Causes of Transformers Failure: 1 Background
Causes of Transformers Failure: 1 Background
Oil Contamination:
This category pertains to those cases where oil contamination can be established as the cause of
the failure. This includes slugging and carbon tracking.
Overloading :
This category pertains to those cases where actual overloading could be established as the cause
of the failure. It includes only those transformers that experienced a sustained load that exceeded
the nameplate capacity
Fire /Explosion:
This category pertains to those cases where a fire or explosion outside the transformer can be
established as the cause of the failure. This does not include internal failures that resulted in a
fire or explosion
Maintenance /Operation:
Inadequate or improper maintenance and operation was a major cause of transformer failures,
when you include overloading, loose connections and moisture. This category includes
disconnected or improperly set controls, loss of coolant, accumulation of dirt & oil, and
corrosion. Inadequate maintenance has to bear the blame for not discovering initial troubles
when there was ample time to correct it.
Flood:
The flood category includes failures caused by inundation of the transformer due to man-made
or natural caused floods. It also includes mudslides.
Loose Connections:
This category includes workmanship and maintenance in making electrical connections. One
problem is the improper mating of dissimilar metals, although this has decreased somewhat in
recent years. Another problem is improper torquing of bolted connections.
Lightning:
Lightning surges are considerably fewer in number than previous studies. Unless there is
confirmation of a lightning strike, a surge type failure is categorized as Line Surge.
Moisture:
The moisture category includes failures caused by leaky pipes, leaking roofs, water entering the
tanks through leaking bushings or fittings, and confirmed presence of moisture in the insulating
oil.
been developed such as: dissolved gas analysis (DGA), partial discharge (PD) detection with
acoustic localization of arcing source, frequency response analysis (FRA), acoustic monitoring
of tap changer etc.
Theoretically, on-line application of these methods could provide detection of anomaly,
identification of the problem and assessment of the severity of the condition. In practice,
selection has to be made among the various methods available. Experience has shown that most
transformers will spend their life without developing any problems and it would be unproductive
to maintain a host of monitoring devices whose data would only show a flat line. Economic
optimization therefore requires that a simple, broadband detection method be applied as a first
line of defense or early warning and that diagnostic methods be applied only on those units that
have shown to be developing a problem.
Economic pressure also calls for an extension of transformer service life in addition to a
reduction of maintenance costs. Fortunately, it appears that these contradictory concerns can be
met to a large extent by applying state-of-the-art monitoring to these aged equipments.
1.3
Selection of the most efficient monitoring system requires a review of the insulation deteriorating
process and the best methods for early detection. The active parts of a transformer comprise
several subsystems that are designed and tested to sustain the electric and thermal stresses
occurring in normal operation. This is why most transformers will provide years of faithful
service without developing any problem. However, some units submitted to unusual service
conditions or suffering from manufacturing defect, excessive aging or moisture ingress may
develop problems, and those problems should be detected at an early stage to allow for orderly
removal from service and repair.
Transformer insulation is universally made of the time proven combination of cellulose paper or
pressboard, fully impregnated with insulating oil. When the insulation is overstressed by high
temperature or electric discharges, the chemical bounds within oil and cellulose molecules can be
broken and new molecules will be created. Such reaction generates a variety of gasses that
dissolve in the surrounding oil. Fig 1 provides an outlook of the chemical structure of insulating
material and degradation by-products.
of the failure is necessary. To accomplish this, it is necessary to first understand the different
modes of failure for transformers.
A transformer can fail from any combination of electrical, mechanical or thermal factors. While
it is difficult to define a typical failure mode for a transformer for its complexity, most actual
failures involve and eventually result from the breakdown of insulation system. Therefore,
although the actual cause of the failure of a transformer may be electrical, the insulation
breakdown precipitating the failure may have resulted from electrical, mechanical or thermal
factors. A transformer failure may have more than one causal factor.
1.5.1.1
The electrical and mechanical design considerations for a transformer include lightning impulse
and switching surge voltages. Both of these conditions can cause serious damage to the electrical
and mechanical integrity of a transformer. Both lightning and switching surge impulses are large
magnitude travelling waves, which travels at the speed of light. A transformer is designed and
built with a user-specified BIL (Basic Impulse Level) rating. The BIL rating determines the level
of lightning and switching surge voltages that it can tolerate without damage. Surge arresters
must be carefully selected in order to ensure that they will work as intended and when and only
when intended. A transformer that has failed due to a lightning or switching surge generally
displays damage that is localized near the line-end terminals.
1.5.1.2
Partial discharge
Sometimes referred to as corona, partial discharge can be caused by poor insulation system
design, by manufacturing defects, and/or by contamination of the insulation system (both the
solid insulation and oil). Partial discharge can be likened to a low intensity arcing and will cause
localized damage to the insulation and conductors. Evidence of corona can be seen in pitting of
the cellulose insulation and conductor and, in more advanced cases, widespread black tracking
which resembles crows- feet. This tracking is electrically conductive and can be visible on
insulating barrier boards in the vicinity of the partial discharge activity. The black color of the
tracks is formed by carbonization of the insulating oil by the partial discharge.
1.5.1.3
Static electrification
this phenomenon is limited to very high voltage transformers (over 345 kV). When the
temperature of a transformers insulating oil is fairly low and the thickened oil is circulated
rapidly, a static charge is developed between the oil and metal components of the transformer.
When the magnitude of this charge exceeds the insulating oils dielectric capability, it will flash
over and the transformer can be destroyed or severely damaged in the process. Evidence of static
electrification can be seen by partial discharge tracking on insulating barrier boards.
These failure modes may be discovered in combination with one another or in combination with
other mechanical or thermal evidence. It is important for all evidence to be evaluated together in
order to develop an accurate failure scenario.
1.5.2.1
Although a transformer should be internally braced by the manufacturer to withstand the forces
associated with this type of movement, the bracing may not be adequate enough; the shipper may
not have followed the manufacturers rigging instructions; or an accident may have occurred
during the transportation.
1.5.2.2
Advances in materials and winding design have resulted in much stronger windings, but many
older transformers are still in service that have not benefited from these advances. When a
transformer experiences an internal fault the winding can be adjusted to magnetic forces that are
significantly beyond their design capability.
In either of these cases, winding deformation can occur. The most common mechanically
induced factors are summarized as follows:
1.5.2.3
In this case, the conductor will collapse inward toward the core between the axial spacers and
will transmit the buckling to the core insulating cylinder at the axial spacer locations. A severe
case of buckling will result in damage to the paper insulation. The degree of damage will
determine whether or not a failure will occur immediately.
Figure-4
1.5.2.4
This is a problem typically associated with helical windings which utilize paper insulated
Continuously Transposed Cable (CTC). In this case, axial forces that exceed the CTC bundles
compressive capability will cause the bundle to tip. When the bundle tips, the paper insulation
will tear open and expose the energized conductor. Because of the amount of insulation damage
typically resulting from conductor tipping, an electrical failure will usually occur, almost
immediately.
Figure-5
1.5.2.5
This involves layer windings made up of thin flat conductors which are supported end-to-end.
When exposed to excessive axial forces, the individual conductors will get smaller over one
another. This causes the entire layer to become mechanically unstable, as well as damaging the
paper insulation. The degree of damage to the insulation will determine whether or not the failure
will occur immediately.
1.5.2.6
Spiral tightening
This again involves layer windings and is caused by radial forces that tighten the winding. This
can be evidenced by a spiral movement or shifting of the key spacers over the entire height of the
winding. The tightening of the winding can damage the paper insulation and cause it to become
mechanically unstable. The degree of damage to the insulation will determine whether or not a
failure will occur immediately.
1.5.2.7
End-ring crushing
This condition occurs when the mechanical strength of the radial end ring at the bottom of the
winding is exceeded by the windings axial forces, resulting in mechanical instability of the
entire winding
1.5.2.8
This system is intended to maintain a constant clamping force on the coils at all times. When a
transformer is subjected to large sudden increases in current flow (e.g. when a large block of load
is suddenly added, or when a fault occurs in the system), the resulting magnetically induced
electromechanical forces try to spread the winding coils apart axially. The coil clamping system
restrains the coils from this movement. If a failure of the clamping system occurs and the
restraining force is absent, the transformer may operate normally for a period of time. However,
when the transformer is subjected to a sudden large increase in current flow, its coil will spread
apart. This movement is very sudden and violent, resulting in severe deformation of the coils and
damage to the cellulose insulation. The damage can cause an immediate electrical failure.
1.5.2.9
Sometimes the connection of the transformer leads can break in the area where they leave the
windings, or the lead supports can break. The degree of damage to the insulation will determine
whether or not a failure will occur immediately.
A thorough failure investigation must consider that evidence indicating the presence of any of
these mechanical problems does not necessarily mean that the cause of the failure has been
found. In some cases, damage such as outlined above may simply have been the result of
collateral damage due to a fault.
1.5.3.1
Overloading
Overloading of the transformer beyond its for design capability extended periods of time.
1.5.3.2
This can include blocking or fouling of the radiators or coolers, the failure of the oil pumps, and
the failure of a directed flow oil distribution system.
1.5.3.3
Limiting the amount of cooling oil to the windings in the immediate area.
1.5.3.4
This can cause excessive stray magnetic flux to severely overheat insulation in close proximity to
the core or other structural members.
1.5.3.5
Operation of transformer under excessive ambient
conditions
If evidence of thermally induced problem is found it must be considered and combined with
other evidence discovered of mechanical or electrical problems to develop a complete failure
scenario.
Chapter 2
Statement
The project will be based on the transformer failure causes and to how to do investigation
of cause along with its possible solution. Various methods have been developed recently for life
extension of power transformers. We will discuss each in detail.
2.2
As an aid to the investigation IEEE standard C57.125 guide for failure investigation
,Documentation and analysis of power transformer and shunt reactors is used. This guide can
be used to ensure that all important factors are considered and examined in a failure
investigation. IEEE Document is an excellent source of information for an investigator to help
develop a battle plan prior to arriving at the site, and various checklists are very useful. The
Preparation/information gathering
Testing
Inspection
Conclusions
The preparation begins as soon as the investigator is notified. The testing and on-site inspection
may occur simultaneously. In some situations, the investigator may be able to prescribe a series
of tests, before arriving on site. The inspection may involve three steps an external
examination, an internal examination, and a teardown inspection. Once sufficient data has been
gathered from the inspection and tests, the engineering analysis can hopefully lead to
contributing causal factors.
All historical oil screen test result ( e.g. dielectric breakdown, acidity, interfacial tension)
All historical diagnostic field test reports ( e.g. Double Power factor, frequency response
analysis)
A system on-line diagram showing the locations and types of protective devices
A list if any faults or switching events in the system just prior to the failure
If the transformer is equipped with surge arrestors that have operation counters, did any
of the arrestor operate just prior to the failure?
This information will provide a history of the condition of the transformer and may give some
indications of system conditions tat may have contributed to or caused the failure.
Evidence of a foreign object or animal contact (burn marks or debris on top of the tank or
nearby bus)
Careful notes should be taken to supplement photographs. Any item in the preparatory list ( such
as historical test data, or relays flags) that were not available in advance should be gathered at
this time. If no visible damage is found externally, the next step in the investigation is usually a
prescribed set of diagnostic tests, which are outlined in the next section.
Sometimes the tank is completely drained of oil, while in some cases the oil is just lowered
enough to expose the top of the core and oil assembly.
Before entering the tank, all safety rules must be observed. In many cases, safety officials may
consider the transformer tank a confined space and a confined space entry program must be
followed. Do not attempt this alone. The tank must be vented to the atmosphere for a reasonable
amount of time to expel the combustible gases. Combustible gases in the tank are heavier than
air, and present an asphyxiation hazard. After the tanks atmosphere has been tested and
determined to be safe, we recommend personnel wear a calibrated confined space monitor for the
duration of the internal inspection. If the gas monitors indicate a low oxygen level at any time
during the inspection, all personnel inside the tank should be evacuated.
Prior to entering the tank, all personnel should remove loose personal items, such as jewelry,
wallets, combs, paper clips, pocket change, and the like. The only items that should be carried
inside the tank are a camera, pen and paper, and a flashlight. These items should be recorded
before entry, and then verified after leaving the tank. Leaving a flashlight inside a high voltage
transformer could later be catastrophic. (its possible to find almost anything inside of the failed
transformer, including screwdrivers, pliers, welding rods, and safety glasses from a previous
work crews carelessness. In one true story, a wooden ladder was found inside a large power
transformer that had been in service for over twenty years before it suffered a failure.)
Internal abnormalities to look for inside the transformer include:
The appearance of burnt oil or insulating fluid (good oil has a clear amber colour; burnt
oil is dark and opaque, similar to burnt coffee, with an unmistakable acrimonious odor.)
Evidence of any free water in the bottom of the tank (since water is heavier than oil, the
presence of water in the tank, will cause rust at the bottom)
anywhere in the transformer, including the top of the yoke, the tops of the coils, on
internal ledges of the tank, and on the bottom of the tank.
If the internal inspection does not provide sufficient information as to the cause of failure, it may
be necessary to de-tank the transformer and perform a diagnostic teardown to search for the
damage and clues. A diagnostic teardown is a painstaking, meticulous process that is usually
accomplished in the shop of a repair firm or manufacturer. If the transformer is large enough, it is
quite common for a teardown to involve personnel from the owner, the insurer, the manufacturer,
and one or more consultants to represent their various interests
In many of our investigations, when a transformer failure has been reported, there is no obvious
external damage to be seen. We must then depend upon diagnostic testing to help identify
existing weaknesses or faults and to give some indication of the possibilities for repair. No one
electrical test can assure continued operation or expected service reliability, and no combination
of electrical tests can substitute for a careful visual
recording and plotting of the test results makes it possible to get the needed information out of a
test and to compare the values with those of previously conducted tests. It should be noted that
several tests may be interpreted together to diagnose a problem. The manufacturers acceptance
criteria should also be consulted, because it may take precedence over the criteria in this
document.
Before performing any tests, precautions should be taken to ensure that the transformer is
disconnected from all power and auxiliary sources and has been properly grounded. Electrical
tests should not be conducted until the unit has been tested for combustible gas and has been
found to be safe. Special Note: In order to perform a power factor test, or any other test that
requires high voltage, the transformer must be filled with insulating oil. Samples of insulating
fluid should be taken for screen tests and dissolved gas analysis. (The samples must be taken
prior to opening the transformer for inspection.) Table is a suggested checklist of electrical tests.
Table-3 Diagnostic tests
measurements capacitance and tan delta measurements et. However, Frequency Response
measurement ha proved to be an effective off-line tool to detect these changes and is widely
being used world over The test is repeatable and immune to electro magnetic interference and is
not influenced by weather
Following inferences can be drawn from the test results.
Transformer is healthy and there is no movement of windings.
Transformer is damaged and requires immediate repairs.
Minor winding movement has occurred but the transformer can be run under close monitoring.
Internal inspection of transformer can be avoided after it had met heavy short/circuit inter turn
faults.
In addition to
conventional tests viz. capacitance, tan delta and insulation resistance measurement for
assessing the moisture in transformer. DC recovery voltage measurement is another off-line
diagnostic tool for the condition monitoring of the oil, paper insulation of transformer. It detects
the content of water (in percentage) present in insulation system.
Changer (OLTC). This measurement will directly inform of the existence of shorts between
turns.
flowing into the high voltage winding with the low voltage side open. This
current should be proportional to the No-load acceptance test but with the difference resultant
from the use of test voltages different from nominal values.
It shouldnt exist excessive deflection from values measured between phases and its normal a
slight difference (geometric) between extreme and central windings. It will exist great changes
when appear heat points, degradation in the magnetic package, loose core or detached magnetic
shunt.
2.3
Figure-7
Figure-8
Figure-9
Figure-10
2.4
Is subjected to extended high temperatures or load conditions and limited by the current
condition of its cooling system
A condition based periodic maintenance plan and diagnostic tools are available from
ABB to identify when the transformer is at an unusually high failure risk if operation is
continued
Diagnostic Techniques for Power Transformers Highly Effective On-line Actions are
Figure-11
Overload forecasts can be made, where estimated thermal ageing is taken into account.
Gives a base to calculate the economical aspect of the overloading due to the accelerated
ageing of the insulation
Figure-12
Thermal ageing
Hot-spot forecast
Overload capacity
Voltage measurement
2.5
Winding thermal condition based on the condition of the paper insulation since aged,
brittle insulation
conditions
Risk of dielectric failure based on the assessment of the dielectric withstand capability
of the transformer insulation system (oil, paper, etc.) and the electrical stress imposed by
the power system and naturally occurring events
Miscellaneous or Random Failure risk due to other causes of Failure or Loss of service
Figure-13