Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Traumatic Injuries of The Knee
Traumatic Injuries of The Knee
Carlos Rodrguez-Merchn
Editor
Traumatic Injuries
of the Knee
E. Carlos Rodrguez-Merchan
Editor
Traumatic Injuries
of the Knee
123
Editor
E. Carlos Rodrguez-Merchn
Madrid
Spain
ISBN 978-88-470-5297-0
DOI 10.1007/978-88-470-5298-7
ISBN 978-88-470-5298-7
(eBook)
Preface
Contents
15
Patellar Fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Juan Sebastin Ruiz-Perez, ngel Martnez-Lloreda
and E. Carlos Rodrguez-Merchn
29
39
45
Floating Knee. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fernando Oorbe-San Francisco
and E. Carlos Rodrguez-Merchn
59
71
77
Meniscus Tears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Julin Fernndez-Gonzlez, Santiago J. Ponce and Ruben Fole
87
vii
viii
Contents
10
99
11
111
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
117
1.1
Introduction
recurvatum of the supracondylar fractures, in intercondylar fractures the condyles could be rotated by the heads of the gastrocnemius.
Irrigation of the knee is supplied by the
superficial femoral artery which becomes the
popliteal artery when passing from the medial to
the posterior compartment. The popliteal artery
gives the medial and lateral geniculate arteries,
whose superior and inferior branches are
responsible for the vascularization of both condyles. The lateral femoral condyle is irrigated by
superior and inferior lateral arteries, while the
medial condyle is irrigated only by the superior
medial artery as it passes in front of the medial
epicondyle. This is an issue to consider when
performing medial knee approaches [1].
1.2
Epidemiology
J. Fernandez-Gonzalez et al.
1.3
Classification
There are several classifications for these fractures, but one of the most commonly used is
the AO/ASIF classification. Mller et al. in
1991 updated the classification of these fractures and divided them into three groups [3]
(Fig. 1.3):
J. Fernandez-Gonzalez et al.
A: Extra-articular fractures
B: Unicondylar fractures
C: Bicondylar fractures.
In turn, these were divided into: A: A1, A2,
and A3
A1: Simple Fracture
A2: Supracondylar fracture into two parts
A3: Comminuted supracondylar fracture.
B: B1, B2, and B3
B1: Fracture of the lateral condyle in the
sagittal plane
B2: Fracture of the medial condyle in the
sagittal plane
B3: Fracture of the lateral or medial condyle
in the coronal plane.
C: C1, C2, and C3
C1: Not comminuted supracondylar fracture
with intercondylar extension (T or Y)
C2: Comminuted supracondylar fracture with
intercondylar extension (T or Y)
C3: Comminuted supracondylar fractures with
comminution into the intercondylar fracture.
This classification tells the severity of the
fracture and the energy which caused it, both
factors increase from types A to C. The severity
also worsens from 1 to 3 adding prognostic
information.
1.4
Clinical Findings
1.5
Imaging
1.6
Treatment
J. Fernandez-Gonzalez et al.
1.6.1
Patient Positioning
and Approach
1.6.2
Locking Plates
They have a better biomechanical behavior
regarding the fixation of the distal fragment, and
hence on the stability. In patients with osteoporosis it is advisable to place a longer plate,
without placing all the screws on the diaphyseal
area [7]. This improves fixation of the bone and
bypassing the mid-diaphyseal area reduces the
likelihood of fractures in this area by a stress-riser
effect, recalling the normal anterior curvature of
the femur (Figs. 1.4 and 1.5). Plates are designed
to be placed percutaneously and achieve a sufficient length to avoid this potential danger.
J. Fernandez-Gonzalez et al.
1.7
1.6.3
These fractures are challenging both in osteoporotic bone and normal bone. These fractures
have common goals: first, reduction of the
intraarticular fracture, second, proper alignment
with the proximal fragment, and third, achieve
enough stability to allow early motion.
A special situation is unicondylar fractures,
which are rare, usually due to high energy.
Sometimes, they can be fixed percutaneously,
however, to achieve anatomic reduction, open
reduction is preferable to restore joint integrity.
Usually the fracture fixation with large fragment
cancellous screws is enough. Biomechanical
studies have shown that placing two large fragment screws is recommended [12]. Sometimes it
is necessary to place a plate or more screws when
there are more fragments within the fracture.
In supra-intercondylar fractures, after reducing the fragments that form the articular surface,
restoring the alignment of the distal femur in all
planes is necessary.
In osteoporotic bones, it is possible that there
is impaction of the joint surface, which is difficult to reduce, and 12 mm of articular surface
impaction is acceptable. Disimpaction, in order
to recover and maintain the curved form of the
articular surface is difficult. The decision will
depend on each patient to be treated. In these
cases, it is recommended a long locking plate
rather than an intramedullary nail [4].
The major problem of osteoporotic fractures
is loss of reduction of the distal fragment, even
though there is screw placement out of the plate
in some cases. Therefore, in cases where fracture
Periprosthetic Fractures
of the Distal Femur After Total
Knee Arthroplasty
J. Fernandez-Gonzalez et al.
10
Table 1.1 Rorabeck and Taylor classification of periprosthetic fractures of the distal femur [14]
Type I
Type II
Type III
Prosthesis loose
In a well fixed implant reduction and stabilization of the fracture should be done. The aim
will be to achieve fracture union, maintain limb
alignment, length, and rotation.
Fracture type and the medical conditions
determine whether fixation is done with a plate
or a retrograde intramedullary nail. This will
depend on the degree of osteoporosis, comminution of the fragments, the existence of areas of
osteolysis, the correct position of the implants,
and the presence or absence of a central stem.
Each fixation system has its own advantages and
disadvantages which are explained below.
When there are radiological signs of loosening of the femoral or tibial component, and if the
patients condition allow, a revision surgery in
recommended, with or without associated
fixation.
1.7.1
Treatment
Retrograde Intramedullary
Nailing
Retrograde intramedullary nailing has shown
good results in the treatment of comminuted
fractures (Fig. 1.6). Its main advantage is
avoidance of further injury to the soft tissue,
while providing sufficient stability. The approach
is conditioned by previous surgery and type of
existing implant. A posterior stabilized (PS)
implant will prevent access to the medullary
canal. It is indicated in fractures with a cruciateretaining (CR) implants which preserves the
PCL. Bone should be good enough to place two
Locking Plates
As with nails, femoral implant position will
determine the placement of the plate. Locking
screws provide high stability in the frontal plane.
Some of these plates have polyaxial holes for
screw placement which help to avoid the central
peg of the prosthesis, thus improving the fixation
of the distal fragment [13, 16]. The comminuted
metaphyseal area should be avoided to prevent
periosteal removal to preserve good irrigation
[11]. Plates have this advantage, they can be
placed percutaneously. However, the risk of
plates as mentioned above is the possibility of
malalignment, valgus positioning and hyperextension of the distal fragment [17], which can be
avoided with the aid of the C-arm in the operating room.
There are several studies that reported good
results, one of them observed only 5 % of failures, medical and orthopaedic complications
were infrequent and advise to maintain undisturbed the metaphyseal comminution to preserve
the vascularity of the fragments [18].
11
periprosthetic supracondylar femoral fracture. The periprosthetic fracture was treated with a retrograde intramedullary nail, resulting in bone consolidation with good
alignment of the supracondylar fracture (a, b)
Fig. 1.7 Female patient with many medical comorbidities. She fell down and suffered a supracondylar
periprosthetic femoral fracture. She walked with great
difficulty and need assistance by her family in the
activities of daily life. A retrograde intramedullary
nailing was performed. Good alignment was obtained
J. Fernandez-Gonzalez et al.
12
1.8
1.8.1
Infection
Infection is one of the most frequent complications. Predisposing factors are high-energy
fractures with comminution, open fractures,
open surgery with too aggressive periosteal
removal, and inadequate fracture stabilization.
Thus if there is an articular fracture, reduction
should be done and then alignment with the
proximal fragment avoiding excessive periosteal
stripping. Care should be taken regarding good
hemostasis of soft tissue.
Open fractures should be treated properly
from the beginning, following an established
protocol consisting of extensive irrigation fluid
and wound dbridement, adequate antibiotic
prophylaxis, and followed by temporary or permanent stabilization. Depending on the degree
of involvement of the soft tissues, using Tscherne and estern classification, a different
management will be necessary [19].
If an acute infection develops after fixation of
a fracture of the distal femur, the patient should
be taken to the operating room and extensive
irrigation and dbridement of the surgical wound
should be done. If the fixation is stable the
implant should stay in, whereas when the fixation is inadequate, the material should be
removed temporarily and a bridging external
fixator should be placed for stabilizing.
In subacute and chronic infections, extensive
dbridement of the surgical wound should be
done, hardware removal and temporary fixation
with an external fixator. Upon resolution of the
infection, a new fixation should be done if the
fracture has not united with the external fixator
in place.
1.8.2
Nonunion
1.8.3
Malunion
This complication is more common after conservative treatment than after surgery. Malunion
could be into varus or valgus in the coronal
plane, and shortening or rotational deformity.
After surgery, in supracondylar fractures with
comminution on the medial side, a malunion
into varus is frequent. To avoid malunion,
grafting on the medial side or intramedullary
nailing are management options.
It is common malalignment in periprosthetic
femoral fractures, in most cases due to an
incorrect position of the femoral component.
1.8.4
Fixation Failure
Factors involved
on the fragments
very osteoporotic
that prevents an
distal fragment
infection.
1.8.5
Knee Stiffness
1.9
Conclusions
13
References
1. Sorkin AT, Helfet DL (2001) Supracondylar and
distal femur fractures. In: Insall JN, Scott WN (eds)
Surgery of the knee, vol 2. Churchill Livingstone,
Philadelphia, pp 12391264
2. Schaldenmaier P, Partenhemer A, Koanemann B et al
(2001) Distal femoral fractures and LISS
stabilization. Injury 32:SC55SC63
3. Mller ME, Nazarian S, Koch P, Schatzker J (1990)
The comprehensive classification of fractures of long
bones. Springer, Berlin, pp 116147
4. Horwitz DS, Kubiak EN (2010) Surgical treatment of
osteoporotic fractures about the knee. In: O0 Connor
MI, Egol KA (eds) Instructional course lectures, vol
59. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons,
Rosemont, pp 511523
5. Zlowodzki M, Williamson S, Cole PA, Zardiackas
LD, Kregor PJ (2004) Biomechanical evaluation of
the less invasive stabilization system, angled blade
plate, and retrograde intramedullary nail for the
internal fixation of distal femur fractures. J Orthop
Trauma 18:494502
6. Krupp RJ, Malkani AL, Goodin RA, Voor MJ (2003)
Optimal entry point for retrograde femoral nailing.
J Orthop Trauma 17:100105
7. Sanders R, Haidukewych GJ, Milne T, Dennis J,
Latta LL (2002) Minimal versus maximal plate
fixation techniques of the ulna: the biomechanical
effect of number of screws and plate length. J Orthop
Trauma 16:166171
8. Smith TO, Hedges C, MacNair R, Schankat K,
Wimhurst JA (2009) The clinical and radiological
J. Fernandez-Gonzalez et al.
14
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.2.1
J. C. Rubio-Surez (&)
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, La Paz
University Hospital-IdiPaz, Paseo de la Castellana,
261, 28046, Madrid, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
Diagnosis
Physical Examination
15
J. C. Rubio-Suarez
16
2.3
Classification
2.3.1
Fig. 2.1 Anteroposterior (a) and lateral (b) X-ray
views of a tibial plateau fracture
2.2.2
Imaging
AO classification
2.3.2
Schatzker Classification
17
2.4.1
2.4
Treatment
Nonsurgical Treatment
J. C. Rubio-Suarez
18
2.4.2
Surgical Management
Time of Surgery
Isolated tibial plateau fractures, should be stabilized as soon as possible by means of open
reduction and internal fixation. Open fractures,
with compartment syndrome or vascular injury
must be treated immediately. However, patients
with multiple injuries, especially those with
head, thoracic, or abdominal injury, must be
stabilized provisionally using an external fixator
(damage control orthopedics) until the general
conditions improve (window of opportunity,
510 days after injury). On the other hand,
closed fractures with severe damage of soft
tissues should not be undergone to open reduction and internal fixation immediately [10]; in
such cases we must do a sequential treatment.
First, we stabilize the fracture provisionally by
means of an external fixator (Fig. 2.3). Once soft
tissues are improved, and not before 2 or 3
weeks, we change the external fixator with a
final internal fixation.
Definitive Treatment
Preoperative planning
Good preoperative planning helps the surgeon a
lot, as it shortens the surgical time, avoids
improvisation, and ensures the availability of the
necessary resources.
Surgical approaches
Spinal anesthesia is used unless contraindicated.
The patient should be on a radiolucent table in
supine position. A sterile tourniquet is preferable. Fractures of the lateral tuberosity are
approached across anterolateral incision. Medial
tuberosity fractures are approached through a
posteromedial incision. Both tuberosities fractures could be approached by means of an
anterior incision but this approach provides a
low vision of the fractures. Therefore, two
incisions, anterolateral and posteromedial are
recommended, especially in complex fractures
[11]. We must take special care to avoid skin
necrosis. Straight longitudinal incisions are recommended to avoid damage of the cutaneous
vasculature and lift big flaps must be avoided
[12] (Fig. 2.4).
19
Fig. 2.3 Tibial plateau fracture with severe soft tissue injury (a) managed by external fixator (b)
Fig. 2.4 Surgical approaches to proximal tibia. Skin marks: anterolateral (a); posteromedial (b)
20
J. C. Rubio-Suarez
ligaments, and neuro-vascular injuries associated with these fractures. Surgical treatment is
preferred in most cases which is carried out
through a medial approach. The medial incision
should be as posterior as possible in order to
reduce the posterior fragment. A buttress plate is
necessary to improve stability after open
reduction (Fig. 2.8).
Type IV
This fracture affects the medial condyle
(Fig. 2.7) and is often caused by high-energy
trauma. There is a high frequency of soft tissues,
Types V and VI
These fractures affect both lateral and medial
tibiae condyles (Fig. 2.9). They are produced by
high energy trauma and soft tissue damage is
highly frequent [17]. The preferred treatment of
these fractures is open reduction and internal
fixation through two approaches: anterolateral
and posteromedial. Anatomical reduction to
restore the joint surface and the limb alignment
21
22
Fig. 2.9 Schatzker VI
fracture; AP view (a);
lateral view (b)
J. C. Rubio-Suarez
Special Situations
Open fractures
Open fractures of the tibiae plateau are not frequent and are often accompanied by major trauma
in multiply injured patient. The management of
these fractures requires reflection, experience,
and prudence. Washing, wide dbridement, and
antibiotic coverage are key to the treatment of
these fractures. In level 1 trauma centers with
skilled surgeons they can be treated with immediate ORIF, whenever early soft tissue coverageis
performed. Hence trained plastic surgeons in this
kind of injury must be available. Otherwise, a
sequential treatment will be more prudent. At
first, washing, dbridement, and temporary
external fixation until the soft tissue has healed are
what we must do. The external fixator should
bridge the knee placing pins in distal femur and
tibial shaft applying the principle of ligamentotaxis. Once the soft tissue is healed (23 weeks)
external fixator is changed by internal fixation
according to the type of fracture.
23
Vascular injury
Fracture types Schatzker IV, V, and VI are put at
risk of injury to the popliteal artery and its three
branches. If we suspect arterial injury, arteriography or angio-CT should be done. Arterial injury
must be repaired as soon as possible; however, we
must first restore both the length and axis of the
limb and stabilize the fracture. To do that, we can
use an external fixator. The arterial repair is
usually done with by-pass using vein graft or
Teflon prosthesis. Finally, fasciotomy opening
the four compartments of the leg is mandatory.
Ligament injury
Ligament injuries are often associated to tibial
plateau fractures. It is estimated that the incidence of these injuries is between 30 and 56 %
of all cases [20]. However, many of them go
misdiagnosed. Medial ligament was injured in
20 %, lateral ligament in 3 %, and anterior
cruciate ligament in 10 % of cases [2]. We
should always take study using MRI to diagnose
these lesions.
Repair of these lesions should not be done
during the initial repair of the fracture. Conservative treatment is recommended at first. When
the instability is persistent surgical repair is
indicated once the fracture has healed and the
hardware has been removed.
2.4.3
Postoperative Treatment
J. C. Rubio-Suarez
24
Fig. 2.12 Skin necrosis after Schatzker V fracture treated with external fixator: lateral view (a); medial view (b)
Fig. 2.13 The same case as in (Fig. 2.12). Dbridement and coverage can be seen: medial view (a); lateral view (b)
2.5
Complications
2.5.1
Early Complications
Skin Necrosis
Due to soft tissues damage, especially in complex fractures (Schatzker V and VI), the cutaneous
circulation
may
be
disrupted.
Accordingly, skin necrosis can occur (Fig. 2.12).
Treatment of skin necrosis is wide dbridement and then, skin coverage with autologous
graft (Fig. 2.13).
Compartment Syndrome
It is a terrible complication that can lead to
severe damage and even limb amputation. It is
relatively common, appearing in 14.5 % of all
cases [22] (Fig. 2.14). Its prevalence increases to
18 % in type VI fractures and to 53 % in type IV
fractures [23]. However, it may go unnoticed
especially if we do not think of it, in patients
who have undergone high doses of analgesics or
patients in coma. Measuring the pressure of the
compartments can be useful for diagnosis but the
clinical scene is prevalent. The management
must be urgently by fascietomies of the four-leg
compartments (Fig. 2.15).
Infection
Damage in the soft tissues around the fracture or
inappropriate surgical approaches or both influence poor wound progress ending in deep
infection [24].
If that occurs, surgical management is mandatory. Wound dbridement, removing devitalized soft tissue, necrotic bone and irrigate
thoroughly with antiseptic solution. Stable
implants improving stability should not be
removed. If a primary close cannot be done, a
plastic coverage is indicated either by a pedicle
flap or free flap. Intravenous antibiotic treatment
is prescribed in each case depending on the
antibiogram. The duration is 36 weeks
(Fig. 2.16).
2.5.2
Late Complications
Nonunion
Nonunion in tibial plateau fractures is rare. It is
more frequent in type VI fractures in the metaphyseal-diaphyseal junction as a result of
mechanical instability, infection, or both [25].
Treatment is individualized. With no infection
25
Posttraumatic Osteoarthritis
Its frequency is high in these kinds of fractures
(Fig. 2.17). It can get 3040 % between the fifth
and the tenth years [26, 27].Factors triggering
posttraumatic osteoarthritis in the knee joint are
three: joint incongruence, ligament injury with
instability, and mechanical axis deviation.
Treatment decision is conditioned by the patient
age and location and severity of the osteoarthritis. In young patients with little affectation of
one compartment and mechanical axis deviation,
a corrective osteotomy can be indicated. By
contrast, in elderly patients and/or severe affectation of two or three compartments, total knee
replacement is indicated.
2.6
Conclusions
26
Fig. 2.16 Deep infection
with hardware exposure
(a); view after soft-tissue
coverage (b)
J. C. Rubio-Suarez
References
1. Hohl M, Part I (1991) Fractures of the proximal tibia
and fibula. In: Rockwood C, Green D, Bucholz R
(eds) Fractures in adults, 3rd edn. JB Lippincott,
Philadelphia, pp 17251761
2. Bennet WF, Browner B (1994) Tibial plateau
fractures: a study of associated soft-tissue injuries.
J Orthop Trauma 1994:183188
3. Honkonen SE (1994) Indications for surgical
treatment of tibial condyle fractures. Clin Orthop
Relat Res May 302:199205
4. Chan PS, Klimkiewicz JJ, Luchetti WT et al (1997)
Impact of CT scan on treatment plan and fracture
classification of tibial plateau fractures. J Orthop
Trauma 11:484489
5. Kode L, Lieberman JM, Motta AO et al (1994)
Evaluation of tibial plateau fractures: efficacy of MR
imaging compared with CT. Am J Roentgenol
163:141147
6. Schatzker J (1987) Fractures of the tibial plateau. In:
Schatzker J, Tile M (eds) Rationale of operative
fracture care. Springer, New-York, p 279
27
7. Schatzker J (1993) Tibial plateau fractures. In:
Bawner BD, Jupiter JB, Levine AM et al (eds)
Skeletal Trauma. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, p 1745
8. Mitchell N, Shepard N (1980) Healing of articular
cartilage in intraarticular fractures in rabbits. J Bone
Joint Surg Am 62:628634
9. Brown TD, Anderson DD, Nepola JV et al (1988)
Contact stress aberrations following imprecise
reduction of simple tibial plateau fracture. J Orthop
Res 6:851862
10. Tcherne H, Lobenhoffer P (1993) Tibial plateau
fractures: management and expected results. Clin
Orthop Relat Res 292:87100
11. Watson JT, Coufal C (1998) Treatment of complex
lateral plateau fractures using Ilizarov techniques.
Clin Orthop Relat Res 353:97106
12. Benirschke SK, Agnew SG, Mayo KA et al (1992)
Inmediate external fixation of open complex tibial
plateau fractures: treatment by a standard protocol.
J Orthop Trauma 6:7886
13. Waddell JP, Johnston DW, Neidre A (1981)
Fractures of the tibial plateau: a review of 95
patients and comparison of treatment methods.
J Trauma 21:376381
14. Harper MC, Henstorf JE, Vessely MB (1995) Closed
reductions and percutaneous stabilization of tibial
plateau fractures. Orthopaedics 18:623626
15. ItokazuM Matsunaga T, Ishii M et al (1996) Use of
arthroscopy and interporous hydroxyapatite as a bone
graft substitute in tibial plateau fractures: hydroxyapatite grafts. Arch Orthop TraumaSug 115:4556
16. Itokazu M, Matsunaga T (1993) Arthroscopic
restoration of depressed tibial plateau fractures
using bone and hydroxyapatite grafts. Arthroscopy
9:103108
17. Weiner LS, Kelley M, Yang E et al (1995) The use of
combination internal fixation and hybrid external
fixation in severe proximal tibial fractures. J Orthop
Trauma 9:244250
18. Marsh JL, Smith ST, Do TT (1995) External fixation
and limited internal fixation for complex fractures of
the tibial plateau. J Bone Joint Surg Am 77:661673
19. Mikulak SA, Gold SM, Zinar DM (1998) Small wire
external fixation of high energytibial plateau
fractures. Clin Orthop Relat Res 356:230238
20. Yong MJ, Barrack RL (1994) Complications of
internal fixation of tibial plateau fractures. Orthop
Rev 23:149154
21. Segal D, Mallik AR, Wetzler MJ (1993) Early weight
bearing of lateral tibial plateau fractures. Clin Orthop
Relat Res 294:232237
22. Barei DP, Nork SE, Mills WJ (2004) Complications
associated with internal fixation of high-energy
bicondylar tibial plateau fractures utilizing a twoincision technique. J Orthop Trauma 18:649657
23. Stark EJ, Stucken C, Trainer G (2009) Compartment
syndrome in Schatzker type VI plateau fractures and
medial condylar fracture-dislocations treated with
temporary external fixation. J Orthop Trauma
23:502506
28
24. Mallik AR, Covall DJ, Whitelaw GP (1992) Internal
versus external fixation of bicondylar tibial plateau
fractures. Orthop Rev 21:14331436
25. Buckle R, Blake R, Watson JT et al (1993) Treatment
of complex tibial plateau fractures with the Ilizarov
external fixator. J Orthop Trauma 7:167
J. C. Rubio-Suarez
26. Honkonen SE (1995) Degenerative arthritis after
tibial plateau fractures. J Orthop Trauma 9:273277
27. Rademakers MV, Kerkhoffs GM, Sierevelt IN (2007)
Operative treatment of 109 tibial plateau fractures:
527 year follow-up results. J Orthop Trauma
21:510
Patellar Fractures
Juan Sebastian Ruiz-Perez, Angel Martnez-Lloreda
and E. Carlos Rodrguez-Merchan
3.1
Introduction
3.2
29
J. S. Ruiz-Perez et al.
30
3.3
Mechanism of Injury
3.4
Clinical Presentation
and Physical Examination
3.5
Radiographic Evaluation
3.6
Classification
Patellar Fractures
31
Fig. 3.1 Standard AP (a) and lateral (b) views of a transverse patellar fracture. (c) Skyline view of a vertical patellar
fracture
or quadriceps tendon. Attending to displacement, patellar fractures may be classified as nondisplaced or displaced (step-off [ 23 mm and
fracture gap [ 14 mm). Classification often
predicts treatment. The Orthopaedic Trauma
Association (OTA/AO) classification is based on
degree of articular involvement and number of
fracture fragments [6].
3.7
Management
3.7.1
Conservative Treatment
3.7.2
In fractures with mnimum articular displacement (step-off and/or fracture displacement \ 23 mm and \14 mm, respectively) and
intact extensor mechanism may be an attempt of
nonsurgical treatment. It is recommended a
weight-bearing period with the knee in full
extension immobilized with a Bhler cylindrical
plaster or locked brace during 46 weeks.
Isometric quadriceps exercise and straight leg
raises are begun when pain has subsided.
Surgical Treatment
32
J. S. Ruiz-Perez et al.
Tension-Band Wiring
Currently, the most widely accepted surgical
technique for transverse patella fractures is open
reduction and internal fixation with a modified
AO tension band. This technique was introduced
in the 1950s. Several studies [2] demonstrated
the superiority of this technique compared with
other fixation methods. Since then, multiple
variations on the technique have been described.
However, postoperative complications are common with this method, including loss of motion,
malunion, and symptomatic hardware [10].
The preferred approach to these fractures
should be a longitudinal midline incision over the
patella avoiding circumferential dissection of
subcutaneous and fascia tissue. Nevertheless for
transverse fractures two flaps, lateral and medial,
may allow access to retinacular tears. Several
different incisions have been described. Gardner
et al. [11] advocated lateral parapatellar arthrotomy for direct visual reduction of comminuted
fractures allowing for direct application of
instrumentation to the bony surfaces, without
soft-tissue interposition. Transverse approaches
should not be used.
Currently, tension-band wiring remains the
most commonly used technique for the management of patellar fracture. This technique
Patellar Fractures
33
3.7.3
Alternative Treatments
34
J. S. Ruiz-Perez et al.
Patellar Fractures
35
Total Patellectomy
Indications for total patellectomy have diminished. Total patellectomy may result in a [49 %
reduction in quadriceps strength so every
attempt should be made to retain bone stock.
This technique should only be performed in
extreme cases such infection, open fractures,
tumors, patellofemoral arthritis, or previous
failed fixation. Advancing the vastus medialis
obliquus muscle may increase strength and
outcomes of total patellectomy.
3.8
Rehabilitation
No data exist on outcomes for specific postoperative protocols, but in our experience we
strongly recommend early rehabilitation protocol after and initial period of non weight-bearing
with a circular cast in full extension for the first
2 weeks. Then isometric quadriceps exercises
are allowed with partial weight-bearing assisted
with crutches for the next 46 weeks. At this
moment passive and active motion of the knee is
started. Return to intense physical activity is
usually delayed until the third postoperative
month. If tenuous internal fixation or partial
patellectomy is performed standard in mobilization should be maintained until 6 weeks.
3.9
Complications
J. S. Ruiz-Perez et al.
36
Table 3.1 Complications of surgical treatment of
patellar fractures
Infection
11 %
Fixation failure
22 %
Symptomatic hardware
2060 %
Non-union
2.712.5 %
3.10
Conclusions
References
1. Weber MJ, Janecki CJ, McLeod P, Nelson CL,
Thompson JA (1980) Efficacy of various forms of
fixation of transverse fractures of the patella. J Bone
Joint Surg Am 62:215220
2. Hung LK, Chan KM, Chow YN, Leung PC (1985)
Fractured patella: operative treatment using the
tension band principle. Injury 16:343347
3. Nummi J (1971) Operative treatment of patellar
fractures. Acta Orthop Scand 42:437438
4. Green WT Jr (1975) Painful bipartite patella: a report
of three cases. Clin Orthop Relat Res 110:197200
5. Kaufer H (1971) Mechanical function of the patella.
J Bone Joint Surg Am 53:15511560
6. Marsh JL, Slongo TF, Agel J, Broderick JS, Creevey
W, DeCoster TA, Prokuski L, Sirkin MS, Ziran B,
Henley B, Audig L (2007) Fracture and dislocation
classification
compendium-2007:
Orthopaedic
Trauma Association classification, database and
outcomes committee. J Orthop Trauma 21(10
Suppl):S1S133
7. Bostrm A (1972) Fracture of the patella: a study of
422 patellar fractures. Acta Orthop Scand Suppl
143:180
8. Braun W, Wiedemann M, Rter A, Kundel K,
Kolbinger S (1993) Indications and results of
nonoperative treatment of patellar fractures. Clin
Orthop Relat Res 289:197201
9. Pritchett JW (1997) Nonoperative treatment of
widely displaced patella fractures. Am J Knee Surg
10:145147
10. Smith ST, Cramer KE, Karges DE, Watson JT, Moed
BR (1997) Early complications in the operative
treatment of patella fractures. J Orthop Trauma
11:183187
11. Gardner MJ, Griffith MH, Lawrence BD, Lorich DG
(2005) Complete exposure of the articular surface for
fixation of patellar fractures. J Orthop Trauma
19:118123
12. Lefaivre KA, OBrien PJ, Broekhuyse HM, Guy P,
Blachut PA (2010) Modified tension band technique
for patella fractures. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res
96:579582
Patellar Fractures
37
26. Luna-Pizarro D, Amato D, Arellano F, Hernndez A,
Lpez-Rojas P (2006) Comparison of a technique
using a new percutaneous osteosynthesis device with
conventional open surgery for displaced patella
fractures in a randomized controlled trial. J Orthop
Trauma 20:529535
27. Mao N, Ni H, Ding W, Zhu X, Bai Y, Wang C, Zhao
Y, Shi Z, Li M, Zhang Q (2012) Surgical treatment
of transverse patella fractures by the cable pin system
with animally invasive technique. J Trauma Acute
Care Surg 72:10561061
28. El-Sayed AM, Ragab RK (2009) Arthroscopicassisted reduction and stabilization of transverse
fractures of the patella. Knee 16:5457
29. Anand S, Hahnel JC, Giannoudis PV (2008) Open
patellar fractures: high energy injuries with a poor
outcome? Injury 39:480484
30. Catalano JB, Iannacone WM, Marczyk S et al (1995)
Open fractures of the patella: long-term functional
outcome. J Trauma 39:439444
31. Wardak MI, Siawash AR, Hayda R (2012) Fixation
of patella fractures with a minimally invasive
tensioned wire method: compressive external
fixation. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 72:13931398
32. Saltzman CL, Goulet JA, McClellan RT, Schneider
LA, Matthews LS (1990) Results of treatment of
displaced patellar fractures by partial patellectomy.
J Bone Joint Surg Am 72:12791285
33. Yang KH, Byun YS (2003) Separate vertical wiring
for the fixation of comminuted fractures of the
inferior pole of the patella. J Bone Joint Surg Br
85:11551160
34. Matejcic A, Puljiz Z, Elabjer E, Bekavac- Beslin M,
Ledinsky M (2008) Multifragment fracture of the
patellar apex: Basket plate osteosynthesis compared
with partial patellectomy. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg
128:403408
35. Miller MA, Liu W, Zurakowski D, Smith RM, Harris
MB, Vrahas MS (2010) Factors predicting failure of
patella fixation. J Trauma Acute Care Surg
72:10511055
36. Klassen JF, Trousdale RT (1997) Treatment of
delayed and nonunion of the patella. J Orthop
Trauma 11:188194
37. Nathan ST, Fisher BE, Roberts CS, Giannoudis PV
(2011) The management of nonunion and delayed
union of patella fractures: a systematic review of the
literature. Int Orthop 35:791795
Patellar Dislocations
and Osteochondral Fractures
Eduardo Garca-Rey
4.1
Introduction
Acute patellar dislocations are a common problem for the orthopaedic surgeon that can lead to
recurrent instability and chronic anterior knee
pain in young patients [1]. This is an important
topic due to several reasons. The incidence is
quite high particularly in teenagers and,
although early management used to be conservative, surgical treatment may be necessary for
many of them [2]. The rate of redislocation is
also higher in younger patients and the associated pathological findings are very frequent
(Fig. 4.1). When a patient presents this injury,
the surgeon must carefully evaluate all conditions around the knee in order to offer the best
solution.
4.2
Primary Dislocation
of the Patella
E. Garca-Rey (&)
Department of Orthopedic Surgery, La Paz
University Hospital-Idipaz,
Paseo de la Castellana 261, 28046, Madrid, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
39
40
Fig. 4.1 Examination of the knee of a 14-year-oldfemale patient who suffered a second episode of patellar
dislocation
ligament (MPFL), the superficial medial retinaculum and the medial patellotibial ligament
(Fig. 4.1). Half of the total forces that are necessary to dislocate the patella are provided by
the MPFL, this contribution is particularly high
when the knee is extended [4]. It is also well
known that vastus medialis muscle acts like a
secondary stabiliser, and inefficient when is
relaxed [5]. Waligora et al. described that MPFL
does not always exits and runs between the
medial femoral condyle and the superolateral
corner of the patella, is usually very wide and
has an extensive connection to the vastus
medialis [6]. Nomura classified the pathology of
this lesion as an avulsion-tear type, from the
distal medial femoral attachment, or intrasubstantial-tear for acute dislocations [7].
The type of immobilization may vary from a
bandage, posterior splint or a cast, as well as the
time, from 3 to 6 weeks. The posterior splint
during 6 weeks seems to allow an adequate
E. Garca-Rey
41
Table 4.1 Recent literature for conservative versus surgical treatment of primary patellar dislocation
Type of
study
Number
operative/
nonoperative
Mean
age
Follow-up
mean years
(range)
Redislocation rate
(operative/
conservative) (%)
Observations
Nikku et al.
[10]
Prospective
randomised
70/57
20
7 (69)
31/39
Female,
associated
factors
Christiansen
et al. [11]
Prospective
randomised
80
20
17/20
Similar clinical
outcome
Sillanp
et al. [12]
Prospective
nonrandomised
30/46
20
19/23
Operative better
preinjury level
Sillanp
et al. [13]
Prospective
randomised
18/22
20
0/28.5
Similar clinical
outcome
Palmu et al.
[14]
Prospective
randomised
36/28
16
14
67/71
Good clinical
outcome in both
groups
42
E. Garca-Rey
43
4.3
4.4
Osteochondral Fractures
Osteochondral fractures associated with dislocation of the patella are relatively frequent in
adolescents: around one third of the patients
Conclusions
44
References
1. Hawkins RJ, Bell RH, Anisette G (1986) Acute
patellar dislocations: the natural history. Am J Sports
Med 14:117120
2. Stefancin JJ, Parker RD (2007) First-time traumatic
patellar dislocations: a systematic review. Clin
Orthop Relat Res 455:93101
3. Wiberg G (1941) Roentgenographic and anatomic
studies on the femoro-patellar joint. Acta Orthop
Scand 12:319410
4. Hautamaa PV, Fithian DC, Kaufman KR, Daniel
DM, Pohlmeyer AM (1998) Medial soft tissue
restraints in lateral patellar instability and repair.
Clin Orthop Relat Res 349:174182
5. Arnbjornsson A, Egund N, Rydling O, Stockerup R,
Ryd L (1992) The natural history of recurrent
dislocation of the patella: long-term results of
conservative and operative treatment. J Bone Joint
Surg Br 74:140142
6. Waligora AC, Johanson NA, Hirsch BE (2009)
Clinical anatomy of the quadriceps femoris and
extensor apparatus of the knee. Clin Orthop Relat
Res 467:32973306
7. Nomura E (1999) Classification of lesions of the
medial patello-femoral ligament in patellar
dislocation. Int Orthop 23:260263
8. Maempaa H, Lehto MU (1997) Patellar dislocation.
The long-term results of nonoperative management
in 100 patients. Am J Sports Med 25:213217
E. Garca-Rey
9. Monk AP, Doll HA, Gibbons CL, Ostlere S, Beard
DJ, Gill HS, Murray DW (2011) The patho-anatomy
of patellofemoral subluxation. J Bone Joint Surg Br
93:13411347
10. Nikku R, Nietosvaara Y, Aalto K, Kallio PE (2005)
Operative treatment of primary patellar dislocation
does not improve medium-term outcome. A 7-year
follow-up report and risk analysis of 127 randomized
patients. Acta Orthop 76:699704
11. Christiansen SE, Jakobsen BW, Lund B, Lind M
(2008) Isolated repair of the medial patellofemoral
ligament in primary dislocation of the patella: a
prospective
randomized
study.
Arthroscopy
24:881887
12. Sillanp PJ, Menp HM, Mattila VM, Visuri T,
Pihlajamki H (2008) Arthroscopy surgery for
primary
traumatic
patellar
dislocation:
a
prospective, nonrandomized study comparing
patients treated with and without acute arthroscopic
stabilization with a median 7-year follow-up. Am J
Sports Med 36:23012309
13. Sillanp PJ, Mattila VM, Menp HM, Kiuru M,
Visuri T, Pihlajamki H (2009) Treatment with and
without initial stabilizing surgery for primary
traumatic patellar dislocation. A prospective,
randomized study. J Bone Joint Surg Am 91:263273
14. Palmu S, Kallio PE, Donell ST, Helenius I,
Nietosvaara Y (2008) Acute patellar dislocation in
children and adolescents: a randomized clinical trial.
J Bone Joint Surg Am 90:463470
15. Aglietti P, Insall J, Cerulli G (1983) Patellar pain and
incongruence I. Measurements of incongruence. Clin
Orthop Relat Res 176:217221
16. Howells NR, Barnett AJ, Ahearn N, Ansari A,
Eldrige JD (2012) Medial patellofemoral ligament
reconstruction. J Bone Joint Surg Br 94:12021208
17. Nietosvaara Y, Aalto K, Kallio PE (1994) Acute
patellar dislocation in children: incidence and
associated osteochondral fractures. J Pediatr Orthop
14:513515
18. Rorabeck CH, Bobechko WP (1976) Acute
dislocation of the patella with osteochondral
fracture. Review of 18 cases. J Bone Joint Surg Br
58:237240
19. Bowers AL, Huffman GR (2008) Suture bridge
fixation of a femoral condyle traumatic
osteochondral defect. Clin Orthop Relat Res
466:22762281
5.1
Introduction
Traumatic knee dislocation (TKD) is an infrequent injury accounting for around 0.02 % of all
the injuries to the musculoskeletal system [13]
(Fig. 5.1). Misguided treatment of TKD is
associated with serious consequences, especially
in the presence of a vascular lesion (popliteal
artery). This is the reason why, in spite of the
low incidence of TKD, it is crucial to possess a
clear understanding of the basic principles that
should guide its treatment. TKD often damages
most of the knee stabilizing tissues, which usually results in multi-directional knee joint
instability. Although some dislocations affect
only the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) or the
posterior cruciate ligament (PCL), in most cases
both ligaments are torn. Associated injury to the
medial or lateral collateral ligaments (MCL or
LCL), the menisci, articular cartilage, or nerve
structures (peroneal nerve) may further complicate treatment of TKD.
5.2
Classification
45
E. C. Rodrguez-Merchan et al.
46
5.3
Assessment
47
5.4
E. C. Rodrguez-Merchan et al.
48
5.5
Initial Treatment
imaging study (radiographs, MRI) and a comprehensive preoperative plan can be carried out.
5.6
Final Treatment
5.6.1
Nonsurgical Treatment
Although much used in the past, closed reduction and cast immobilization is only indicated at
present in elderly or sedentary patients, or in
those in extremely poor health. Patients initially
treated non-surgically often require subsequent
operations to resolve sequelae such as loss of
range of motion and persistent instability. Poor
results of conservative treatment of TKD are the
norm.
Conservative treatment requires 6 weeks of
knee immobilization in extension. Immobilization may be achieved by means of a plaster cast, a
brace, external fixators, or transarticular Steinmann pins. In case of vascular repair, no casts or
braces should be used to avoid circumferential
pressures on the limb. An external fixator may
49
5.6.2
Surgical Treatment
50
E. C. Rodrguez-Merchan et al.
Fig. 5.5 View of the Achilles tendon allograft (a) before being divided into the two allografts (b) used to reconstruct
the ACL and LCL (same patient as in Figs. 5.3 and 5.4)
room time and the number and length of incisions needed in the injured knee. Use of allografts also reduces ischemia time and
postoperative pain and stiffness. The disadvantages of allografts with respect to autografts
51
E. C. Rodrguez-Merchan et al.
52
5.7
Residual Dislocation
Residual dislocation is a rare complication following surgery for TKD as patients are usually
subjected to very strict follow-up protocols [23].
Two options are available to subjects who
develop this complication: ligament reconstruction and total knee arthroplasty (TKA).
The authors have treated a woman who sustained a posterolateral TKD after being hit by a
car. She was taken care of first by the intensive
care unit, where she was diagnosed with pulmonary contusion, fracture of the nasal bones, and
right-sided renal contusion. As she also exhibited
an evident deformity in her left knee, she was
referred to the orthopedic trauma department.
Physical examination demonstrated an evident valgus deformity in the left knee with
posterior tibial displacement, suggesting a
diagnosis of TKD. Distal vascular and nerve
function were normal. The initial diagnosis of
dislocation of the knee was confirmed by means
of plain films. The dislocation was reduced
under sedation and X-ray control, and the patient
was immobilized with a long leg posterior splint
to prevent the development of compartment
syndrome. A follow-up X-ray exam carried out
5 days later revealed subluxation of the knee,
which prompted the performance of an open
reduction procedure with subsequent immobilization by external fixation. The surgical procedure revealed soft tissue entrapment in the
lateral compartment, injury to both cruciate
ligaments, detachment of the medial meniscus,
which was reattached, and distension of both
collateral ligaments. The results of successive
follow-up exams being positive, the external
fixator was removed at 2 weeks from surgery.
The patient failed to keep her appointments for
secondary ligament reconstruction.
Six years later, the patient presented again
with functional inability to walk and disabling
pain. Physical exploration revealed a deformed
knee with frank anterior/posterior instability.
The Lachman, pivot shift, and anterior and
posterior drawer tests were all positive, as were
varus and valgus stress tests at 0 and 30. Lateral
patellar dislocation was also identified. Radiographs confirmed the presence of chronic lateral
subluxation of the knee, with concomitant lateral
patellar dislocation and severe degenerative
changes in all three compartments (Fig. 5.7).
MRI demonstrated the absence of both cruciate
ligaments, attenuation of the medial and lateral
collateral ligaments, and serious degenerative
changes compounded by a 14 mm bone defect in
the medial portion of the tibia (Fig. 5.7).
In the face of this situation, implantation of a
constrained TKR (CCK, Constrained Condylar
Knee) in the left knee was decided. A medial
parapatellar arthrotomy was performed with a
straight midline incision. In order to facilitate
range of motion and reduce the dislocation, an
extensive release was carried out of both the
medial and the lateral compartments as well as a
resection of osteophytes and fibrous remnants
from both cruciate ligaments. A tibial bone
defect was identified that had been caused by
impaction of the medial condyle. The posterior
capsule was carefully detached from its insertion
in the distal femur. On realizing that the CCK
prosthesis was not providing enough stability, a
rotating-hinge prosthesis (Waldemar LinkR) was
implanted, with a 14 mm tibial extension stem.
In order to correct the lateral patellar dislocation,
it was necessary to recenter the patella by means
of the Insall technique. Flexion of 100 was
53
E. C. Rodrguez-Merchan et al.
54
Fig. 5.8 Postoperative
anteroposterior (a) and
lateral (b) views of the
same patient as in Fig. 5.7
showing the implanted
rotating-hinge prosthesis
5.8
Evidence-Based Medicine
One-third of TKDs that present at the Emergency Department are unreduced [32]. Approximately 25 % of TKD cases exhibit normal bone
alignment on radiographic examination. In
55
addition, one-third of TKDs are not even suspected when an MRI is requested. It should be
remembered that one, two, three, or all four
ligaments of the knee (MCL, LCL, ACL, and
PCL) may be ruptured. It is essential that TKD
should be detected as soon as possible.
As regard the management of TKD, it has been
shown that surgical treatment provides better
functional results, greater stability, and is associated with a lower risk of developing joint stiffness than non-surgical treatment. It is important
to reconstruct the posteromedial and posterolateral corners (with allografts). Early or acute (at
3 weeks from injury) suturing of the damaged
ligaments has been associated with a lower failure
rate (016 %) than late (chronic) repair, whose
failure rate stands between 29 and 66 %. With
respect to reconstruction, the so-called acute
reconstruction (at 3 weeks) provides better
results than chronic reconstruction. Reconstruction of the injured ligaments is associated with a
failure rate of 2 %, whereas repair of those ligaments fails in 17 % of cases [32].
5.9
Conclusions
TKD is a relatively infrequent injury. Nonetheless, taking into account its seriousness and the
severe complications it could cause, it is essential to diagnose and treat it as early as possible.
Diagnosis should include an adequate clinical
history, a comprehensive examination of both
the ligaments, and the neurovascular structures
56
References
1. Montgomery JB (1987) Dislocation of the knee.
Orthop Clin North Am 18:149156
2. Good L, Johnson RJ (1995) The dislocated knee.
J Am Acad Orthop Surg 3:284292
3. Brautigan B, Johnson DL (2000) The epidemiology
of knee dislocations. Clin Sports Med 19:387397
4. Walker DN, Rogers W, Schenck RC Jr (1994)
Immediate vascular and ligamentous repair in a
closed knee dislocation: case report. J Trauma
36:898900
5. Tsiagadigui JG, Sabri F, Sintzoff S, Schuind F (1997)
Magnetic resonance imaging for irreducible
posterolateral knee dislocation. J Orthop Trauma
11:457460
E. C. Rodrguez-Merchan et al.
6. Cole BJ, Harner CD (1999) The multiple ligament
injured knee. Clin Sports Med 18:241262
7. Stayner LR, Coen MJ (2000) Historic perspectives of
treatment algorithms in knee dislocation. Clin Sports
Med 19:399413
8. Wascher DC (2000) High-velocity knee dislocation
with vascular injury treatment principles. Clin Sports
Med 19:457477
9. Rihn JA, Groff YJ, Harner CD, Cha PS (2004) The
acutely dislocated knee: evaluation and management.
J Am Acad Orthop Surg 12:334346
10. Klineberg EO, Crites BM, Flinn WR, Archibald JD,
Moorman CT 3rd (2004) The role of arteriography in
assessing popliteal artery injury in knee dislocations.
J Trauma 56:786790
11. Giannoulias CS, Freedman KB (2004) Knee
dislocations: management of the multiligamentinjured knee. Am J Orthop 33:553559
12. Kurtz CA, Sekiya JK (2005) Treatment of acute and
chronic anterior cruciate ligament-posterior cruciate
ligament-lateral side knee injuries. J Knee Surg
18:228239
13. Cummings JR, Pedowitz RA (2005) Knee instability:
the orthopaedic approach. Semin Musculoskelet
Radiol 9:516
14. Helgeson MD, Lehman RA Jr, Murphy KP (2005)
Initial evaluation of the acute and chronic multiple
ligament injured knee. J Knee Surg 18:213219
15. Tzurbakis M, Diamantopoulos A, Xenakis T,
Georgoulis A (2006) Surgical treatment of multiple
knee ligament injuries in 44 patients: 28 years
follow-up results. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol
Arthrosc 14:739749
16. Robertson A, Nutton RW, Keating JF (2006)
Dislocation of the knee. J Bone Joint Surg Br
88:706711
17. Shelbourne KD, Haro MS, Gray T (2007) Knee
dislocation with lateral side injury: results of an en
masse surgical repair technique of the lateral side.
Am J Sports Med 35:11051117
18. Patterson BM, Agel J, Swiontkowski MF, Mackenzie
EJ, Bosse MJ LEAP Study Group (2007) Knee
dislocations with vascular injury: outcomes in the
Lower Extremity Assessment Project (LEAP) study.
J Trauma 63:855858
19. Stefancin JJ, Parker RD (2007) First-time traumatic
patellar dislocation: a systematic review. Clin Orthop
Relat Res 455:93101
20. Bin SI, Nam TS (2007) Surgical outcome of 2-stage
management of multiple knee ligament injuries after
knee dislocation. Arthroscopy 23:10661072
21. Ricchetti ET, Sennett BJ, Huffman GR (2008) Acute
and chronic management of posterolateral corner
injuries of the knee. Orthopedics 31:479488
22. Seroyer ST, Musahl V, Harner CD (2008)
Management of the acute knee dislocation: the
Pittsburgh experience. Injury 39:710718
23. Petrie RS, Trousdale RT, Cabanela ME (2000) Total
knee arthroplasty for chronic posterior knee
24.
25.
26.
27.
57
28. Karataglis D, Bisbinas I, Green MA, Learmonth DJ
(2006) Functional outcome following reconstruction
in chronic multiple ligament deficient knees. Knee
Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 14:843847
29. Chen H-C, Chiu F-Y (2007) Chronic knee
dislocation treated with arthroplasty. Injury Extra
38:258261
30. Parsley BS, Sugano N, Bertolusso R, Conditt MA
(2003) Mechanical alignment of tibial stems in
revision total knee arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty
18:3336
31. McAuley JP, Engh GA (2003) Constraint in total
knee arthoplasty: when and what? J Arthroplasty
18:592599
32. Stannard JP, Hammond A (2012) Knee dislocations.
In: Bhandari M (ed) Evidence-based Orthopedics.
Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, pp 527553
Floating Knee
Fernando Onorbe-San Francisco
and E. Carlos Rodrguez-Merchan
6.1
Introduction
6.2
Classification
The classification of floating knee can be complicated, as reflected by the abundance of classifications proposed for such a not very frequent
type of injury. The fact that classification is
required of the fractures of two different bones,
each of which may possess very distinct characteristics (one open and the other closed, one of
an articular nature and the other diaphyseal) is
what makes classification consensus difficult.
Blake and McBryde proposed a classification
system based on joint involvement of the fractures [1]. In this context, type I fractures or true
floating knee correspond to those cases in
which neither fracture presents joint involvement at knee level. In turn, type II fractures or
false floating knee correspond to those cases
59
60
TypeI
TypeIIA
TypeIIB
TypeIIC
Floating Knee
61
OR
Type B
Type A
Metaphyseal and
diaphyseal closed
Diaphyseal closed
OR
Type C
Epiphyseal and
diaphyseal closed
OPEN
OPEN
Type D
Both fractures open
Type D
One fracture open
OPEN
62
closed; type C fractures correspond to diaphyseal fracture of one bone and epiphyseal fracture
of the other, both closed also; type D fracture is
characterized by open fracture of one of the two
bones; and type E fractures involve open fractures of both bones, regardless of their location.
In 1991, Bohn and Durbin, in a review of
pediatric patients, used a classification similar to
that of Fraser et al. in adults, but obviating the
presence of open or closed fractures. As a result,
only three types of fractures were considered [6]:
type I (diaphyseal fractures), type II (at least one
juxta-articular fracture), and type III (at least one
epiphysiolysis).
Lastly, Arslan et al. modified the classification of Bohn, leaving fracture types I and II
without changes [7]. Type III fractures were
subdivided into type IIIa (involving a single
physeal lesion) and type IIIb (with epiphysiolysis of both bones). These authors in turn introduced type IV fractures, including bifocal
fractures of at least one of the two bones.
6.3
Associated Injuries
Floating Knee
63
6.4
Evaluation
6.5
Prognostic Factors
64
6.6
Treatment
6.6.1
Timing of Treatment
6.6.2
Conservative Treatment
6.6.3
Surgical Treatment
As we have mentioned, the currently recommended treatment for floating knee is surgical
fixation of both fractures. It has been shown in
both adults [9, 17] and in children [18] that
although these initially are more serious cases,
surgery of both fractures results in a better outcome, with fewer complications and reoperations (without counting removal of the
osteosynthesis material), a shorter hospital stay,
and a faster return to normal activity.
Floating Knee
65
6.6.4
Treatment of Pediatric
Floating Knee
66
6.7
Results
Floating Knee
6.8
Complications
67
major surgery is needed in the form of operations for infection or nonunions, for example,
and which may imply the need for flaps, revascularization, grafting, and the replacement of
osteosynthesis material.
Adamson et al. reported a 32 % infection rate
in their series of 34 patients [10]. In the 11 cases
of infection, the results were poor in 10 and
acceptable in a single case, with the performance
of three amputations. The amputation rate has
been as high as 24 % in the series published by
Paul et al. [8]. Most amputations are the result of
catastrophic trauma with severe open fractures
often associated to arterial damage.
Complications such as delayed union, nonunion, malunion, and joint stiffness are more
frequent in patients with fractures of this kind
than in individuals with isolated femoral or tibial
fractures. Prolonged hospital stay is common,
with a high risk of permanent disability and a
high economic cost for society.
The infection rates vary greatly from one
series to another. Fraser et al. reported a 30 %
infection ratethis being the highest rate in all
the known series to date [4]. Kao et al. in turn
reported an infection rate of 20.8 % [2], while
other authors have published figures of between
7 and 10 % [9, 24].
Pediatric patients in turn are characterized by
a specific series of complications such as length
discrepancies or genu valgum. Approximately
one-third of all patients can present limb length
discrepancy, either as a result of delayed growth
(secondary to traumatic epiphysiodesis) or due
to hyper growth reactive to the hyperemia
caused by the fracture and by the surgical trauma
[6]. Accordingly, shortening of 23 cm can be
accepted in pediatric patients with diaphyseal
fractures, since this length can be expected to be
recovered over time.
6.9
Conclusions
68
of the soft tissue damage. After surgical stabilization of the femoral and tibial fractures, and
provided the patient condition is acceptable,
evaluation of the stability of the knee is indicated in order to diagnose possible ligament
damage. Imaging studies should be performed as
soon as possible to confirm such damage, though
magnetic resonance imaging may be difficult to
interpret in the presence of osteosynthesis
material with a composition other than titanium.
Medial collateral ligament damage is to be
treated conservatively with an orthosis during
6 weeks. Damage to the lateral collateral ligament and posterolateral angle requires reconstruction in the early postoperative period, but
not during stabilization of the fractures. Meniscal damage likewise should be resected and
repaired during the early postoperative period,
provided such damage produces symptoms.
Cruciate ligament damage in turn requires
deferred reconstruction.
References
1. Blake R, McBryde A Jr (1975) The floating knee:
ipsilateral fractures of the tibia and femur. South
Med J 68:1316
2. Kao FC, Tu YK, Hsu KY, Su JY, Yen CY, Chou MC
(2010) Floating knee injuries: a high complication
rate. Orthopedics 33:1419
3. Lundy DW, Johnson KD (2001) Floating knee
injuries: ipsilateral fractures of the femur and tibia.
J Am Acad Orthop Surg 9:238245
4. Fraser RD, Hunter GA, Waddell JP (1978) Ipsilateral
fracture of the femur and tibia. J Bone Joint Surg Br
60:510515
5. Letts M, Vincent N, Gouw G (1986) The floating
knee in children. J Bone Joint Surg Br 68:442446
6. Bohn WW, Durbin RA (1991) Ipsilateral fractures of
the femur and tibia in children and adolescents.
J Bone Joint Surg Am 73:429439
7. Arslan H, Kapukaya A, Kesemenli C, Subasi M,
Kayikci C (2003) Floating knee in children. J Pediatr
Orthop 23:458463
8. Paul GR, Sawka MW, Whitelaw GP (1990) Fractures
of the ipsilateral femur and tibia: emphasis on intraarticular and soft tissue injury. J Orthop Trauma
4:309314
9. Veith RG, Winquist RA, Hansen ST Jr (1984)
Ipsilateral fractures of the femur and tibia. A report
of fifty-seven consecutive cases. J Bone Joint Surg
Am 66:9911002
Floating Knee
69
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
7.1
Introduction
7.2
Etiology
7.3
7.3.1
J. C. Rubio-Surez (&)
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, La Paz
University Hospital-IdiPaz, Paseo de la Castellana,
261, Madrid, 28046, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
Evaluation
Radiological Examination
71
J. C. Rubio-Suarez
72
7.3.2
Laboratory Tests
7.4
Treatment
7.4.1
Nonsurgical Treatment
Most cases require surgical management. Nonsurgical treatment would be indicated in those
patients unable to walk but without pain and also
in patients with comorbidities (high surgical
risk). An orthosis to control instability along
with physical therapy (ultrasounds, shock waves,
electro stimulation) can be successful in these
patients.
7.4.2
Surgical Treatment
73
Fig. 7.2 Fresh frozen allograft in the treatment of a nonunion of a complex proximal tibial fracture: (a) intraoperative
image; (b) postoperative AP view; (c) postoperative lateral view
load axis. However, when the epiphyseal segment is too short (\4 cm) the intramedullary
nail does not provide adequate fixation. In these
cases, failure occurs in 33.3 % [11]. This could
be avoided with new designs of nails.
ORIF should be accompanied by bone graft.
Autologous graft is the most used. Osteoconductive and osteoinductive substances have been
used with more or less success. Biological substances such as bone morphogenetic protein
(BMP) and platelet growth factor (PGF) are
expensive and have been used in the last years
with poor results [12], [13]. Nowadays, pluripotential stem cells from bone marrow or adipose
tissue are being researched with encouraging
results [14].
Nevertheless, the ORIF in nonunions and
malunion presents a high rate of complications
such as knee stiffness, malunion ([50 %),
hardware intolerance, infection, and posttraumatic osteoarthritis.
External Fixation
External fixation is a valid alternative to ORIF. It
is a minimal invasive method , so it is specially
indicated in cases of nonunion with poor soft tissues. The most used at present are those devices
that combine fine wires and circular rings, such as
the hybrid AO-ASIF external fixator [15], the
Ilizarov, and the Taylor spatial frame [16].
Allografts
Osteoarticular allografts are indicated in cases of
great joint destruction with a lot of bone and
cartilage loss, especially in active young patients.
The published results with fresh frozen osteochondral allografts have been very good
(Fig. 7.2). The survivorship at 5 years is 95 %
and at 10 years it is 8085 % [19]. However, the
survivorship at 20 years is only 46 % and the
surviving grafts showed a moderate to severe
degree of osteoarthritis or collapse. Moreover,
allografts can be a source of transmissible diseases and require a complex and expensive
transplant program. In summary, osteoarticular
allografts represent an alternative treatment for
active young patients to delay as much as possible
a total knee arthroplasty.
74
J. C. Rubio-Suarez
Fig. 7.3 Free fibular autograft in double bar to treat a great bone defect in a complex fracture of the proximal tibia:
(a) intraoperative view of the fibular graft; (b) postoperative AP view; (c) postoperative lateral view
Fig. 7.4 Tumoral
megaprosthesis to treat a
complex intraarticular
proximal tibial fracture: (a)
AP postoperative view; (b)
postoperative lateral view
Free Autografts
Vascularized autografts are indicated in cases
such as:
Great bone loss but no affectation of articular
surface.
Poor soft tissues state after great traumatisms
and open fractures.
Chronic infection.
Post-irradiation.
The most extended graft is the fibular middle
shaft which allows us to get a bone segment 20 cm
long or more. The fibular segment can be used as a
single or double bar (Fig. 7.3). Published results
of fibular graft show high success rates [20].
However, free fibular bone graft may have disadvantages such as residual limb differences,
7.5
Conclusions
75
References
1. Kregor PJ, Stannard JA, Zlowodzki M, Cole PA
(2004) Treatment of distal femur fractures using the
less invasive stabilization system: surgical
experience and early clinical results in 103
fractures. J Orthop Trauma 18:509520
2. Ricci AR, Yue JJ, Taffet R, Catalano JB, DeFalco
RA, Wilkens KJ (2004) Less invasive stabilization
system for treatment of distal femur fractures. Am J
Orthop 33:250255
3. Weight M, Collinge C (2004) Early results of the less
invasive stabilization system for mechanically
unstable fractures of the distal femur. J Orthop
Trauma 18:503508
4. Graves ML, Ryan JE, Mast JW (2005) Supracondylar
femur non-union associated with previous vascular
repair: importance of vascular exam in preoperative
planning of non-union repair. J Orthop Trauma
19:574577
5. Papagelopoulos PJ, Partsinevelos AA, Themistocleous
GS, Mavrogenis AF, Korres DS, Soucacos PN (2006)
Complications after tibia plateau fracture surgery.
Injury. 37:475484
6. King GJ, Schatzker J (1991) Non-union of a complex
tibial plateau fracture. J Orthop Trauma 5:209212
7. Davison BL (2003) Varus collapse of comminuted
distal femur fractures after open reduction and
internal fixation with a lateral condylar buttress
plate. Am J Orthop 32:2730
8. Rosen AL, Strauss E (2004) Primary total knee
arthroplasty for complex distal femur fractures in
elderly patients. Clin Orthop Relat Res 425:101105
J. C. Rubio-Suarez
76
9. Haidukewych GJ, Berry DJ, Jacofsky DJ, Torchia
ME (2003) Treatment of supracondylar femur nonunions with open reduction and internal fixation. Am
J Orthop 32:564567
10. Hailer YD, Hoffman R (2006) Management of nonunion of the distal femur in osteoporotic bone with
the internal fixation system LISS. Arch Orthop
Trauma Surg 126:350353
11. Wu CC, Shih CH (1991) Distal femoral non-union
treated with interlocking nailing. J Trauma
31:16591662
12. Butcher A, Milner R, Keith E et al (2009) Interaction
of platelet-rich concentrate with bone graft materials:
an in vitro study. J Orthop Trauma 23:195202
13. Parsons P, Butcher A, Hesselden K et al (2008)
Platelet-rich concentrate supports human mesenchymal stem cell proliferation, bone morphogenetic
protein-2 messenger RNA expression, alkaline
phosphatase activity, and bone formation in vitro:
A mode of action to enhance bone repair. J Orthop
Trauma 22:595604
14. Thomas SO, David Y, Kristen L et al (2012)
Mesenchymal stem cells facilitate fracture repair in
an alcohol-induced impaired healing model. J Orthop
Trauma 26:712718
15. Lonner JH, Siliski JM, Jupiter JB, Lhowe DW (1999)
Posttraumatic non-union of the proximal tibial
metaphysis. Am J Orthop 28:523528
16. Feldman DS, Shin SS, Madan S, Koval K (2003)
Correction of tibial malunion and non-union with
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
8.1
Introduction
8.2
8.2.1
Epidemiology
8.2.2
Aetiology
77
78
8.2.3
Anatomy
The quadriceps tendon has a trilaminar arrangement. The most superficial layer being derived
from the rectus femoris tendon, the middle layer
is formed by vastus lateralis and vastus medialis.
Finally, vastus intermedius provides the deep
layer of the quadriceps tendon [10].
The medial and lateral patellar retinacula are
formed predominantly by the fibres of the vastus
medialis and lateralis respectively [2]. The lateral
retinaculum also receives fibres from the iliotibial
tract [8]. These act as the auxilary extensors of the
knee, hence preserving some degree of active
extension in quadriceps tendon ruptures [9].
Ruptures frequently begin in the rectus
femoris tendon extending into the vastus intermedius or move transversely to either medial or
lateral patellar retinaculum. Ruptures in the
elderly arise at the osteotendinous junction
within 3 cms proximal of the superior pole of the
patella [11]. Ruptures within the midsubstance of
the tendon or musculotendinous region are
infrequent and are commoner in young adults [8].
8.2.4
Diagnosis
8.2.5
Management
79
followed by physiotherapy geared towards promoting knee flexion and increasing quadriceps
strength [5, 9].
Complete ruptures require urgent primary
surgical repair as soon as they are diagnosed [18,
19]. If surgery is delayed, the tendon retracts
proximally and binds down to the femur, making
surgical repair difficult and functional outcomes
poor [2, 18].
A tear at the musculotendinous junction or
midsubstance requires end-to-end primary repair
[3, 5, 12].
Osteotendinous quadriceps tendon ruptures
are treated with transosseous sutures tied at the
distal pole of the patella (Fig. 8.3).
A midline incision is used to expose the
tendon rupture and patella. The tear is then
elevated medially and laterally to reveal the
apex of any patellar retinaculum tear if present
[3]. These are sutured but left untied until the
tendon repair is complete.
Heavy, non-absorbable sutures (e.g. Ethi
bond 3) are placed in the proximal tendon
remnant with a locking technique such as those
described by Kessler, Krakow or Bunnell [20].
The suture ends are then passed through the
8.2.6
Complications
80
8.3
8.3.1
Epidemiology
8.3.2
Aetiology
Much like quadriceps tendon ruptures, an indirect mechanism of injury is typically the cause.
Pre-existing patellar tendonitis and degenerative tendinosis are major risk factors for rupture
[1, 5, 7, 24]. There is a lesser association with
chronic disease states compared to quadriceps
tendon rupture [25]. However, midsubstance
patellar tendon tears are more likely to be
associated with systemic disease.
8.3.3
Anatomy
8.3.4
Diagnosis
81
8.3.5
Management
82
8.3.6
Complications
8.4
8.4.1
Epidemiology
8.4.2
Aetiology
8.4.3
Management
8.4.4
Complications
83
8.5
8.5.1
84
8.5.2
8.5.3
Patellar Instability/Subluxation
Patellar instability and maltracking is the commonest complication after TKA with an incidence of 29 % [54].
The lateral force vector produced by the
angle of pull of the quadriceps (Quadriceps Q
Angle) on the patella and tibial tubercle in
extension pre-disposes to lateral dislocation.
Patellar instability (PI) following TKA is reliant
on maintenance of the normal Q angle. The
major causes for PI include pre-operative valgus
alignment of the knee, component malrotation,
medialisation of either components and weak
VMO or strong vastus lateralis muscle [54, 59].
Internal rotation of the femoral component
medialises the trochlear, which increases the Q
angle and likewise, internal rotation of the tibial
component lateralises the tibial tubercle predisposing to subluxation [60].
Trial reduction is essential for assessment of
patellar tracking and instability. A lateral release
is commonly performed if instability is found
intra-operatively, however, if there was no preoperative instability, it is unlikely to be improved
by a lateral release alone. Instead, external rotation of the tibial component or mediatisation of
the tibial tubercle is recommended [59].
8.6
85
Conclusions
References
1. Sivananthan S, Sherry E, Warnke P, Miller MD
(2012) Mercers textbook of orthopaedics and
trauma, 10th edn. Edward Arnold, London,
pp 368497
2. Archdeacon MT, Sanders RW (2009) Patella
fractures and extensor mechanism injuries. Skeletal
trauma
basic
science,
management,
and
reconstruction, 4th edn. Saunders Elsevier Inc,
Philadelphia, pp 20132015
3. Ilan DI, Tejwani N, Keschner M, Leibman M (2003)
Quadriceps tendon rupture. J Am Acad Orthop Surg
11:192200
4. Scuderi GR, Aglietti P, Menchetti PPM (1995)
Biomechanics of the patellofemoral joint. The
patella: Springer-Verlag, New York Inc, pp 2529
5. Solomon L, Warwick DJ, Nayagam S (2001) Apleys
system of orthopaedics and fractures, 8th edn.
Arnold, London, pp 714717
6. Trobisch PD, Bauman M, Weise K, Stuby F, Hak DJ
(2010) Histologic analysis of ruptured quadriceps
tendons. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc
18:8588
7. Miller MD (2008) Review of orthopaedics, 5th edn.
Saunders Elsevier Inc, Philadelphia, pp 618621
8. Shah MK (2002) Simultaneous bilateral rupture of
quadriceps tendons: analysis of risk factors and
associations. South Med J 95:860866
9. Egol AE, Koval KJ, Zuckerman JD (2010) Handbook
of fractures, 4th edn. Lippincott Williams and
Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp 439452
10. Waligora AC, Johanson NA, Hirsch BE (2009)
Clinical anatomy of the quadriceps femoris and
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
86
28. Matava MJ (1996) Patellar tendon ruptures. J Am
Acad Orthop Surg 4:287296
29. Rasmussen OS (2000) Sonography of tendons. Scand
J Med Science Sports 10:360364
30. Miller MD, DeBerardino TM, Owens BD (2011)
Repair of acute and chronic patellar tendon ruptures
operative techniques in sports medicine surgery.
Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia,
pp 396398
31. Karlsson J, Lundin O, Lossing IW, Peterson L (1991)
Partial rupture of the patellar ligament. results after
operative treatment. Am J Sports Med 19:403408
32. Cooper ME, Selesnick FH (2000) Partial rupture of
the distal insertion of the patellar tendon. a report of
two cases in professional athletes. Am J Sports Med
28:402406
33. Karlsson J, Kalebo P, Goksor LA, Thomee R, Sward
L (1992) Partial rupture of the patellar ligament. Am
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34. Lieberman JR (2009) AAOS comprehensive
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of patellar tendon rupture without augmentation. Am
J Sports Med 27:304307
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Neglected rupture of the patellar tendon. Arch
Orthop Trauma Surg 119:241242
38. Ecker ML, Lotke PA, Glazer RM (1979) Late
reconstruction of the patellar tendon. J Bone Joint
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10. AAOS, USA, pp 756785
40. Zrig M, Annabi H, Ammari T, Trabelsi M, Mbarek
M, Ben Hassine H (2008) Acute tibial tubercle
avulsion fractures in the sporting adolescent. Arch
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allografting.
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Meniscus Tears
Julian Fernandez-Gonzalez, Santiago J. Ponce
and Ruben Fole
9.1
Introduction
9.2
87
J. Fernandez-Gonzalez et al.
88
9.3
Clinical Findings
9.4
Classification
Meniscus Tears
89
J. Fernandez-Gonzalez et al.
90
9.5
Physical Examination
There are multiple tests described in the literature to examine the menisci. The most commonly performed are: forced flexion plus varus
and internal rotation to test medial meniscus
injuries, and compression, valgus and external
rotation to test lateral meniscus lesions. This test
is similar to the one described by Mc Murray,
which is positive for posterior root injuries when
it is accompanied by hearing a click that represents the movement of the torn meniscal fragment by the femoral condyle.
Physician should always test the coexistence
of associated patellofemoral pathology or collateral ligaments injuries, predominantly the
medial collateral ligament and ACL.
9.6
Imaging
9.7
Treatment
Most meniscal lesions are treated arthroscopically. However, meniscal repair can be arthroscopically assisted (inside-out, outside-in) in
different ways (Figs. 9.4a and b, 9.5, 9.6a, b, c,
and d) and all-arthroscopic.
The treatment of injuries will depend on the
type, location, and size of the tear. Certainly,
today is widely believed that whenever possible,
the meniscal lesion should be repaired instead of
a meniscectomy.
As mentioned previously, in most lesions a
partial meniscectomy is performed, as in
degenerative lesions or in non-degenerative
lesions which do not reach the peripheral well
irrigated outer third.
Repair of the meniscal lesion should be performed in non-degenerative tears that compromise the vascularized area: suturing can be done
with three different techniques: outside-in,
inside-out, or all-inside, being the latter the
most frequent technique which is done with
arthroscopy with different repair systems. In our
experience, it is possible to combine different
surgical techniques: meniscal fixator devices or
sutured-based devices for posterior root and
meniscal body tears, and inside-out or outside-in
suture repair techniques for anterior root injuries.
Meniscus Tears
91
Fig. 9.2 Male patient with medial pain in his left knee.
He suddenly suffered acute onset of pain in his left knee
after a race. In this case medial pain was localized to the
medial tibial metaphysis and also to the medial joint line.
(a) At first glance, posteroanterior weight bearing Xrays
do not show any bone lesion. (b) MRI done following
92
Fig. 9.4 Two different ways (a, b) to perform an outside-in suture technique
J. Fernandez-Gonzalez et al.
Meniscus Tears
93
9.8
9.8.1
Arthroscopically assisted inside-out repair techniques have been termed the gold standard of
meniscal repair [2].
J. Fernandez-Gonzalez et al.
94
Table 9.1 ICRS (International Cartilage Repair Society) classification system [6]
Grade
Grade 0
Grade Ia
Grade Ib
Grade II
Defects that extend deeper but involve less than 50 % of the cartilage thickness
Grade
III
Defects that extend more than 50 % of the cartilage thickness, but not through the subchondral bone
plate
Grade
IV
9.8.2
All-Arthroscopic Repair
Technique
Meniscus Tears
95
9.9
Postoperative Rehabilitation
J. Fernandez-Gonzalez et al.
96
9.10
Meniscal Transplantation
ligamentous instability, inflammatory joint disease, and previous history of infection [2].
There are prospective studies of fresh-frozen
irradiated meniscal allografts. In one of these
studies with a mean follow-up of 44 months
(22111), almost 30 % failed early, and the rest
of the patients have good pain relief with daily
activities [19]. This study recommended not
performing this procedure in patients with
advanced arthritis and alterations in joint
geometry with exposed bone surfaces.
Another prospective study with cryopreserved meniscal allografts there was 30 % of
failure. Most patients experienced pain relieved
in daily activities and 68 % had no tibiofemoral
compartment pain, clinical sign presented in all
patients preoperatively. 89 % stated that the
condition of their knee had improved. There was
displacement in the sagittal and coronal plane of
the transplanted menisci measured by MRI [20].
Publications such as the ones of Verdonk et al.
have shown promising results at long term, so at
10 years there is a satisfactory result in 70 % of
the implanted grafts. From 100 fresh meniscal
transplants, the failure rate of the medial side was
28 % and only 16 % on the lateral side, however
the latter one had less mean time to failure. The
survival of the medial meniscus was higher when
a valgus osteotomy was associated (survival of
83 % at 10 years) [16].
So the main indication for meniscal transplantation would be a young people with pain in
daily activities, as there are few alternatives.
Short-term results are improvement in function
and particularly in pain relief. However, it is
unknown whether the transplanted meniscus has
protective effects on the articular cartilage.
Clinical results show that the beneficial effects
diminish over time, and probably these patients
may require further surgery in the future [2].
9.11
In meniscal injuries in the avascular area, healing could be promoted by different means, as
Meniscus Tears
9.12
Conclusions
97
References
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and
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evaluation of meniscal repairs after anterior
cruciate ligament reconstruction and immediate
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Arthroscopic repair of meniscal tears that extend into
the avascular zone: a review of 198 single and
complex tears. Am J Sports Med 26:8795
10. Noyes FR, Barber-Westin SD (2000) Arthroscopic
repair of meniscus tears extending into the avascular
zone with or without anterior cruciate ligament
reconstruction in patients 40 years of age and older.
Arthroscopy 16:822829
11. Kotsovolos ES, Hantes ME, Mastrokalos DS,
Lorbach O, Paessler HH (2006) Results of allinside meniscal repair with the FasT-Fix meniscal
repair system. Arthroscopy 22:39
12. Barber FA, Schroeder FA, Oro FB, Beavis RC (2008)
FasT-Fix meniscal repair: midterm results.
Arthroscopy 24:13421348
13. Quinby JS, Golish SR, Hart JA, Diduch DR (2006)
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tensionable device. Am J Sports Med 34:12811286
98
14. Billante MJ, Diduch DR, Lunardini DJ, Treme GP,
Miller MD, Hart JM (2008) Meniscal repair using an
all-inside, rapidly absorbing, tensionable device.
Arthroscopy 24:779785
15. Sgaglione NA (2004) Complications of meniscus
surgery. Sports Med Arthrosc 12:148159
16. Verdonk PCM, Demurie A, Almqvist KF, Veys EM,
Verbruggen G, Verdonk R (2006) Transplantation of
viable meniscal allograft. J Bone Joint Surg Am
88:109118
17. Szomor ZL, Martin TE, Bonar F, Murrell GA (2000)
The protective effects of meniscal transplantation on
cartilage: an experimental study in sheep. J Bone
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18. Locht RC, Gross AE, Langer F (1984) Late
osteochondral allograft resurfacing for tibial plateau
fractures. J Bone Joint Surg Am 66:328335
19. Noyes FR, Barber-Westin SD, Butler DL, Wilkins
RM (1998) The role of allografts in repair and
reconstruction of knee joint ligaments and menisci.
Instructional Course Lectures, Rosemont Illinois
47:379396
20. Noyes FR, Barber-Westin SD, Rankin M (2004)
Meniscal transplantation in symptomatic patients less
than fifty years old. J Bone Joint Surg Am
86:13921404
10
10.1
Introduction
The first description of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is due to Galen [1] and Stark [2] in
1850, who described the first case of rupture of
this ligament. In 1917, Hey-Groves [3], which
can be considered father of ligamentoplasties,
described the first intra-articular ACL reconstruction. ACL injury is the most common knee
injury that requires a ligament reconstruction. It
is the subject of many laboratory and clinical
papers because there is controversy about its
natural history and some aspects of its treatment
like the graft selection, placement and fixation.
In this chapter we will discuss current knowledge about the ACL-deficient knee and review
the current studies in the literature about it.
10.2
99
100
A. M. Valverde-Villar et al.
10.3
Epidemiology
10.4
10
ACL Injuries
101
10.6
Treatment
10.5
Meniscal Injuries
Indications
Patients with high level activity/athletes who
practice sports or jobs with jumping, pivoting,
hard cutting, e.g., basketball, football, and
soccer. They will need an ACL reconstruction
if they are to return to those [43].
102
Timing
Athletes often request early surgery to commence the rehabilitation process. Unfortunately,
early surgery increases the risk of arthrofibrosis
or stiffness and associated comorbidities
including patellofemoral pain. In general, it
takes at least 3 weeks for motion and quadriceps
strength to return and truly 8 weeks for the knee
to look close to normal. Full extension with a
good quadriceps contraction and close to full
flexion is desirable to do the reconstruction [17].
Although, a delay in surgical reconstruction
could have a potential morbidity, such as
inability to return to employment or sporting
activities, as well as an increased risk of meniscal damage from further injuries [45], many
surgeons prefer to treat injuries of the ACL
2 months or more after the injury, with an initial
period of rehabilitation. This is because some
studies have conclude that there is no advantage
in early reconstruction for isolated tears of the
ACL and that this is associated with an increased
rate of complications, and delayed surgery is
associated with a more rapid return of movement
and muscle function [46, 47].
A. M. Valverde-Villar et al.
Graft Selection
The graft chosen should provide adequate fixation to allow rehabilitation, allow anatomic
recreation of the ACL in both size and location
and have adequate initial strength to survive the
uncertainties of graft regeneration.
Patellar tendon graft
The central third patellar tendon, bone-tendonbone graft (BTB) (Fig. 10.1) is the most commonly used graft in United States and is the gold
standard. It is stiff and inelastic and, therefore, in
theory, able to resist the high deforming forces
in the unstable knee. The strength of graft fixation is also an important consideration and the
bone plugs allow potentially very fast and secure
bone-to-bone fixation in the bony tunnels [48].
The development by Kurosaka of interference
screw fixation provides the strongest fixation
available [49].
Although, being the gold standard, this graft
has some light problems, mostly related to harvest. Anterior knee symptoms are common and
have been reported in up to 80 % particularly
with kneeling [50] for 69 months after surgery
but only a relatively small percentage of patients
consider that they have a significant problem
[51]. The more serious complications could be
the patellar tendon rupture and patellar fracture.
10
ACL Injuries
103
104
A. M. Valverde-Villar et al.
Table 10.1 Advantages and disadvantages of patellar tendon grafts and hamstring grafts for ACL reconstruction
Advantages
Disadvantages
Patella tendon
grafts
(gold standard)
Hamstring grafts
Reconstruction Technique
In this section, we will discuss the most controversial aspects of the surgical technique.
Notchplasty
The notchplasty provides several benefits as
visualization of the ACL femoral attachment,
prevention of graft impingement on the roof of
the notch, and prevention of graft abrasion on the
lateral wall of the notch [65, 66] Extending the
knee while the notch is visualized provides a
perspective on the potential for impingement and
may direct the surgeon on how much bone to
remove. Nevertheless, recent studies show that
graft impingement might not happen in anatomical ACL reconstruction and because of that,
notchplasty is not necessary in these cases [67].
Tunnel placement
It is the critical key to ACL surgery. The
tibial tunnel should exit on the tibial articular
surface slightly medial to the anatomic center of
the insertion site to prevent the graft from
10
ACL Injuries
105
From the second week after surgery, quadriceps and hamstring strength can be increased by
isometric isotonic and isokinetic exercises
without endangering the graft. Specific exercises
for this phase should include walking on a
treadmill, cycling on an ergometer and swimming. Jogging and running can begin at
34 months based on the patients progress, and
full sports at 6 months [80].
Postoperative Management
The most important goals in the first week are
controlling pain, swelling and inflammation,
recovery of ROM (above all, full extension) and
neuromuscular control [75, 76]. In addition to
medication, exercises, postsurgical compression
wraps and elevation, cryotherapy can reduce
significantly postsurgical pain [77]. Bracing
after surgery has not been shown to have an
impact on results, but many surgeons use them
[78, 79]. Crutches may be the best device to
limit excessive activity in the first few weeks
after surgery, promoting normal full knee
extension and limiting excessive loads.
10.8
10.7
Complications
Conclusions
106
notchplasty that could provide benefits as visualization ACL femoral attachment, the tunnel
placement that could increased the internal
rotation stability, the use of single or double
bundleor the best way of tensioning and fixation
of the graft. Infection, deep vein thrombosis, loss
of motion, patellofemoral pain, and general pain
syndromes are the major complications, but
fortunately are very uncommon. The incidence
of infection is less than 1 % and it should be
treated with culture-specific antibiotics and surgical irrigation.
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11
11.1
Introduction
E. C. Rodrguez-Merchn (&)
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, La Paz
University Hospital-IdiPaz, Paseo de la Castellana
261, 28046, Madrid, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
H. De la Corte-Garca J. M. Romn-Belmonte
Department of Physical Medicine and
Rehabilitation, Doce de Octubre University
Hospital, Avenida de Crdoba S/N, 28041, Madrid,
Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
J. M. Romn-Belmonte
e-mail: [email protected]
H. De la Corte-Rodrguez
Department of Physical Medicine and
Rehabilitation, La Paz University Hospital, Paseo
de la Castellana 261, 28046, Madrid, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
The clinical presentation of PFPS is characterized by pain behind and around the patella,
which intensifies with running, prolonged sitting,
squatting, and ascending and descending stairs
[6]. The pathogenesis of PFPS remains unclear
and its etiology is multi-factorial. Diagnostic
radiological imaging often fails to detect specific
findings [7]. There is no consensus in the literature
on the best conservative treatment to treat PFPS
secondary to PT. Nor is there agreement on what
surgical procedure is most appropriate when nonsurgical treatment fails [8, 9]. The purpose of this
review chapter is to discuss the strategies available for conservative and surgical treatment of
PFPS and PT.
A search of English-language papers published
until 2012 was conducted to look for references to
PFPS and PT. Thirty-seven papers were selected
for this study. The quality of the articles chosen
was determined on the basis on the authors
judgment. Articles were included if they specifically addressed the treatment of PFPS and PT.
Both PFPS and PT often lead to considerable
functional disability in recreational as well as
professional athletes [10]. These conditions can
interfere with sports performance, persist
throughout an athletes sporting career and even
result in a premature end to a career in sports.
The diagnosis of PFPS and PT is mainly based
on clinical findings although new imaging
technologies such as doppler ultrasonography
may also be of diagnostic value, particularly in
cases of PT. Two main strategies exist for
111
E. C. Rodrguez-Merchan et al.
112
11.2
Conservative Treatment
The main non-surgical strategies for the management of runners knee and PT are physical
therapy, patellar taping and foot orthoses,
extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT), and
injection treatments (dry needling, autologous
blood, high-volume fluid therapy, platelet-rich
plasma concentrate, sclerosis, steroids, aprotinin
injections, ultrasound-guided injection of autologous skin-derived tendon-like cells and inoculation of bone marrow mononuclear cells).
11.2.1 Physiotherapy
PPS can be treated by patellar mobilization. The
results of a systematic review showed that the
combination of quadriceps strengthening exercises with hip strengthening exercises is a useful
treatment strategy [11]. Biofeedback, patella
taping, and foot orthoses may augment the
benefits gained from quadriceps exercises [11].
Open and closed kinetic chain exercises have
been shown to be equally effective [12]. Ultrasound therapy has shown itself to have a beneficial effect in terms of relieving the pain caused
by PPS [13]. Direct application of adhesive
medical tape to the skin around the patella
relieves pain and ameliorates function even if its
longer-term effects are uncertain. Nonetheless,
the data provided by existing studies do adequately characterize the merits of taping, whether used on its own or as part of a more
comprehensive treatment program [14].
11
11.3
Surgical Treatment
113
E. C. Rodrguez-Merchan et al.
114
11.4
Comparative Studies
11.5
Conclusions
11
In adults with PFPS, intensive quadriceps rehabilitation is required if symptoms do not resolve
spontaneously (moderate level of evidence).
The combination of quadriceps strengthening
exercises with hip strengthening exercises has
proved useful in the treatment of PFPS secondary to patellar tendinopathy. On the other hand,
patella taping and foot orthoses may augment
the benefits gained from quadriceps exercise.
There is strong evidence that open and closed
kinetic chain exercises are equally effective.
Injection treatments (dry needling, autologous
blood, high-volume fluid therapy, platelet-rich
plasma, sclerosis, steroids and aprotinin injections) are increasingly used as treatment for
PFPS secondary to patellar tendinopathy. ESWT
is a safe and effective technique for the treatment of chronic patellar tendinopathy.
Surgical treatment of PFPS secondary to
patellar tendinopathy must be indicated in motivated athletes if carefully followed non-surgical
treatment is unsuccessful after 36 months, preventing them from returning to sports practice [38].
Arthroscopic techniques seem to be as effective as
open surgery. They include arthroscopic shaving
of the dorsal side of the proximal tendon, removal
of the hypertrophic synovitis around the inferior
patellar pole and arthroscopic tendon dbridement
with excision of the distal pole of the patella.
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Index
A
Achilles tendon allograft, 51, 53
ACL and PCL allograft reconstruction, 56
ACL and PCL reconstruction, 51
ACL function, 99
ACL injury, 99101
Acute reconstruction, 55
Allograft, 53, 73, 75, 103, 105
Anterolateral incision, 18
Arterial repair, 23
Arteriogram, 56
Arthroscopic shaving, 114
Arthroscopic treatment, 113
Arthrocentesis, 17
B
Bone graft, 25
C
Capsular avulsions, 51
Central sinking, 19
Chronic knee dislocation, 53
Classifications of tibial plateau fractures, 16
Closed kinetic chain exercises, 112
Closed reduction followed by immobilization, 48
Collapse of the joint, 19
Combined ACL-PCL-MCL injuries, 51
Comparative studies, 114
Compartment syndrome, 27, 46, 48, 56
Condyle, 16
Conservative treatment, 112
Constrained TKR, 52
Conventional unconstrained TKAs, 54
CT angiography, 56
D
Dbridement of patellar tendon, 115
Dbridement of the fat pad, 114
Degenerative articular changes, 54
Doppler ultrasonography, 111
E
Evidence-based medicine, 54
External fixation, 52, 73
External fixator, 48, 53
Extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT), 112
F
Failed arthroplasty, 75
Fibular graft, 74
Final treatment, 48
Foot orthoses, 112
Free autografts, 74
G
Great joint destruction, 73
H
Hamstrings graft, 103
High energy fractures, 17
Hybrid construction, 23
I
Immediate surgical reduction, 48
Injection treatments, 112
Injuries to the popliteal tendon, 51
Insall technique, 52
Intensive quadriceps rehabilitation, 115
Intramedullary nailing, 75
Irreducible dislocation, 56
J
Joint fusion (arthrodesis), 75
K
Knee stability, 47, 56
Knee stiffness, 55
117
118
L
Lateral patellar dislocation, 52
LCL injuries, 51
Ligament reconstruction, 48, 52, 56
Ligament repair or reconstruction, 53
Longitudinal splitting of patellar tendon, 113
Long-standing X-rays, 72
Low energy fractures, 16
M
Magnetic resonance imaging, 47
Malunion, 71
MCL injury, 51
Medial approach, 20
Meniscal and osteochondral injuries, 56
Meniscal injuries, 101
Minimal invasive method, 73
Modern osteosynthesis plates, 75
Modern reconstruction, 55
N
Neurological assessment, 46
Neurological lesions, 47
Non-displaced fractures, 17
Non-surgical treatment, 48, 55, 72
Nonunion, 36, 71
Notchplasty, 104
O
Open kinetic chain exercises, 112
Open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF), 72
Osteoarthritis, 25
Osteotendinous quadriceps tendon, 79
P
Patellar tendinopathy, 111
Patellar tendon, 81
Patellar tendon graft, 103, 105
Patellar tendon rupture, 80
Patellar tracking, 53
Patella taping, 112
Patellectomy, 34
Patellofemoral pain syndrome (PFPS), 111, 112
Percutaneous cannulated screws, 23
Peripheral tears of the lateral meniscus, 51
Peroneal nerve, 47
Physical examination, 71
Plateau state, 16
Platelet-rich plasma, 112
Polyester, 33
Popliteal artery, 45, 56
Popliteal artery injury, 47
Popliteal tendon, 53
Posterolateral corner, 53
Posterolateral structures, 51
Posteromedial and posterolateral corners, 55
Index
Postoperative rehabilitation, 56
Postoperative rehabilitation technique, 55
Preoperative planning, 72
Pressure of the compartments, 24
Prosthetic stability, 54
Q
Quadriceps exercises, 112
Quadriceps tendon graft, 103, 105
Quadriceps tendon rupture, 77
R
Rate of amputations, 47
Reconstruction of the injured ligaments, 55
Rehabilitation, 35
Removal of the hypertrophic synovitis, 115
Repair of those ligaments, 55
Resection of inferior pole of patella, 113
Residual dislocation, 52
Revascularization time, 47
Rotating-hinge prosthesis, 52
Runners knee, 111
S
Sclerotic injections, 114
Semiconstrained (CCK) or totally constrained
(rotating-hinge prosthesis), 54
Sequential management, 25
Severe posttraumatic osteoarthritis, 74
Single or double bundle, 106
Soft tissue coverage, 23
Steroids, 112
Stiffness, 36
Suction drains, 23
Surgical management, 18
Surgical treatment, 49, 55, 72, 113
Survival of the limb, 47
Sustained knee dislocations, 53
T
Tendonectomy, 113
Tension-band, 32
Tensioning, 103, 105, 106
Tibial tubercle, 83
Total joint arthroplasty, 74
Total knee arthroplasty (TKA), 52, 75, 83
Transosseous fixation, 82
Transosseous sutures, 79
Traumatic knee dislocation, 45
Tumoral megaprostheses, 75
Tunnel placement, 104, 106
U
Universal classification system (AO Trauma-periprosthelic fractures), 84
Index
V
Vascular examination, 46
Vascularized autografts, 74
Vascular lesion, 45, 56
Vascular status of the limb, 16
119
W
Wiring (patellar fracture), 32
Wound dbridement, 25