Piirvaraliga: (Introduction)
Piirvaraliga: (Introduction)
(INTRODUCTION)
AGA.MA (tantra) and nigama (veda) are the two major currents of India's
intellectual traditions. The tradition believes that these two streams have always
existed together. In ontology and epistemology they deserve equal status and
prestige. 1 However, there are distinctions between the two, not in their ultimate goals
but depending on the means, the points of departure and where the emphasis on some
of the important aspects of life and the reality. Leaving
religious implications apart, we may broadly record here that Veda and its associated
streams accept niv.rtti (abstinence from the modes of mind), whereas iigama
advocates for the pravrtti (inclination towards the mental modes). The former teaches
the use of the discriminating cognitive faculties to know what is real and what are the
evolutes of miiyii (illusion). The latter expounds that there is nothing to accept and
nothing to renounce, as the apparent world is indistinguishable from its Creator who
has projected it on the canvas of His own Self. The picture hides the canvas very
much the way a form veils the substance. The canvas goes into deep oblivion and the
picture it holds becomes the object of experience and enquiry.
We may posit another point of distinction between these modes of thought,
significant in the present context is that the Veda(s) are the
'visualized;' hence self-evident), whereas iigama(s) are
dr~fa
upadi~fa
('seen' or
('stated' or
Sarvarit sivamayarit jagat; " Siva is all-pervasive" in the Saivagama and sarva:iz kha/vamidarit Brahma;
"Brahman penneates in all" (Brhadiiral}yaka Upani~ad, 111.14.1 ). See the diagrams in the Appendix:
Taxonomy of Indian Philosophical Systems, and Classification of Indian Verbal Discourses. See also the
entries on iigama and nigama in the Glossary of Conceptual Sanskrit Terms.
2
Abhinavagupta's Anuttar~{ikii (included in the 8th vol. of Srttantraloka (ed./comm. Dr. Paramhans Mishra,
1992-99) and Pratyabhijiiiihrdaya 2 of Rajanaka K~emaraja.
upadi~fa
articulated by none other than Siva Cone of the epithets of Siva is paficavaktra or
paficiinana of five faces or mouths') - Himself to His beloved wife Parvati. The
setting of this dialogue is marked for its calm, serene and extremely intimate
environments. We do not notice the 'presence' of any third person here; in fact there
is no space for the 'other' at all. There is no space even for the two. This is a dialogue
between wife and husband, and the 'ardhaniirfsvara' 4 (image of Siva as half male
Marco Pallis rightly observes" ... present day Indians and other Orientals; since so many of them, through
being made to suffer the elaborately organized ignorance that passes under the name of a ''modern education"
- often dearly purchased for them by still pious but unsuspecting or complacent parents have had their powers
of discernment so disastrously upset that they seem no longer capable of receiving ideas through the medium
of their own language; and their readiness to swallow quite uncritically the most hazardous hypotheses, even
those relating to their own traditional doctrine, provided they have been put forward by some European
sociologist or philosophers is the evidence of a state of mind that can only be described as defeatist; and
among these people are to be found men of supposedly high standing and illustrious lineage, occupying
responsible positions as rulers, leaders and instructors, but whose professed leadership is of the very essence of
dependence and servility."p.l2.
" ... if for the Westerner a true knowledge of the traditional doctrines offer the only effective means of
escaping the impending disaster that so many dread but feel powerless to prevent, through a process of inward
reintegration and of reform in the literal sense of the word, so also for the Easterners it remains of
consolidation, self-renewal, independence and recollection; and for the two jointly it spells the bridging of the
existing rift."
p. 15. (Translator's Foreword)
Rene Guenon (1945), Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrine, (tr.) Marco Pallis.
4
The Indian realization of 'male' and 'female' principle in a single substratum. No dichotomy or opposition
can ever exist in the philosophical thought and speculations in this tradition. Bringing about a greater synthesis
and half female; siva and sakti) principle establishes the perennial unity of two into a
single substratum. In this intimate dialogue, the 'inter-space' demands a complete
dissolution of a second or third being. In short, there is space for 'absence' but not for
'presence' at all. The 'duality' inherent in the term 'dialogue' in the present context
is only morphemic and does not hold any ontological content. By altering or
conditioning its signified (may be a violence in a way) we may use it in the sense of
samviida or more appropriately hrdaya samviida (lit. perfect expression), which does
not involve any second or third person. To become a part of this 'dialogue'
(henceforth substituted for sarhviida), we need not only to get rid of our identity(-ies)
that form(s). 'duality' but also 'to become of the same heart' (sahrdaya) by
harmonizing our 'self - as 'harmony' is a prerequisite in such an intimate dialogue.
This perpetual dialogue in this sense constitutes a 'close text' 5 An ontological
readership for such a 'text' (the dialogue) sets two necessary conditions:
(i)
nairmalya: purity of mind and heart like a clean shinning surface of the
tanmafibhavana: the ability to become one with the object or goal inquiry.
To become a part of this dialogue one has to qualify on two parameters. The
goal is to know and to experience the content of the 'text'. There does not exist any
'author' or 'authority', hence no question of author's intention or meaning arises.
among the apparently different or opposite views and objects characterizes the Indian mode of thinking
'Advaita' (non-dualism) remains a dominant mode in the intellectual traditions of India.
5
Umberto Eco (1981 ), The Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of the Texts, p.49.
This is the setting and form of dialogue in which Bhairav1 puts her queries to
7
Bhairava and he responds to them with deep love and reverence The content of this
dialogue is intense and deep and to some extent 'obscure'. Also, the mode in which
this content has been uttered/articulated is of great significance. The verb in sarhvtida
(.Yvad) and the verbs we are using for .Yvad as their English equivalents are all
intransitive. They do not have space to accommodate any 'object' in their thematic
grid. The verb .Yvad requires only self- contained and self-affected agent. This is a
sarhvtida with the self and does not necessarily communicate any explicit message as
such in the first place. By implication, of course, it is concerned with many levels of
human conditions and discourses. But this is the all-pervasive Self and its dialogue
constitutes 'a self-contained text' in a sense. We may write a biography of this 'close
text' by depending on its inner conceptual structures and evidences.
Indian theoreticians discuss another interesting parameter of nature of
statements and their relationship with the audience. Three modes of upadesa
(expression/dialogue) have been recorded:
I.
Veda).
Terms popularized by Wimsatt and Beardsley (in The Verbal Icon, 1954)
Rudrayama/a Tantra is an exception in this regard in which Ananda Bhairava asks questions and Ananda
Bhairavi answers.
2.
wife.
The agama and the words of a beloved/wife come under the category of
expression that is characterized by its charm and aesthetic content. Literature in the
8
Indian paradigm has been recognized as kiintil sammita Here neither the authoritive
words
(paur~alharsh
pur~ilrtha
mo~a)
suggestive fashion.
Agama or tantra necessarily involves a 'vision' (darsana) of reality. As the
Veda(s) remained the major sources of all the theistic and atheistic principles and
philosophical systems, in the same way ilgama is the source of all the Saiva and the
Sakta philosophical systems like (s) like Pratyabhijfiil (Recognition), Kula, Krama,
Vfra-Saiva, Siddhiinta Saiva, Lakulfsa Pilsupata and many more cults like Tripuril,
Tiiril etc. Agama also pertains to the
Vai~~ava
etc. The Saiva-Sakta systems, especially that which flourished in Kashmir and its
adjacent areas in 7th -8th century excelled in the disciplines like philosophy, poetics,
aesthetics, art and tantra. One may need to find a convincing reason as to why the
8
KP I.2
major theoretician of Indian poetics and aesthetics belong to Kashmir and either
professedly or some other way associated with the Saiva philosophical systems. For
centuries Kashmir remained one of the most illustrious seats of learning for the
Buddhists (4th Buddhist council, Kashmir Abhidhiirmika) and the Saivites- up to the
end of 12th century. Bhamaha, Vamana, Udbhata, Anandavardhana, Kuntaka,
Bha~tatauta,
but also the most authoritative and authentic exposition of this system. The
theoretical assumptions of pratyabhijfiii (theory/philosophy of recognition), iibhiisa
9
10
11
which are so frequent in philosophy and literary theories, further strengthen this
common bond.
These are the basic insights that define the conception and the structuration
principle of this work. Throughout the last millennium, Abhinavagupta with his two
exceptionally rich literary commentary Dhvanyiilakalocana and Abhinavabharati has
always registered his conspicuous position and presence in the domains of literature
and aesthetics. In fact, no discussion in Indian philosophy, poetics and aesthetics can
be considered complete and conclusive without the contribution of Acarya
Abhinavagupta.
It remains a requirement to examine his sources of literary and aesthetic theory
and also as to how the Trika philosophy system, of which he himself is the most
outstanding exponent, constitutes the background of such discussion. No study has
been carried out so far in this regard with special reference to Tantriiloka, which
assimilates all the trends and theoretical assumptions of iigama(s) and the Saiva10
Terms offered by Prof. K.C. Pandey ( 1963), Abhinavagupta: An Historical and Philosophical Study, p. 319.
All such pertinent terms are defined with reference to the original texts in the Appendices of this work. See
Glossary of Conceptual Sanskrit Terms.
11
Sakta philosophies. The present work offers 'a partial fulfillment' of this
requirement.
The existing literature in this area is mainly of historical and philosophical nature.
For example, Prof. K.C. Pandey's pioneering works (1959, 1963, 1986) take into
account the issue like ascertaining the date, text-authorship and origin/evolution of
the Saiva philosophical system along with their major premises. The works of Prof.
V. Raghavan (1940, 1973 and 1980) are of immense help in which he has explored
into the number of rasa and concepts of alamkiira sastra. Professor Gnoli's work
(1968, see under Gnoli in the bibliography) is an insightful exposition of Abhinava's
concept of aesthetic experience. The works of Prof. G. T. Despande (1989, mainly
based on Prof. K.C. Pandey's 1963), B.N. Pandit (1993), M.M. Gopinath Kaviraj
(1966), R.K. Kaw (1967), Dr. Navajeevan Rastogi (1987) have generated immense
interest among the modem scholars through the exposition of Abhinava's aesthetic
theory mainly in the background of Pratyabhijfia philosophy. Some modem learned
commentaries and translations of the major philosophical and literary commentaries
by
Shri
Jaidev
Singh
(1979,
1980,1982,1988),
Dr.
Paramhansa
Mishra
12
--
all consolidate the roots and place of A~fadhyayf in the agamic traditions.
Though some of these ideas have been discussed in the third chapter of this work but
it still remains a subject matter of full-fledged independent research project.
integrity that characterize his poetics and aesthetics. Even in philosophical circuit he
is known more as a philosopher of PratyabhijfUi. His deep interest in Kaula system, of
which Ttintraloka is remarkable evidence, has been mainly ignored. His literary
expositions owe a lot to these other sources of Trika system. As Abhinvagupta is the
representative of all the branches of Kashmir Saivism, his Tiintriiloka is the most
comprehensive, authoritative and representative text of this system of thought. He
himself takes note of this complex and intensive nature this work. In his own gloss:
vitatasTantralolw vigiihitum naiva sakyate sarvail}.
rijuvacanaviracitamidarh tu Tantrasiiral} tatal} sn.zuta.
13
diving deep into the depth of Tantriilokal}, hence hear this Tantrasiiral} (an
abridgement of TA) composed as lucid statement"].
Like the mode of composition of all the agamic viitigmaya (discussed above),
Tantriiloka is also composed in the form of dialogue. The identity of the listener of
this agamic discourse remains a secret unless one touches upon its concluding
verse
14
viitigmaya. The identities of two, exponent and listener get dissolved and these two
foundation for his literary and aesthetic expositions. For exposition of dhvani and
rasa, Abhinava is sourced by these rich agamic traditions that have been skillfully
13
14
TS Ch.I.2
TA XXXVII.85
10
philosophy and literary theory with specific reference to its major exponent
Abhinavagupta. Philosophy, literature and tantra are minutely interwoven in his
exceptionally vast amount of writings 15 This is a rare blending, perhaps singular, in
India and in the world very much like the confluence of Ganga, Yamuna and
Sarasvati. The classical debate relating to the hierarchy/ranking of the human
discourses
16
and 'contest of faculties' does not appear much relevant in this context.
It seems that there has always been a quest for comparatively subtle and universal
base for laying the foundation of theory amidst the apparent differences, conflict and
flux in India. The existence of differences and flux, have been, no doubt recognized
but only at the surface level. Philosophers and theoreticians in India, as also in the
world, have always strived for a 'universals' or 'deep structures' where all the
contesting views submerge and emerge from the same substratum. This seems to be
15
16
41 works to his credit (See the Appendix )out of which 20 have been available so far.
Vide Plato's The Republic, Ch. X and Aristotle's Poetics.
11
the human destiny that we are bound to live with the universals because only this can
bring about integrity and immortality to our efforts and can bind different individuals
(milrti) 'each to each by natural piety'. A theory expounded with this insight survives
the constraints and tests of time and space. No Indian theory in philosophy, literature
or in other discipline has ever suffered extinction. The tradition has been
characterized as 'perennial flow of the Ganges' acquiring many hues and forms as
per in winter, summer and the rainy seasons, where several tributaries merge together
to constitute major flow or sometimes the main current flows into many directions.
Maintenance is a 'norm' - not only in language but also in thought and culture in
India.
Saivism, especially Kashmir Saivism is perhaps, the most forgotten chapter of Indian
philosophy. Scholars have often sounded its richness, intellectual input and relevance
(cf. extensive work done by Prof. K.C. Pandey, Thakur Jaidev Singh, Navajivan
Rastogi, Balajinath Pandit, Dr. Parmahans Mishra, Dr. R.S. Dwivedi, Dr. Vraj
Vallabha Dviwedi). But as we have seen above, the agamic works are based on
different assumptions and they can be maintained in a living tradition only. It is
extremely difficult to study and to live with them without the able guidance of a
competent teacher coming from the tradition of agama itself. Many commonplace
instructions and topics have been left uncommented. Sometimes one agama relates to
the another for its meaning and constitution. Abhinavagupta names and quotes from
182 agamic texts in his Tantraloka (most of them are no more available). Rajanaka
Jayaratha in his celebrated commentary Viveka (on Tantraloka) records 275 tantric
12
sharp
contrast/contradiction
between
the
Kashmir
18
and Kashmir today, one may simply get disheartened and depressed.
The oblivion of such a brilliant thought system will ultimately cause a setback to the
intellectual traditions of India. Would it be too ambitious to state that studies, like the
present one, may contribute something to build up necessary condition for
pratyabhiiiii (recognition) of Kashmir's unparallel glory?
17
For a detailed list with complete referential details see Tantra/okah vol.l (eds. R.C. Dwivedi and Navajivan
Rastogi) pp. 253-283; 286-345.
18
TA XXXVII. 39-84
13
In the Kularnava Tantra, Siva declares, "For the four yuga(s) (ages) there are four
. l.tteratures: 19
correspon dmg
Type of literature
Ages
1.
Satyuga
2.
Treta
3.
Dvapara
4.
Kali
Agama
'
22
" ... comparison with the Western tradition of thought are best avoided because
19
14
isolated comparison make no sense and may even be misleading and what we need to
do is to compare the whole system and that need a separate study. Such a study has
to be preceded by a study of one system per se" ...
23
opponent) and the uttara palqa (the exponent) come from the same cultural milieu.
Not much space is thus available for comparison in this study. Some studies indeed
have been made comparing and contrasting Coleridge and Abhinavagupta, and Croce
and Abhinavagupta (refer to Bibliography), but they hardly establish any crucial
credibility in this domain of study.
The work has been structured in five chapters (Siva is described as having five
iinana (mouths/faces; also iinana is used for chapter by Pt. Jagannatha in his
Rasagatigiidhara) of Siva
literature
as
ontological
and
epistemology,
nature
of literary
23
Kapil Kapoor, (1995) Literary Theory: Indian Conceptual Framework, pp. xii-xiii.
15
art and yoga and the goals of philosophy and literature. These issues have been
and it is an integral part of creative process, both in the spheres of world and art. This
school of thought recognizes four stages of speech (sometimes five also as silksama
has been separately enumerated and discussed in the Kaula system). The Saiva
philosophers also offer a critique of the three stages of Vak of the school to
Grammarians. The concept of Vak is also a concept of manifestation and in this
process simultaneous turns sequential, one becomes many, integrated content appears
as differential. This third chapter (Saiva Concept of Vak: Meaning and Creative
Process} examines all such aspects of Vak along with some contentious issues like
vivarta (multiple manifest fonn) and paril}ama (transfonnation) with reference to
16
In the context of Grammar, the welt known maxim is: muniniimuttarottararir pramii~yarh, among the three
sages- Pai_1ini, Katyayana and Pataiijali- one who follows acquires comparatively more epistemic credibility.
PiiDini's 1.4.2. (viprati,1edhe parmi! karyam) may be interpreted in support of this convention.
24
17