
genres of, 171-172
in language development, 171173
structural and phenomenal features, 168-169
variable analyses
shortcomings, 78-79, 81-83,110
replacement of, 110113
vocational education, 337-338
voices, 307
Vygotsky, L. S.
activity theory development, 411-413
child development methodological princi
ples, 76
externalization theory, 66-67
and Gramsci's common sense philosophy,
156-161
internalization definition, 38-39, 411
and Marxism, 412
mediation emphasis, 66-67
and object relations theory, 419434
Piaget's ideas comparison, 412, 417
Riegel's classification of, 118-120
Wittgenstein's philosophical commonalities,
58-63
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-R,
200-202
Winnicott, D. W
object relations theory, 419434
potential space concept, 423, 428
radical materialism, 427
and sign concept, 419-434
462
Subject index
Winnicott, D. W. (ctmt.)
tool-mediation views, 413424
transitional object concept, 423-428
Wissensstand, 55, 60
Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 7
epistemology, 55
and practice, 59-60
Vygotskian philosophical commonalities,
58-63
women, developmental variation, 123
words, 429-430
social interchange function, 429^130
as transitional objects, 430
work activities
historical development, 367-371
information system effect, 360-376
and networks of learning, 339342
teaching-learning connection, 332-333
work teams, 377^104
artifacts, role of, 398-399
case examples, 385-396
constructive controversy in, 397
expansive learning, 391-396
and individual responsibility, 393
innovative learning, 396-397