Dental Materials Journal 2010; 29(6): 706712

Evaluation of the static frictional coefficients of Co-Cr and gold alloys for
cone crown telescope denture retainer applications
Masahito OHIDA1, Keita YODA1, Naoyuki NOMURA2, Takao HANAWA2 and Yoshimasa IGARASHI1
Removable Partial Denture Prosthodontics, Department of Masticatory Functional Rehabilitation, Division of Oral Health Sciences, Graduate School
of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
2
Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 2-3-10 Kandasurugadai, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0062, Japan
Corresponding author, Naoyuki NOMURA; E-mail: [email protected]
1

The static frictional coefficients (SFC) of a Co-Cr and a gold alloys were evaluated for the application of a cone crown telescope system
in removable prosthesis. The SFCs of the Co-Cr alloy were lower than those of the gold alloy. The SFC of the gold alloy decreased by
annealing at 85C in air and was restored by re-polishing, although that of the Co-Cr alloy was stable irrespective of the annealing.
The XPS analysis revealed the formation of a surface oxide layer on the gold alloy after annealing. The decrease in the SFC of the gold
alloy may have been caused by the formation of an oxide layer on the surface due to annealing. The relationships among such factors
as the retentive force, SFC and cone crown angle indicate that the angle of the Co-Cr alloy should be lower than that of the gold alloy
based on the Krbers model.
Keywords: Co-Cr alloy, Retentive force, Static frictional coefficient

INTRODUCTION
A telescopic system with a cone crown is utilized in
prosthetic treatment as the retainer for removable
partial dentures and removable bridges. This system
has also been used with overlay denture supported
by dental implants1-8). The clinical assessment of the
cone crown telescope denture is excellent because of
its clinical versatility, esthetic effect, and good
prognosis9-11). However, the expense and the heavy
weight of the denture are disadvantages because the
denture is constructed from gold alloys. These problems
have therefore prevented the widespread use of the
cone crown telescope system.
Co-Cr alloys which possess good biocompatibility,
mechanical strength and a relatively low density
provide an alternative to avoid these disadvantages.
Co-Cr alloys have been applied for removable partial
denture appliances for a long time. In addition, the
mechanical properties and the castability of Co-Cr
alloys have been improved by modifying the casting
system to include investments. The alloys have been
applied for both crowns and bridges. Therefore, Co-Cr
alloys are also promising materials for cone crown
telescope dentures. The retentive force of the cone
crown telescope system should be clarified when Co-Cr
alloys are considered for the cone crown telescope
system as substitutes for gold alloys. Problems such as
the collapse of cone crown telescope dentures or
detachment of inner crowns may occur if the retentive
force is not appropriate. In addition, abnormal occlusal
force and inhomogeneous loading during the usage of
the denture affect the periodontal tissue around the
abutment, leading to the loss of the tooth12,13).
Therefore, the retentive force of the cone crown
telescope system plays an important role in the longReceived Feb 1, 2010: Accepted Jul 12, 2010
doi:10.4012/dmj.2010-011 JOI JST.JSTAGE/dmj/2010-011

term prognosis of removable partial dentures.

The retentive force of the cone crown telescope
system is influenced by the contact surface pressure,
cone angle and static frictional coefficient (SFC)14). This
is also affected by the thickness of the outer crown,
height of the inner crown and inner crown diameter on
the retentive force15-19). However, there are few reports
on the SFC of gold alloys used in the cone crown
telescope system at present. Therefore, the purpose of
this study is to evaluate the SFC of a Co-Cr alloy and a
gold alloy, and discuss the design of the cone crown
telescope system containing a Co-Cr alloy. In addition,
the effects of heat treatment on the SFC of both alloys
were examined.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sample preparation
Wirobond 280 (BEGO, Bremen, Germany) and Degulor
M (DENTSPLY SANKIN, Tochigi, Japan) were used
for the SFC measurements as a Co-Cr alloy and gold
alloy, respectively. The chemical composition and the
properties of these alloys are listed in Tables 1, 2 and
3. The density of Wirobond 280 is half that of Degulor
M. The mechanical properties of Wirobond 280 are
comparable to those of Degulor M after casting and
aging treatment.
Disc- and plate-shaped specimens were prepared
for the SFC measurement of each casting alloy. The
size of a disc specimen was 30 mm in diameter and 5
mm in thickness. The size of the plate specimen was 36
mm in width, 60 mm in depth, and 3 mm in thickness.
Wirobond 280 was cast using Bellavest SH (BEGO,
Bremen, Germany) and Begosol HE (BEGO, Bremen,
Germany) as the investment. The mold including wax
pattern was kept for 30 minutes in air. The mold was

707

Dent Mater J 2010; 29(6): 706712

Table 1

Chemical composition of Wirobond 280

Composition (mass %)

Alloy
Wirobond 280

Co

Cr

Mo

Ga

Si, Mn

60.2

25.0

6.2

4.8

2.9

*The amount of Si and Mn is not announced in the specification sheet.

Table 2

Chemical composition of Degulor M

Composition (mass %)

Alloy
Degulor M

Au

Pt

Pd

Ag

Ir

Cu

Others

70.0

4.4

2.0

13.5

0.1

8.8

1.2

*A small amount of Zn and Sn may be contained in the alloy.

Table 3

Physical properties of Wirobond 280 and Degulor M

Density
(g/cm3)

Melting point
(C)

Elongation
(%)

Yield strength
(MPa)

UTS
(MPa)

Vickers
hardness

Wirobond 280

8.5

1,3601,400

14

540

680

280

Degulor M

15.7

900970

17

620

740

235

Alloys

heated at 900C for 30 minutes in a muffle furnace.

The mold was located in the casting machine after
burning out the wax (Super Cascom, DENKEN, Kyoto,
Japan) and heated to 1,500C. Wirobond 280 was cast
into the mold at 1,500C in an Argon atmosphere and
the mold was cooled in air.
Degulor M was cast using Cristobalite PF (Shofu,
Osaka, Japan) as the investment. The mold including
the wax pattern was kept for 30 minutes in air. The
mold was heated at 700C for 30 minutes in a muffle
furnace. The mold was located in the casting machine
after burning out the wax (Super Cascom, DENKEN,
Kyoto, Japan) and heated to 970C. Degulor M was
cast into the mold at 970C in Ar and the mold was
cooled in air.
The top and bottom surfaces of plates and discs
were polished to be parallel using surface grinder
(PSG52EN, Okamoto Machine Tool Works, LTD,
Gunma, Japan). The discs were manually buffed using
the diamond paste of #1000 grid (SP-W, Asahi Diamond
Industrial Co., Ltd, Tokyo, Japan). Optical microscope
images of the surface of plate and disc of the Co-Cr and
gold alloys after polishing are shown in Figure 1. Laser
microscope was used for the evaluation of the surface
roughness of the alloys. The surface roughness (Ra) of
plate and disc of the Co-Cr alloy were 2.16 m (SD
0.26) and 1.14 m (SD 0.44), respectively. The surface
roughness of the plate and disc of gold alloy were 2.09
m (SD 0.17) and 1.07 m (SD 0.24), respectively. Five
sets of plates and discs of both alloys were prepared for
the SFC measurements.

Treatment after polishing

Some processes were applied to the plates and discs of
each alloy to examine the effect of heat treatment on
the SFC: the as-polished discs and plates (condition 1)
were immersed in ultra pure water at room
temperature for 1 week (condition 2). After the
immersion, the discs and plates were annealed at 85C
for 30 minutes (condition 3). The annealed discs and
plates surfaces were polished with water proof emery
papers up to #1000 grid using a rotating polisher
machine (METASERV 2000, BUEHLER, Illinois, USA)
(condition 4). The surface roughness of plate and discs
of the Co-Cr alloy (condition 4) were 0.53 m (0.06) and
0.52 m (SD 0.08), respectively. The surface roughness
of the plate and disc of gold alloy (condition 4) were
0.53 m (SD 0.08) and 0.58 m (SD 0.05), respectively.
Evaluation of static frictional coefficient (SFC)
The evaluation of SFC was carried out using a tensile
testing machine (AUTOGRAPH, Shimadzu, Kyoto,
Japan) according to ASTM D189420). Figure 2 shows the
schematic drawings of SFC measurement. Disc
specimen was put on the plate which was fixed on the
flat table. The total weight of the disc and weight was
adjusted to 200 g. The peak load was measured at the
beginning of sliding for the evaluation of SFC when the
crosshead was moved at a speed of 5 mm/min. The SFC
() was calculated by the equation:
=P/W

(1)

where P is the peak load and the W is the total weight

of the disc and weight (200 g). The SFC measurements

708

Dent Mater J 2010; 29(6): 706712

Fig. 1

Optical microscopic images of the surface of disc and plate of the Co-Cr and gold alloys after polishing. (a)
Co-Cr alloy plate (Ra=2.16 m), (b) gold alloy plate (Ra=2.09 m), (c) Co-Cr alloy disc (Ra=1.14 m), and (d)
gold alloy disc (Ra=1.07 m).

were performed at 221C and the humidity of 694%.

Five sets of disc and plate were measured five times for
each alloy. The surface of the disc and plate was
cleaned and dried before SFC measurement using
ethanol
(Wako
Chemical,
Miyazaki,
Japan).
Statistically significant differences were evaluated by
the t-test, One-way ANOVA and Tukeys HSD method.
p<0.05 was considered to be statistically significant.

Fig. 2

Schematic drawing of SFC measurement

according to ASTM D1894 (the American Society
for Testing Materials)20).

Surface analysis
X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) was performed
with an electron spectrometer (JPS-9010MC, JEOL,
Tokyo, Japan). All binding energies noted in this report
are relative to the Fermi level and all spectra were
excited with the monochromatized Mg K line (1,253.6
eV). Survey spectra were obtained over a range of 0
1,200 eV. The binding energy was calibrated using C 1s
electron binding energy as 285.0 eV. The take-off angle
for photoelectron detection was 90 from the surface of
the specimen. The chemical states of elements were
determined with their binding energies21).

Dent Mater J 2010; 29(6): 706712

RESULTS
Static frictional coefficient of as-polished Co-Cr alloy
and gold alloy
Figure 3 shows the SFC of as-polished Co-Cr alloy and
gold alloy. The SFC of Co-Cr alloy is significantly lower
than that of gold alloy (t-test, p<0.001). The difference
of SFC is caused by the difference of the constituent
elements because the surface roughness of both alloys
is almost the same.
Static frictional coefficient of Co-Cr alloy and gold alloy
after various treatments
Figures 4 and 5 show the SFC of Co-Cr alloy and gold

Fig. 3

The SFCs of as-polished Co-Cr alloy and gold

alloy. Statistically significant differences were
determined by the t-test. p<0.05 was considered to
be statistically significant.

Fig. 4

The SFCs of the Co-Cr alloy after various

treatments: Statistically significant differences
were determined by One-way ANOVA and Tukeys
HSD method. p<0.05 was considered to be
statistically significant.

709

alloy after various treatments, respectively. Statistically

significant differences were evaluated by the One-way
ANOVA and Tukeys HSD method. The SFC of the CoCr alloy in condition 2 was slightly lower than that in
condition 1, although no significant difference was
observed (p=0.186). The SFC in condition 3 was lower
than that of condition 1, although no significant
difference was observed between conditions 2 and
3(p=0.056). The SFC in condition 4 was slightly higher
than that in the condition 1, although no significant
difference was observed between conditions 1 to 3 and
condition 4.
The SFC of the gold alloy in condition 2 was lower
than that in condition 1. It should be noted that the
SFC in condition 3 was significantly lower than that in
condition 2. In addition, the SFC in condition 4 was
higher than that in condition 3 and was as high as that
in condition 1.
The changes of the SFCs of the Co-Cr alloy were
smaller than those of the gold alloy when treatments
were conducted in conditions 1 to 4. Therefore, the SFC
of gold alloy is susceptible to treatments in conditions1
to 4.
A surface analysis of Co-Cr alloy and gold alloy
Figure 6 shows the XPS survey spectra obtained from
the Co-Cr alloy in the conditions 3 and 4. C, O, N, Co,
Cr, Mo, Ga, W, Si, Mn, and S were detected in the CoCr alloy with XPS. C and N originated from the socalled contaminant carbon and nitrogen. The
elements, other than O and S, originated from the
alloying elements. O originated from surface oxide and
S may be incorporated into the alloy during the dental
casting processes. There was no difference between
these specimens.
Figure 7 shows the XPS spectra obtained from the

Fig. 5

The SFCs of the gold alloy after various

treatments: Statistically significant differences
were determined by One-way ANOVA and Tukeys
HSD method. p<0.05 was considered to be
statistically significant.

710

Dent Mater J 2010; 29(6): 706712

Fig. 6

XPS survey spectra of obtained from the Co-Cr

alloy in the (a) condition 3 and (b) condition 4.

Fig. 7

XPS survey spectra of obtained from the gold

alloy in the (a) condition 3 and (b) condition 4.

Fig. 8

XPS spectra of Cu 2p electron energy region

obtained from the gold alloy in the (a) condition 3
and (b) condition 4.

Fig. 9

XPS spectra of Zn 2p electron energy region

obtained from the gold alloy in the (a) condition 3
and (b) condition 4.

gold alloy in the conditions 3 and 4. C, O, N, Au, Pt,

Pd, Ag, Sn, Cu, and Zn were detected in the gold alloy
with XPS. C and N also originated from the so-called
contaminant carbon and nitrogen. The elements,
other than O were derived from the alloying elements.
O originated from surface oxide. The unknown
spectrum was observed at 815 eV. Figure 8 shows the
XPS spectra of Cu 2p obtained from the gold alloy in
the conditions 3 and 4. The Cu 2p spectrum in
condition 3 was broadened to a higher binding energy
region in comparison to that in condition 4. This was
due to the overlap of some peaks from the valence of
Cu0, Cu+ and Cu2+ in that condition 3. The binding
energies of Cu2+ (933.5 eV)22) were higher than that of
Cu+ (932.2 eV)23) and Cu0 (932.4 eV)21), although it is
difficult to separate these peaks. Figure 9 shows the
XPS spectra of Zn 2p obtained from the gold alloy in
conditions 3 and 4. Peaks originating from Zn 2p were

detected in condition 3. The Zn 2p spectrum in

condition 3 seemed to be broadened to a higher binding
energy. The binding energy of Zn2+ (1,021.7 eV)21) was
higher than that of Zn0 (1,021.4 eV)21), although it is
difficult to separate these peaks. However, these peaks
were not detected in condition 4.

DISCUSSION
Effect of treatments on the static frictional coefficient of
the Co-Cr alloy and the gold alloy
Amontons law states that the SFC does not depend on
the apparent contact area24). This law works when the
surface roughness and the cleanness are in a similar
range25). On the other hand, the SFC increases with
decreasing the apparent contact area and with
increasing circumference length26). These suggest that
the surface roughness influences the SFC. When the

Dent Mater J 2010; 29(6): 706712

plastic deformation occurs at the real contact area, the
new surface forms and the strong adhesion occurs
between the materials. This contributes to the increase
of the SFC. When the elastic deformation occurs at the
real contact area, the effect of surface layer is large and
the SFC is almost the same value, irrespective of the
summation of the real contact area (i.e. roughness). If
the surface roughness of the alloys in the condition 2
and 3 increases and the plastic deformation occurs at
the real contact area, the SFC should increase owing to
their treatments. However, the SFCs of the alloys
decreased in the condition from 1 to 3. In addition, the
SFC was almost the same, irrespective of the roughness
difference between the condition 1 and 4. It is
considered that the adhesion owing to the plastic
deformation at the real contact surface should not occur
for both alloys in the tested conditions.
Ludema et al.27) described that when oxygen is
present, wear is very much lower, friction is
significantly lower and the wear debris is mostly oxide.
Thus, all the SFC value obtained in the tests was
affected by the presence of oxygen. Generally, an oxide
layer, which grows very slowly, forms on the alloy
surface of gold alloys. Therefore, adhesion is dominant
for the friction of the as-polished gold alloy although
the surfaces are contaminated by air. XPS analysis
revealed that Cu and Zn were oxidized during
annealing even at 85C, which is close to the
polymerization temperature of a denture base resin
and the vaporization temperature of ethanol. The gold
alloy (type 4) contains Cu for strengthening and a
small amount of Zn for deoxidization. These elements
are easily oxidized during annealing and then the oxide
layer containing Cu and Zn is formed on the surface.
Accordingly, the SFC of the gold alloy decreased by
annealing because the layer disturbs the adhesion of
metals in the gold alloy.
On the other hand, oxides containing Cr2O3 and
Co(OH)3 form immediately after polishing in Co-Cr
alloys28). The oxides layer formation of Wirobond 280 is
considered to be the same, based on the alloy
composition (Table 1). The SFC was thought to be
changed because of the dissolution Co(OH)3 in ultra
pure water. However, there was no significant
difference on the SFC between conditions 1 and 2. The
SFC in condition 3 was slightly lower than those in the
other conditions. This is presumably due to the
stabilization of oxides on the surface during annealing.
The SFCs of the Co-Cr alloy in each condition were
lower than those of the gold alloy. The stable and thick
oxide layer always exists at the surface and disturbs
the adhesion of metals. Therefore, the change in the
SFC of the Co-Cr alloy may be suppressed in each
condition.
Effect of static frictional coefficient on the retentive force
of cone crown telescope system
The retentive force in the cone crown telescope system
is generated by the residual elastic strain in the outer
crown. Figure 10 shows a schematic illustration of the

711

Fig. 10 Schematic drawing of the cone crown telescope

system14).

telescope system14). The inner crown is inserted into the

outer crown when the occlusal force (K) is applied
firmly, and the elastic strain occurs due to the
deformation of the outer crown. The elastic strain
remains when the occlusal force is removed because of
the existence of the inner crown. Therefore, the elastic
strain is formed to generate the normal force (N) to the
interface between the outer and inner crown. The
retentive force (T0) is expressed using the SFC (0);
T0=0N

(2)

The normal force (N) is expressed using the cone angle

(/2);
N=K/sin(/2)

(3)

The retentive force (T0) is expressed using equations 2

and 3;
T0=0K/sin(/2)

(4)

Therefore, the retentive force is proportional to the

SFC14). The retentive force is controlled by the SFC and
the cone angle from the design of cone crown telescope
system. The SFC of the selected alloys should be
evaluated before the cone angle is determined in order
to obtain the same retentive force as the gold alloy. The
SFC of the Co-Cr alloy was lower than that of the gold
alloy (Fig. 3). Based on the figure and the experimental
results, the cone angle of the Co-Cr alloy should be
lower than that of the gold alloy. However, the SFC
measurements were performed at 221C and the
humidity of 694% in this study. Although it is difficult
to determine the exact value of the angle because the
SFC depends on the oral circumstance in each
patient29), further investigation of the SFC is still
needed to discuss on the differences of the retentive
force between the alloys in the oral circumstance.

712

Dent Mater J 2010; 29(6): 706712

CONCLUSION

The SFC of the Co-Cr alloy and the gold alloy were
evaluated at 221C and the humidity of 694%. The
SFCs of the Co-Cr alloy were lower than those of the
gold alloy. The SFC of the gold alloy was decreased by
annealing at 85C in air and was restored by repolishing, although that of the Co-Cr alloy was stable
irrespective of the annealing. The XPS analysis
revealed that the decrease of SFC of the gold alloy was
caused by the formation of an oxide layer at the surface
on annealing. The oxide layer of the Co-Cr alloy may
suppress the change of the SFC in each condition. The
cone angle should be considered when the alloy for the
cone crown telescope system is changed from the gold
alloy.

REFERENCES
1) Heckmann SM, Heckmann JG, Linke JJ, Hohenberger W,
Mombelli A. Implant therapy following liver transplantation:
Clinical and microbiological results after 10 years. J
Periodontol 2004; 75: 909-913.
2) Heckmann SM, Schrott A, Graef F, Wichmann MG, Weber
HP. Mandibular two-implant telescopic overdentures 10year clinical and radiographical results. Clin Oral Implants
Res 2004; 15: 560-569.
3) Hoffmann O, Beaumont C, Tatakis DN, Zafiropoulos GG.
Telescopic crowns as attachments for implant supported
restorations a case series. J Oral Implantol 2006; 32: 291299.
4) Greven B, Luepke M, von Dorsche SH. Telescoping implant
prostheses with intraoral luted galvano mesostructures to
improve passive fit. J Prosthet Dent 2007; 98: 239-244.
5) Krennmair G, Krainhfner M, Waldenberger O, Piehslinger
E. Dental implants as strategic supplementary abutments
for implant-tooth-supported telescopic crown-retained
maxillary dentures: A retrospective follow-up study for up
to 9 years. Int J Prosthodont 2007; 20: 617-622.
6) Heckmann SM, Winter W, Meyer M, Weber HP, Wichmann
MG. Overdenture attachment selection and the loading of
implant and denture-bearing area. Part 1: In vivo
verification of stereolithographic model. Clin Oral Implants
Res 2008; 12: 612-623.
7) Heckmann SM, Winter W, Meyer M, Weber HP, Wichmann
MG. Overdenture attachment selection and the loading of
implant and denture-bearing area. Part 2: A methodical
study using five types of attachment. Clin Oral Implants
Res 2008; 12: 640-647.
8) Eitner S, Schlegel A, Emeka N, Holst S, Will J, Hamel J.
Comparing bar and double-crown attachments in implantretained prosthetic reconstruction: a follow-up investigation.
Clin Oral Implants Res 2008; 19: 530-537.
9) Igarashi Y, Goto T. Ten-year follow-up study of conical
crown-retained dentures. Int J Prosthodont 1997; 10: 149155.
10) Igarashi Y, Ogata A, Kuroiwa A, Wang CH. Stress
distribution and abutment tooth mobility of distal-extension
removable partial dentures with different retainers: an in

vivo study. J Oral Rehabil 1999; 26: 111-116.

11) Langer Y, Langer A. Tooth-supported telescopic prostheses
in compromised dentitions: A clinical report. J Prosthet
Dent 2000; 84: 129-132.
12) Krber KH. Konuskronen: Das rationelle teleskopsystem
einfhrung in klinik und technik. 5th ed. Heidelberg: Dr.
Alfred Hthig Verlag GmbH; 1988. p. 76.
13) Molin M, Bergman B, Ericson A. A clinical evaluation of
conical crown retained dentures. J Prosthet Dent 1993; 70:
251-256.
14) Krber KH. Konuskronen: Das rationelle teleskopsystem
einfhrung in klinik und technik. 5th ed. Heidelberg: Dr.
Alfred Hthig Verlag GmbH; 1988. p. 81-86.
15) Nagata H. Retention in the conic telescopic crown system.
The influence of the inner crown form. Shigaku 1989; 77:
571-597.
16) Kido H, Morikawa M, Takeya K, Chigusa R, Toyoda S.
Experimental study on retention of the conic telescope
crown part I. Effect of the inner crown form. J Jpn
Prosthodont Soc 1993; 137: 256-260.
17) Kiyama M, Shiba A. Studies on retentive force of conical
telescopic double-crown: part 1. Retentive force of conical
telescopic double-crown related to materials and taper angle
and height of cone and load. J Jpn Prosthodont Soc 1994;
38: 1252-1264.
18) Gngr MA, Artun C, Sonugelen M. Parameters affecting
retentive force of conus crowns. J Oral Rehabil 2001; 31:
271-277.
19) Koroku H, Tsukasaki H, Marutani Y, Omori H, Shiina Y,
Shiba A. Studies on retentive force of conical telescopic
double-crown: Retentive force related to thickness and used
metal alloys of outer-crown. Showa Shigakkai Zasshi 2004;
24: 160-171.
20) ASTM D1894. Standard test method for static and kinetic
coefficients of friction of plastic film and sheeting.
Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials;
2008.
21) Moulder JF, Stickle WF, Sobol PE, Bomben KD. Handbook
of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. 2nd ed. Eden Prairie:
Perkin-Elmer Corp; 1992. p. 82-85.
22) Gaarenstroom SW, Winograd N. Initial and final state
effects in the ESCA spectra of cadmium and silver oxides. J
Chem Phys 1977; 67: 3500-3506.
23) Mcintyre NS, Rummery TE, Cook MG, Owen D. X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopic study of the aqueous oxidation
of Monel-400. J Electrochem Soc 1976; 123: 1164-1170.
24) Dowson D. History of Tribology. 1st ed. New York: Longman
Group Ltd; 1979. p. 210.
25) Rabinowicz E. Friction and wear of materials. 1st ed. New
York: John Wiley and Sons Inc; 1965. p. 57.
26) Okada K, Shimizu T. The influence of the apparent area of
contacts on friction coeffcient. Tribologist 1992; 37: 306-311.
27) Ludema KC. A review of scuffing and running-in of
lubricated surfaces, with asperities and oxides in
perspective. Wear 1984; 100: 315-331.
28) Hanawa T, Hiromoto S, Asami K. Characterization of the
surface oxide film of a Co-Cr-Mo alloy after being located in
quasi-biological environments using XPS. Appl Surf Sci
2001; 183: 68-75.
29) Warr JA. Friction and partial denture retention. J Dent Res
1959; 38: 1066-1074.