Wind Tunnel Designs
Wind Tunnel Designs
Published by InTech
Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
Copyright 2013 InTech
All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to
download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher
are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work
has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they
are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the
work must explicitly identify the original source.
Notice
Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those
of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published
chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the
use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.
Contents
Preface VII
Section 1
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Section 2
Chapter 6
VI
Contents
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Preface
Human efforts to conquer flight, land on the moon, go beyond the earth and discover new
universes would have been difficult without the development of wind tunnels. The early
18th and 19th century aerodynamists used whirling arm to study various shapes which suf
fered from a major fault that the body under investigation was forced to fly in its own un
disturbed wake. This has lead to the development of wind tunnels to overcome the problem.
Wind tunnels are essentially test facilities that create undisturbed flow in which test models
can be placed and controlled tests conducted to ascertain the subsequent changes on the test
models. With rapid developments in electronics and computer technologies, computational
fluid dynamics has become an important and cheap tool in the investigation of complex flu
id flow fields. It was often opined purely from cost considerations of manufacture, opera
tion, maintenance that wind tunnels would soon become extinct and be replaced by the
emerging numerical computations and simulations. However, as time has progressed, re
searchers are beginning to realise that to conduct meaningful numerical simulations, there is
an even greater need to validate their research that requires accurate and high quality data
and hence the need for wind tunnel experiments. The wind tunnels are, therefore, upgraded
with modern instruments and data acquisition, analysis systems and their overall operations
are computerised. These developments have also opened up new possibilities and ushered
in novel applications of the wind tunnels for non-aeronautical applications. It is against this
backdrop that work on this book was undertaken.
The book is a compilation of works from world experts on subsonic and supersonic wind
tunnel designs, applicable to a diverse range of disciplines. The book is organised in two
sections of five chapters each. The first section, Section A, comprises of three chapters on
various aspects of low speed wind tunnel designs, followed by one chapter on supersonic
wind tunnel and the final chapter discusses a method to address unsteadiness effects of fan
blade rotation. The second section, Section B, contains five chapters regarding wind tunnel
applications across a multitude of engineering fields including civil, mechanical, chemical
and environmental engineering.
The first chapter is written by experts collaborating from two academic institutes, namely
Polytechnic University of Madrid and Beijing Institute of Technology. The authors give an
excellent introduction to the significance of wind tunnels for both aeronautical and non-aer
onautical applications. The authors tackle the main issue facing wind tunnel design and con
struction of today head on; that is the cost of manufacture and operation without
compromising on quality. They describe a method for quick design of low speed and low
cost wind tunnels in great details for aeronautical and/or civil applications.
VIII
Preface
The second chapter further reinforces the design aspects of a closed circuit low speed wind
tunnel that is used both for teaching and research activities. The wind tunnel is located at
the aerodynamics research laboratory of the University of New South Wales. A major fea
ture of this wind tunnel is the availability of the provision of interchangeable cross sections.
This second chapter along with the first chapter have been presented with sufficient details
and references and would, therefore, be expected to act as valuable guide to future wind
tunnel design constructions.
The third chapter, Chapter 3, considers the design of portable wind tunnels as opposed to
stationary wind tunnels that were the themes of the previous two chapters. The author of
this chapter describes the design of wind tunnel aptly as the combination of art, science,
and common sense, the last being the most essential. It is written with great authority by an
expert who has designed such wind tunnels for studies to understand the controlling proc
esses of aeolian particle movement, assessing the erodibility of natural surfaces subjected to
different disturbances, estimating dust emission rates for natural surfaces, investigating the
partitioning of chemical and microbiological components of the soil on entrained sediment,
and estimating the threshold wind velocity necessary to initiate aeolian particle movement.
When properly designed, calibrated, constructed, and operated, this form of wind tunnel
can provide very useful information in a relatively short period of time.
The fourth chapter is a slight departure from the subsonic wind tunnel design theme and
describes the design features of a supersonic wind tunnel currently in operation at the aer
odynamics laboratory of the University of New South Wales. The construction and opera
tion of supersonic wind tunnel is quite expensive and complex, and requires a shock free
test section. In order to operate supersonic wind tunnel, it is imperative that appropriate gas
dynamic facility capable of producing the desired compressed air be available. Materials in
this chapter have, therefore, been presented in two parts; the first part describes the design
and development of a gas dynamics facility while the second part deals with the superson
ic wind tunnel.
The fifth and the final chapter of this section of the book does not deal with the design of the
wind tunnel directly, but details a method that addresses the unsteadiness effects emanating
from fan blade rotation using what is called the Richardson's Annular Effect. This is an
important consideration, since most subsonic wind tunnels are designed with the assump
tion that the flow would be steady during operation.
The non-aeronautical applications of wind tunnels form the theme of the second Section of
this book.
The first chapter of second Section, called Chapter 6 continues with a further example of ap
plication of wind tunnel in civil engineering and building industry. This chapter is written
collaboratively by experts who include a practicing structural engineer and several academ
ics. In this Chapter, the authors describe wind tunnel tests conducted on a complicated hornshaped membrane roof. In general, there are two types of wind-tunnel test on the membrane
roof, namely a test using a rigid model and a test using an elastic model. The test of the rigid
model is used to measure the wind pressure around the building. On the other hand, the test
of the elastic model can measure the deflection of the membrane surface directly and grasp the
behavior of the membrane. This chapter describes how wind tunnel test is used to clarify the
various flow features associated with the rigid model for the horn-shaped membrane roof
Preface
structure and quantify the wind-force coefficient and fluctuating wind pressure coefficient
around membrane under turbulent boundary layer flow condition.
In todays world, noise is an important issue of paramount importance. In Chapter 7 a meas
urement technique of the fluid-dynamic noise of an internal flow is presented. A suction
type low noise wind tunnel was used to obtain measurement of the fluid-dynamic noise
made from a circular cylinder placed in the air flow. The study was carried out through bur
ial setting of a microphone to the test section equipped with a fibered glass. The results ob
tained by this measurement technique were compared with the measurement results
obtained from a blow type wind tunnel that showed clearly that usefulness of the technique
and one that could be very useful in high to fluid-dynamic noise measurement of the inter
nal flow.
Application of wind tunnel in chemical engineering forms the basis of Chapter 8. Drying of
solids provides a technical challenge due to the presence of complex interactions between
the simultaneous processes of heat and mass transfer, both on the surface and within the
structure of the materials being dried. Internal moisture flow can occur by a complex mecha
nism depending on the structure of the solid body, moisture content, temperature and pres
sure in capillaries and pores. External conditions such as temperature, humidity, pressure,
the flow velocity of the drying medium and the area of exposed surface also have a great
effect on the mechanisms of drying. The most important variables in any drying process
such as air flow, temperature and humidity are usually easy to be controlled inside a wind
tunnel. Through a mathematical approach and an experimental work using a wind tunnel,
the materials the author brilliantly highlights the role of the boundary layer on the interface
behaviour and the drying mechanisms for various materials of a flat plate surface and a sin
gle droplet shape. This chapter is another excellent example of versatility of effective wind
tunnel application in non-aeronautical field.
The final chapter, Chapter 9, shows how wind tunnel data can be used in wind engineering
that require the use of different types of statistical analysis associated to the phenomenology
of boundary layer flows. Reduced Scale Models (RSM) obtained in laboratory, for example,
attempt to reproduce real atmosphere phenomena like wind loads on buildings and bridges
and the transportation of gases and airborne particulates by the mean flow and turbulent
mixing. Therefore, the quality of the RSM depends on the proper selection of statistical pa
rameters and in the similarity between the laboratory generated flow and the atmospheric
flow. Analysis of the fully developed turbulence measurements from the laboratory and the
atmospheric boundary layer encompassing a wide range of Reynolds number are presented
in this chapter. First, a typical spectral evaluation of a boundary layer simulation is present
ed. The authors find that this type of analysis is suitable to verify boundary layer flows at
low speed used for dispersion modeling and that time scales for fluctuating process model
ing could also be improved by applying this analysis method.
This book is intended to be a valuable addition to students, engineers, scientists, industrial
ists, consultants and others by providing greater insights into wind tunnel designs and their
enormous research potential not only in aeronautical fields, but also in other non-aeronauti
cal disciplines.
It is worth emphasising that all chapters have been prepared by professionals who are ex
perts in their respective research fields and the contents reflect the views of the author(s)
IX
Preface
concerned. All chapters included in this book have been subjected to peer-review and are
culmination of the interactions of the editor, publisher and authors.
The editor would like to take this opportunity and thank all the authors for their expert con
tributions and the publisher for their patience and hard work in producing this book and
thereby drawing a successful conclusion of a project of high practical significance.
N. A. Ahmed
Head, Aerospace Engineering,
School of Mechanical Engineering,
University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia
Section 1
Chapter 1
1. Introduction
Wind tunnels are devices that enable researchers to study the flow over objects of interest, the
forces acting on them and their interaction with the flow, which is nowadays playing an
increasingly important role due to noise pollution. Since the very first day, wind tunnels have
been used to verify aerodynamic theories and facilitate the design of aircrafts and, for a very
long time, this has remained their main application. Nowadays, the aerodynamic research has
expanded into other fields such as automotive industry, architecture, environment, education,
etc., making low speed wind tunnel tests more important. Although the usefulness of CFD
methods has improved over time, thousands of hours of wind tunnel tests (WTT) are still
essential for the development of a new aircraft, wind turbine or any other design that involves
complex interactions with the flow. Consequently, due to the growing interest of other
branches of industry and science in low speed aerodynamics, and due to the persistent
incapability of achieving accurate solutions with numerical codes, low speed wind tunnels
(LSWT) are essential and irreplaceable during research and design.
A crucial characteristic of wind tunnels is the flow quality inside the test chamber and the
overall performances. Three main criteria that are commonly used to define them are:
maximum achievable speed, flow uniformity and turbulence level. Therefore, the design aim
of a wind tunnel, in general, is to get a controlled flow in the test chamber, achieving the
necessary flow performance and quality parameters.
2013 Hernndez et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
In case of the aeronautical LSWTs, the requirements of those parameters are extremely strict,
often substantially increasing the cost of facilities. But low turbulence and high uniformity in
the flow are only necessary when, for example, laminar boundary layers have to be investi
gated. Another example of their use is aircraft engines combustion testing; this in turns requires
a costly system that would purify the air in the tunnel to maintain the same air quality. Another
increasingly important part of aircraft design is their noise footprint and usually the only way
to test this phenomenon is in a wind tunnel.
In the automotive applications, it is obvious that the aerodynamic drag of the car is of
paramount importance. Nevertheless, with the currently high level of control of this parameter
and also due to imposed speed limitations, most of the efforts are directed to reduce the
aerodynamic noise. The ground effect simulation is also very important, resulting in very
sophisticated facilities to allow testing of both the ground effect simulation and noise produc
tion in the test section.
In architecture, due to the fact that buildings are placed on the ground and are usually of
relatively low height, they are well within the atmospheric boundary layer. Therefore, the
simulation of the equivalent boundary layer, in terms of average speed and turbulence level,
becomes a challenging problem.
The design of the wind tunnels depends mainly on their final purpose. Apart from vertical
wind tunnels and others used for specific tests (e.g. pressurised or cryogenic wind tunnels),
most of the LSWTs can be categorised into two basic groups: open and closed circuit. They can
be further divided into open and closed test section type.
For most applications, mainly for medium and large size wind tunnels, the typical configura
tion is the closed circuit and closed test chamber. Although, due to the conservation of kinetic
energy of the airflow, these wind tunnels achieve the highest economic operation efficiency,
they prove more difficult to design resulting from their general complexity. Hence, we will
pay more attention to them in this chapter.
Apart from some early built wind tunnels for educational purposes at the UPM, since 1995 a
number of LSWTs have been designed following the methodology which will be presented
here. It focuses on the reduction of construction and operation costs, for a given performance
and quality requirements.
The design procedure was first used for a theoretical design of a LSWT for the Spanish Consejo
Superior de Deportes, which was to have a test section of 3,0 x 2,5 x 10,0 m3 with a maximum
operating speed of 40 m/s. Based on this design, a 1:8 scale model was built at UPM. This scaled
wind tunnel has been used for research and educational purposes.
The second time it was during the design of a LSWT for the Instituto Tecnolgico y de
Energas Renovables de Tenerife (ITER). That wind tunnel is in use since February 2001,
operating in two configurations: medium flow quality at maximum operating speed of 57
m/s, and high flow quality at maximum operating speed of 48 m/s. For more informa
tion visit www.iter.es.
Another example of this design procedure is a LSWT for the Universidad Tecnolgica de Per,
which is now routinely used for teaching purposes. This wind tunnel is now in operation for
about one and a half year.
At the moment the same procedure is being utilised to design a LSWT for the Beijing Institute
of Technology (BIT). This wind tunnel will be used for educational and research purposes. It
will have a high quality flow, up to 50 m/s, in a test section of 1,4 x 1,0 x 2,0 m3. It will be used
for typical aerodynamic tests and airfoil cascade tests (utilising the first corner of the wind
tunnel circuit).
The design method to be presented in this chapter is based upon classical internal ducts design
and analysis method, e.g. Memento des pertes de charge: Coefficients de pertes de charge singulires
et de pertes de charge par frottement, I.E. Idelcik [Eyrolles, 1986]. It also includes design assisting
software such as a macro-aided Excel spreadsheet with all the complete formulation and
dimensioning schemes for automatic recalculation. At the moment the best example of use of
the method is the BIT-LSWT, mentioned above, as it has been defined using the latest and most
reliable generation of wind tunnel design methodology.
Figure 1. General layout of a closed circuit low speed wind tunnel. Figure labels indicate the part name, according to
standards.
Flow quality, which is one of the main characteristics, is a result of the whole final design, and
can only be verified during calibration tests. However, according to previous empirical
knowledge, some rules can be followed to select adequate values of the variables that affect
the associated quality parameters. The recommended values will be discussed in the sections
corresponding to the Contraction, Settling Chamber, Diffusor 1 and Corner 1, which are the
wind tunnel parts that have the greatest impact on the flow quality.
Once these specifications are given, it is very important to obtain on one side the overall wind
tunnel dimensions to check their compatibility with the available room, and on the other side
a preliminary estimation of the overall cost. The cost is mainly associated to the external shape
of the wind tunnel and the power plant requirements.
For the benefit of new wind tunnel designers, a tool has been devised and implemented in an
Excel spreadsheet (visit web page http://www.aero.upm.es/LSLCWT). Using this tool the
designer will immediately get information about each part of the wind tunnel, the overall
dimensions, the global and individual pressure loss coefficients, and the required power. This
will be done according to the recommended input parameters and specification based on the
intended use of the wind tunnel.
case of the contraction zone, its design is crucial for achieving the required flow quality in the
test section. In this sense, its contraction ratio, length and contour definition determine the
level of uniformity in the velocity profile, as well as the necessary turbulence attenuation. It is
crucial to avoid flow separation close to the walls of the contraction zone. At the stage of design,
the most adequate method to verify that design meets those criteria is computational fluid
dynamics (CFD).
Other important parts of the wind tunnel design worth mentioning here are the corners which
incorporate turning vanes. Their aim is to reduce pressure loss and, in the case of the corner
1, possibly improve flow quality in the test section. The parameters to be considered in their
design are the spacing between vanes (whether the space ought to be constant or not) and the
possibility of expanding the flow (increasing the cross-section).
To complete the design process, the measurement equipment needs to be defined together
with the complimentary calibration tests. Special attention needs to be devoted to the specifi
cation and selection of the balance for forces measurement, a device that is used to measure
aerodynamic forces and moments on the model subjected to airflow in the test section. Since
the drag force on test subjects can be very small and significant noise may be coming from the
vibration of the tunnel components, such as the model stand, the true drag value may become
obscured. The choice of an appropriate force balance is therefore crucial in obtaining reliable
and accurate measurements.
The selection depends mainly on the nature of the tests. Wind tunnel balances can be catego
rized into internal and external ones. The former offers mobility since it is usually only
temporarily mounted to the test section and may be used in different test sections. However,
the latter has more potential in terms of data accuracy and reliability since it is tailored to a
specific wind tunnel and its test section. Due to this reason, external force balances should be
studied in greater depth.
3.1. Test chamber
The test chamber size must be defined according to the wind tunnel main specifications, which
also include the operating speed and desired flow quality. Test chamber size and operating
speed determine the maximum size of the models and the maximum achievable Reynolds
number.
The cross-section shape depends on the applications. In the case of civil or industrial
applications, in most of the cases, a square cross-section is recommended. In this case, the
test specimens are usually bluff bodies and their equivalent frontal area should not be
higher than 10% of the test chamber cross-sectional area in order to avoid the need of
making non-linear blockage corrections. Accurate methods for blockage corrections are
presented in Maskell (1963).
Nevertheless, a rectangular shape is also recommended for aeronautical applications. In the
case of three-dimensional tests, a typical width to height ratio is 4:3; however, for twodimensional tests a 2:5 ratio is advised in order for the boundary layer thickness in the test
section to be much smaller than the model span.
Taking into account that it is sometimes necessary to place additional equipment, e.g. meas
uring instruments, supports, etc., inside the test chamber, it is convenient to maintain the
operation pressure inside it equal to the local environment pressure. To fulfil this condition,
it is recommended to have a small opening, approximately 1,0% of the total length of the test
chamber, at the entrance of the diffuser 1.
From the point of view of the pressure loss calculation, the test chamber will be considered as
a constant section duct with standard finishing surfaces. Nevertheless, in some cases, the test
chamber may have slightly divergent walls, in order to compensate for the boundary layer
growth. This modification may avoid the need for tail flotation correction for aircraft model
tests, although it would be strictly valid only for the design Reynolds number.
Figure 2 shows a design of a typical constant section test chamber. With the typical dimensions
and velocities inside a wind tunnel, the flow in the test section, including the boundary layer,
will be turbulent, because it is continuous along the whole wind tunnel. According to IdelCik
(1969), the pressure loss coefficient, related to the dynamic pressure in the test section, which
is considered as the reference dynamic pressure for all the calculations, is given by the
expression:
= L
/ DH ,
where L is the length of the test chamber, DH the hydraulic diameter and a coefficient given
by the expression:
= 1 / (1,8 log Re - 1,64)2,
where Re is the Reynolds number based on the hydraulic diameter.
3.2. Contraction
The contraction or nozzle is the most critical part in the design of a wind tunnel; it has the
highest impact on the test chamber flow quality. Its aim is to accelerate the flow from the
settling chamber to the test chamber, further reducing flow turbulence and non-uniformities
in the test chamber. The flow acceleration and non-uniformity attenuations mainly depend on
the so-called contraction ratio, N, between the entrance and exit section areas. Figure 3 shows
a typical wind tunnel contraction.
Although, due to the flow quality improvement, the contraction ratio, N, should be as large
as possible, this parameter strongly influences the overall wind tunnel dimensions.
Therefore, depending on the expected applications, a compromise for this parameter should
be reached.
10
Quoting P. Bradshaw and R. Metha (1979), The effect of a contraction on unsteady velocity
variations and turbulence is more complicated: the reduction of x-component (axial) fluctua
tions is greater than that of transverse fluctuations. A simple analysis due to Prandtl predicts
that the ratio of root-mean-square (rms) axial velocity fluctuation to mean velocity will be
reduced by a factor 1/N2, as for mean-velocity variations, while the ratio of lateral rms
fluctuations to mean velocity is reduced only by a factor of N: that is, the lateral fluctuations
(in m/s, say) increase through the contraction, because of the stretching and spin-up of
elementary longitudinal vortex lines. Batchelor, The Theory of Homogeneous Turbulence,
Cambridge (1953), gives a more refined analysis, but Prandtl's results are good enough for
tunnel design. The implication is that tunnel free-stream turbulence is far from isotropic. The
axial-component fluctuation is easiest to measure, e.g. with a hot-wire anemometer, and is the
"free-stream turbulence" value usually quoted. However, it is smaller than the others, even if
it does contain a contribution from low-frequency unsteadiness of the tunnel flow as well as
true turbulence.
In the case of wind tunnels for civil or industrial applications, a contractions ratio between 4,0
and 6,0 may be sufficient. With a good design of the shape, the flow turbulence and nonuniformities levels can reach the order of 2,0%, which is acceptable for many applications.
Nevertheless, with one screen placed in the settling chamber those levels can be reduced up
to 0,5%, which is a very reasonable value even for some aeronautical purposes.
For more demanding aeronautical, when the flow quality must be better than 0,1% in nonuniformities of the average speed and longitudinal turbulence level, and better than 0,3% in
vertical and lateral turbulence level, a contraction ratio between 8,0 and 9,0 is more desirable.
This ratio also allows installing 2 or 3 screens in the settling chamber to ensure the target flow
quality without high pressure losses through them.
The shape of the contraction is the second characteristic to be defined. Taking into account that
the contraction is rather smooth, one may think that a one-dimensional approach to the flow
analysis would be adequate to determine the pressure gradient along it. Although this is right
for the average values, the pressure distribution on the contraction walls has some regions
with adverse pressure gradient, which may produce local boundary layer separation. When
it happens, the turbulence level increases drastically, resulting in poor flow quality in the test
chamber.
According to P. Bradshaw and R. Metha (1979), The old-style contraction shape with a small
radius of curvature at the wide end and a large radius at the narrow end to provide a gentle
entry to the test section is not the optimum. There is a danger of boundary-layer separation at
the wide end, or perturbation of the flow through the last screen. Good practice is to make the
ratio of the radius of curvature to the flow width about the same at each end. However, a too
large radius of curvature at the upstream end leads to slow acceleration and therefore increased
rate of growth of boundary-layer thickness, so the boundary layer - if laminar as it should be
in a small tunnel - may suffer from Taylor-Goertler "centrifugal'' instability when the radius
of curvature decreases.
According to our experience, when both of the contraction semi-angles, /2 and /2 (see Figure
3), take the values in the order of 12, the contraction has a reasonable length and a good fluid
dynamic behaviour. With regard to the contour shape, following the recommendations of P.
Bradshaw and R. Metha (1979), two segments of third degree polynomial curves are recom
mended.
As indicated in Figure 4, the conditions required to define the polynomial starting at the wide
end are: the coordinates (xW,yW), the horizontal tangential condition in that point, the point
where the contour line crosses the connection strait line, usually in the 50% of such line, and
the tangency with the line coming from the narrow end. For the line starting at the narrow end
the initial point is (xN,yN), with the same horizontal tangential condition in this point, and the
connection to the wide end line. Consequently, the polynomials are:
y = aW + bW x + cW x 2 + dW x 3,
y = aN + bN x + cN x 2 + d N x 3.
Imposing the condition that the connection point is in the 50%, the coordinates of that point
are [xM,yM]=[(xW+xN)/2,(yW+yN)/2)]. Introducing the conditions in both polynomial equations,
the two families of coefficients can be found.
According to IdelCik (1969), the pressure loss coefficient related to the dynamic pressure in
the narrow section, is given by the expression:
=
( 2 ) (1 -
16 sin
1
N2
)+{
( 2 ) (1 -
16 sin
1
N2
),
11
12
Honeycomb is very efficient at reducing the lateral turbulence, as the flow pass through long
and narrow pipes. Nevertheless, it introduces axial turbulence of the size equal to its diameter,
which restrains the thickness of the honeycomb. The length must be at least 6 times bigger than
the diameter. The pressure loss coefficient, with respect to the local dynamic pressure, is about
0,50 for a 3 mm diameter and 30 mm length honeycomb at typical settling chamber velocities
and corresponding Reynolds numbers.
Although screens do not significantly influence the lateral turbulence, they are very efficient
at reducing the longitudinal turbulence. In this case, the problem is that in the contraction
chamber the lateral turbulence is less attenuated than the longitudinal one. As mentioned
above, one screen can reduce very drastically the longitudinal turbulence level; however, using
a series of 2 or 3 screens can attenuate turbulence level in two directions up to the value of
0,15%. The pressure loss coefficient, with respect to the local dynamic pressure, of an 80%porous screen made of 0,5 mm diameter wires is about 0,40.
If a better flow quality is desired, a combination of honeycomb and screens is the most
recommended solution. This configuration requires the honeycomb to be located upstream of
1 or 2 screens. In this case, the pressure loss coefficient, with respect to the local dynamic
pressure, is going to be about 1,5. If the contraction ratio is 9, the impact on the total pressure
loss coefficient would be about 0,02, which may represents a 10% of the total pressure loss
coefficient. This implies a reduction of 5% in the maximum operating speed, for a given
installed power.
The values of the pressure loss coefficients given in this section are only approximated and
serve as a guideline for quick design decisions. More careful calculations are recommended
for the final performance analysis following IdelCiks (1969) methods.
3.4. Diffusers
The main function of diffusers is to recover static pressure in order to increase the wind tunnel
efficiency and, of course, to close the circuit. For that reason, and some other discussed later,
it is important to maintain the flow attachment for pressure recovery efficiency. Figure 6 shows
the layout of a rectangular section diffuser.
Diffuser 1 pays an important role in the test chamber flow quality. In case of flow detachment,
the pressure pulsation is transmitted upstream into the test chamber, resulting in pressure and
velocity non-uniformities. In addition, diffuser 1 acts as a buffer in the transmission of the
pressure disturbances generated in the corner 1.
It has been proved that in order to avoid flow detachment, the maximum semi-opening angle
in the diffuser has to be smaller than 3,5. On the other hand, it is important to reduce as much
as possible the dynamic pressure at the entrance of the corner 1, in order to minimise the
possible pressure loss. Consequently, it is strongly recommended not to exceed the semiopening angle limit and to design the diffuser to be as long as possible.
Diffuser 2 is a transitional duct, where the dynamic pressure is still rather large. Subsequently,
the design criterion imposing a maximum value of the semi-opening angle must also be
applied. The length of this diffuser cannot be chosen freely, because later it becomes restrained
by the geometry of corners 3 and 4 and diffuser 5.
13
14
Wexit
Length
Hexit
Hent
b
a/2/2
Flow direction
Went
Diffuser 3 guides the flow to the power plant which is strongly affected by flow separation. In
order to avoid it, the criterion imposing a maximum value of the semi-opening angle is
maintained here as well. The cross-sectional shape may change along this diffuser because it
must connect the exit of corner 2, whose shape usually resembles that of the test chamber, with
the entrance of the power plant, whose shape will be discussed later.
The same can be said about diffuser 4 because pressure oscillations travel upstream and
therefore may affect the power plant. Analogically to the previous case, it provides a connec
tion between the exit of the power plant section and the corner 3, which has a cross-section
shape resembling the one of the test chamber.
Diffuser 5 connects the corners 3 and 4. It is going to be very short, due to a low value of the
dynamic pressure, which will allow reducing the overall wind tunnel size. This will happen
mainly when the contraction ratio is high and the diffusion angle may be higher than 3,5. It
can also be used to start the adaptation between the cross-section shapes of the tests section
and the power plant.
An accurate calculation of the pressure loss coefficient can be done with IdelCiks (1969)
method. A simplified procedure, derived from the method mentioned above, is presented here
to facilitate a quick estimation of such coefficient.
The pressure loss coefficient, with respect to the dynamic pressure in the narrow side of the
diffuser, is given by:
F0 2
F1
+ f .
being the average opening angle, F0 the area of the narrow section, F1 the area of the wide
section and where f is defined as:
f =
0,02
8 sin / 2
1-
( )
F0 2
F1
3.5. Corners
Closed circuit wind tunnels require having four corners, which are responsible for more than
50% of the total pressure loss. The most critical contribution comes from the corner 1 because
it introduces about 34% of the total pressure loss. To reduce the pressure loss and to improve
the flow quality at the exit, corner vanes must be added. Figure 7 shows a typical wind tunnel
corner, including the geometrical parameters and the positioning of corner vanes.
The width and the height at the entrance, Went and Hent respectively, are given by the previous
diffuser dimensions. The height at the exit, Hexit, should be the same as at the entrance, but the
width at the exit, Wexit, can be increased, giving the corner an expansion ratio, Wexit/Went. This
parameter can have positive effects on the pressure loss coefficient of values up to approxi
mately 1,1. However, it must be designed considering specific geometrical considerations,
which will be discussed, in greater details in the general arrangement.
The corner radius is another design parameter and it is normally proportional to the width at
the corner entrance. The radius will be identical for the corner vanes. Although increasing the
corner radius reduces the pressure loss due to the pressure distribution on corner vanes, it
increases both the losses due to friction and the overall wind tunnel dimensions. According to
previous experience, it is recommended to use 0,25 Went as the value of the radius for corners
1 and 2, and 0,20 Went for the other two corners.
The corner vanes spacing is another important design parameter. When the number of vanes
increases, the loss due to pressure decreases, but the friction increases. Equal spacing is easier
to define and sufficient for all corners apart from corner 1. In this case, in order to minimise
pressure loss, the spacing should be gradually increased from the inner vanes to the outer ones.
The vanes can be defined as simple curved plates, but they can also be designed as cascade
airfoils, which would lead to further pressure loss reduction. In the case of low speed wind
tunnels the curved plates give reasonably good results. However, corner 1 may require to
further stabilise the flow and reduce the pressure loss. Flap extensions with a length equal to
the vane chord, as shown in Figure 7, is a strongly recommended solution to this problem.
Other parameters, such as the arc length of the vanes or their orientation, are beyond the scope
of this chapter. For more thorough approach the reader should refer to IdelCik (1969), Chapter
6. As mentioned above, the pressure loss reduction in the corners is very important. Therefore,
15
16
Wexit
Corner radius
Hexit
Vanes flap
Hent
Corner vanes
Flow direction
Went
Figure 7. Scheme of a wind tunnel corner, including vanes, flaps and nomenclature.
an optimum design of these elements, at least in the case of corner 1 and 2, has a significant
impact on the wind tunnel performance.
In order to allow a preliminary estimation of the pressure loss in the corners we will follow
the method presented in Diagram 6.33 from IdelCik (1969) mentioned above. In this approach,
we take an average number of vanes, n= 1,4*S/t1, S being the diagonal dimension of the corner,
where t1 is the chord of the vane. The pressure loss coefficient is given by the expression:
r
are the pressure increment, p, the volumetric flow, Q, and the power, P. Once the test chamber
cross-section surface, STC, and the desired operating speed, V, are fixed, and the total pressure
loss coefficient, , has been calculated, all those parameters can be calculated using:
1
p = 2 V 2
Q = V STC
P = p
where is the operating air density and the fan efficiency, accounting for both aerodynamic
and electric motor efficiencies.
In order to reduce the cost of this part by roughly one order of magnitude, we propose to use
a multi-ventilator matrix, as presented in Figure 8, instead of a more standard single ventilator
power plant configuration. The arrangement of this matrix will be discussed later.
Wide
Length
Height
According to our experience, for a closed circuit wind tunnel eventually including settling
chamber screens or/and a honeycomb, the total pressure loss coefficient is in the range of 0,16
to 0,24. Consequently, in the case of 1,0 m2 test section area and 80 m/s maximum operating
speed, assuming an average value of to be in the range mentioned above, and for a typical
value of equal to 0,65, the data specifying the power plant are:
p= 785 Pa, Q= 80 m3/s, P= 100 kW.
In this case we could use a 2,0m diameter fan specially designed for this purpose or 4 com
mercial fans of 1,0 m diameter, producing the same pressure increment, but with a volumetric
17
18
flow of 20 m3/s each. The latter option would reduce the total cost because the fans are a
standard product.
Contraction ratio, N
Now, following the guidelines given above, such as the convergence angle and the contour
line shape of the contraction zone, the test and contraction chamber can be fully defined. In
the case when both opening angles, and , are the same, the contraction length, LC, is given
by the expression:
L C=
N - 1) W TC
2 tan ( C / 2)
Continuing in the upstream direction, the next part to be designed is the settling chamber. The
only variable to be fixed is the length, because the section is identical to the wide section of the
contraction. In the case when high quality flow is required, the minimum recommended nondimensional length based on the hydraulic diameter, lSC, is 0,60. This results from the necessity
to provide extra space for the honeycomb and screens. In all other cases, the non-dimensional
length may be 0,50. Therefore, the length of the settling, LSC, chamber is given by:
L
SC =
N W TC lSC .
To obtain all the data for the geometric definition of the corner 4 satisfying all the recommen
dations given above we only need to fix the non-dimensional radius, rC4. Its length, which is
the same as its width, is:
L
C4 = WC4 =
N W TC (1 + rC 4).
Going downstream of the test chamber, we arrive at the diffuser 1. Assuming that both semiopening angles are 3,5, its non-dimensional length, lD1, is the only design parameter. Although
it has a direct effect on the wind tunnel overall length, we must be aware that this diffuser
together with corner 1 are responsible for more than 50% of the total pressure losses. According
to the experience, lD1>3 and lD1>4 is recommended for low and high contraction ratio wind
tunnels respectively. The length of the diffuser 1, LD1, and the width in the wide end, WWD1, is
defined by:
L
D1 = W TC
lD1
C 1 = W WD1
(eC 1 + rC 1)
W C 1 = W WD1 (1 + rC 1).
Therefore, we can already formulate the overall wind tunnel length, LWT, as a function of the
test chamber dimensions, the contraction ratio, and other secondary design parameters:
L
WT
=L
TC
+ W TC
( N - 1)
2 tan ( C / 2)
19
20
This quick calculation allows the designer to check whether the available length is sufficient
to fit the wind tunnel.
Taking into account all the recommended values for the secondary design parameters, a guess
value for the wind tunnel overall length, with a contraction ratio N=9 (high quality flow), is
given by the formula:
L
WT
=L
TC
+ 16 W TC .
In the case when N=5 (low quality flow), the formula becomes:
L
WT
=L
TC
+ 11,5 W TC .
The designer must be aware that any modification introduced to the secondary design
parameters modifies only slightly the factor that multiplies WTC in the formulas above.
Consequently, if the available space is insufficient, the only solution would be to modify the
test chamber dimensions and/or the contraction ratio.
As we have already defined the wind tunnel length using the criterion of adequate flow quality,
we can now devote our attention to designing the rest of the circuit, the so-called return circuit.
The goal is not to increase its length, intending also to minimize the overall width and keeping
the pressure loss as low as possible.
Keeping this in mind, the next step in the design is to make a first guess about the power plant
dimensions. Following our design recommendations, a typical value for the total pressure loss
coefficient of a low contraction ratio wind tunnel, excluding screens and honeycombs in the
settling chamber, is 0,20, with respect to the dynamic pressure in the test chamber. This value
is approximately 0,16 for a large contraction ratio wind tunnels. If screens and honeycombs
were necessary, those figures could increase by about 20%.
As the power plant is placed more or less in the middle of the return duct, the area of the section
will be similar to the mid-section of the contraction. Therefore, taking into account the
volumetric flow, the total pressure loss, and the available fans, the decision about the type of
fan and the number of them can be taken. Using this approach, the power plant would be
defined, at least in the preliminary stage.
We will return now to the example we started before for the power plant section. To improve
the understanding of the subject, we are going to present a case study. If the test chamber
section was square and N=5, the mid-section of the contraction would be 1,67 x 1,67 m2. This
would allow us to place 4 standard fans of 0,800 m diameter each. The maximum reduction in
the width size would be obtained by suppressing the diffuser 5, obtaining the wind tunnel
platform shown in Figure 9. We have not defined the diffusion semi-angle in diffuser 3, but
we checked afterwards that it was smaller than 3,5. Figure 9 is just a wire scheme of the wind
tunnel, made with an Excel spreadsheet, and for this reason the corners have not been rounded
and are represented just as boxes.
In the case of a 4:3 ratio rectangular test chamber cross-section, the mid-section of the contrac
tion would be 1,869x1,401 m2 and for this reason we could suggest the use of 6 standard fans
21
of 0,630 m diameter, organized in a 3x2 matrix, occupying a section of 1,890x1,260 m2. Figure
10 shows the wire scheme of this new design. We can check that the diffuser 3 semi-angle is
below 3,5 as well.
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
1.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
TestSection
Contraction
SettlingChamber
Diffuser1
Corner1
Corner4
Diffuser5
Corner3
Diffuser4
PowerPlant
Diffuser2
Corner2
10.0
Diffuser3
Figure 9. Non-dimensional scheme of a wind tunnel with square section test chamber and low contraction ratio, N5.
Figure 9. Non-dimensional scheme of a wind tunnel with square section test chamber and low contraction ratio, N5.
It is clear that the new design is slightly longer and wider, but it is because of the influence of the test chambers width, as sh
It is clear that
the new design is slightly longer and wider, but it is because of the influence of
above.
the test chambers width, as shown above.
Notice that in both cases corner 3 has the same shape as corner 4. Similarly, the entrance section of diffuser 4 is the same as o
power
plant
section,
and using
semi-angle
this item
is also well defined.
Notice that in
both
cases
corner
3 hasa diffuser
the same
shapeofas3,5,
corner
4. Similarly,
the entrance section
of diffuser 4Atisthis
thestage
same
as
of
the
power
plant
section,
and
using
a
diffuser
semi-angle of 3,5,
we have completely defined the wind tunnel centre line, so that we can calculate the length, LCL, and width,
this item is using:
also well defined.
At this stagewe
have
completely defined the wind tunnel centre line, so that we can calculate
/2 /2 Inline formula
the length, LCL, and width, WCL, using:
L
CL
= (L
C1
- W EC 1 / 2) + L
D1
+L
TC
+L
+L
ST
+ (L
C4
- W ED5 / 2)
The distance between the exit of the corner 1 and the centre of the corner 2, DC1_CC2, can be calculated through the expression
Figure 11):
W CL = (W C 4 - W EC 4 / 2) + L
D5
+ (W C 3 - W ED4 / 2).
. Inline formula
The distance between the exit of the corner 1 and the centre of the corner 2, DC1_CC2, can be
calculated through
the expression (see Figure 11):
6.0
DC 1_CC 2 = W CL
5.0 - W ED1 rC 1 +
1
2
).
On the other4.0hand:
DC 1_CC 2 = L
3.0
D2
2.0
+ (W C 2 - W EC 2 / 2)
W EC 2 = W ED21.0 eC 2
W C 2 = W ED2 0.0(rC 2 + eC 2)
1.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
TestSection
Contraction
SettlingChamber
Diffuser1
Corner1
Corner4
Diffuser5
Corner3
Diffuser4
PowerPlant
Diffuser2
Corner2
10.0
Diffuser3
Figure 10. Non-dimensional scheme of a wind tunnel with rectangular section test chamber and low contraction ratio, N5.
22
The distance between the exit of the corner 1 and the centre of the corner 2, DC1_CC2, can be calculated through the expression
Figure 11):
Wind Tunnel Designs
and Their Diverse Engineering Applications
. Inline formula
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
1.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
TestSection
Contraction
SettlingChamber
Diffuser1
Corner1
Corner4
Diffuser5
Corner3
Diffuser4
PowerPlant
Diffuser2
Corner2
10.0
Diffuser3
Figure 10. Non-dimensional scheme of a wind tunnel with rectangular section test chamber and low contraction ratio, N5.
Figure 10. Non-dimensional scheme of a wind tunnel with rectangular section test chamber and low contraction ra
tio, N5.
On the other hand:
W ED2 = W EC 1 + 2 L
D2 tan
(D2 / 2).
DC 1_CC 2 - W EC 1 (rC 2 + eC 2 / 2)
With this value, by substituting it into the previous expressions, we have all the parameters to
design diffusers 2 and 3, and corner 2. Finally, it is necessary to check that the opening angles
of diffuser 3 are below the limit. In case when the vertical opening angle, , exceeds the limit,
the best option is to increase the diffuser 1 length, if this is possible, because it improves flow
quality and reduces pressure loss. If the wind tunnel length is in the limit, another option is to
add the diffuser 5 to the original scheme. However, it will increase the overall width. When
the limit of the horizontal opening angle, , is exceeded, then the best option is to adjust the
values of the expansion ratio in corners 1 and 2, because it will not change the overall dimen
sions.
The following case study is a wind tunnel with high contraction ratio, N9, and square section
test chamber. In this case, the approximate area of the power plant section will be 2,000 x 2,000
m2. In this case we have two compatible options to select the power plant. We can just select
a matrix of 4 fans, 1,000 m diameter each. However, if the operating speed is rather high, in
order to be able achieve the required pressure increment and the mass flow, we may need to
use 1,250 m diameter fans. Figure 12 shows both options. Note that the overall planform is
only slightly modified and the only difference is the position where the power plant is placed.
The design of the diffusers 2 and 3, and the corner 2 will be done following the same method
as for the previous cases.
23
Corner 2
WC2
Diffuser 2
DC1_CC2
WC1
Power Plant
WEC2
Diffuser 3
WED2
WCL
LD1
WEC1
WED1
Corner 1
Figure 11. Scheme with the definition of the variable involving the design of diffuser 2 and 3, and corner 2.
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0
TestSection
Corner1
Diffuser4
Diffuser3
1.0
2.0
Contraction
Corner4
PowerPlant
fandiameter1.25
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
SettlingChamber
Diffuser5
Diffuser2
fandiameter1.25
Diffuser1
Corner3
Corner2
fandiameter1.25
Figure 12. Non-dimensional scheme of a wind tunnel with square section test chamber and high contraction ratio, N9. Two different stan
One of the most important points mentioned in this chapter refers to the wind tunnel cost, intending to offer low cost de
solutions. Up to now we have mentioned such modifications to the power plant, proposing a multi-fan solution instead o
traditional special purpose single fan.
The second and most important point is the wind tunnels construction. The most common wind tunnels, including those
square or rectangular test sections, have rounded return circuits, like in the case of the NLR-LSWT. However, the return circu
DNW wind tunnel is constructed with octagonal sections. Although the second solution is cheaper, in both cases different par
the circuit needed to be built in factories far away from the wind tunnel location, resulting in very complicated transporta
3.0
2.0
1.0
24
7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0
5. Wind tunnel
construction Contraction
TestSection
Corner1
Diffuser4
Diffuser3
3.0
4.0
Corner4
PowerPlant
fandiameter1.25
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
SettlingChamber
Diffuser5
Diffuser2
fandiameter1.25
Diffuser1
Corner3
Corner2
fandiameter1.25
One of the most important points mentioned in this chapter refers to the wind tunnel cost,
intending toFigure
offer12.low
cost design
solutions.
towith
now
we section
have test
mentioned
modifications
Non-dimensional
scheme
of a wind Up
tunnel
square
chamber andsuch
high contraction
ratio, N9. Two different stan
power
plant proposing
options are presented.
to the power
plant,
a multi-fan solution instead of the traditional special purpose
single fan.
5. Wind tunnel construction
The second and most important point is the wind tunnels construction. The most common
One of the most important points mentioned in this chapter refers to the wind tunnel cost, intending to offer low cost de
wind tunnels, including those with square or rectangular test sections, have rounded return
solutions. Up to now we have mentioned such modifications to the power plant, proposing a multi-fan solution instead of
circuits, liketraditional
in the case
ofpurpose
the NLR-LSWT.
However, the return circuit of DNW wind tunnel
special
single fan.
is constructed with octagonal sections. Although the second solution is cheaper, in both cases
The second and most important point is the wind tunnels construction. The most common wind tunnels, including those
different parts
of the circuit needed to be built in factories far away from the wind tunnel
square or rectangular test sections, have rounded return circuits, like in the case of the NLR-LSWT. However, the return circu
location, resulting
in tunnel
very iscomplicated
transportation
operation.
DNW wind
constructed with
octagonal sections.
Although the second solution is cheaper, in both cases different par
the circuit needed to be built in factories far away from the wind tunnel location, resulting in very complicated transporta
operation.
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0
TestSection
Corner4
Diffuser2
Contraction
Diffuser5
Corner2
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
SettlingChamber
Corner3
Diffuser3
6.0
7.0
8.0
Diffuser1
Diffuser4
Figure 13. Non-dimensional scheme of a wind tunnel with rectangular section test chamber and large contraction ratio, N9.
Figure 13. Non-dimensional scheme of a wind tunnel with rectangular section test chamber and large contraction
ratio, N9.
To reduce the costs, all the walls can be constructed with flat panels, which can be made on site from wood, metal or even conc
like in the case of ITERs wind tunnel. Figure 14 shows two wind tunnels built with wood panels and aluminium standard pr
structure.
To reduce the
all theshown
wallsin can
be14constructed
with
flaton
panels,
which
beTechnological
made on Centre of the UPM
Bothcosts,
wind tunnels
Figure
are open circuit.
The one
the left is
locatedcan
in the
Getafemetal
(Madrid)
its concrete,
test chamberlike
section
is 1,201,00
m.ITERs
Its main wind
application
is mainly
research.
The right one is located in
site from wood,
orand
even
in the
case of
tunnel.
Figure
14 shows
Airplane Laboratory of the Aeronautic School of the UPM. Its test chamber section is 0,801,20 m, and it is normally used
two wind tunnels built with wood panels and aluminium standard profile structure.
Both wind tunnels shown in Figure 14 are open circuit. The one on the left is located in the
Technological Centre of the UPM in Getafe (Madrid) and its test chamber section is 1,20 x 1,00
m2. Its main application is mainly research. The right one is located in the Airplane Laboratory
of the Aeronautic School of the UPM. Its test chamber section is 0,80 x 1,20 m2, and it is normally
used for teaching purposes, although some research projects and students competitions were
done there as well. Despite the fact that these tunnels are open circuit, the construction
solutions can be also applied to closed circuit ones.
Figure 14. Research and education purpose wind tunnels built with wood panel and standard metallic profiles, with
multi-fan power plant.
According to our experience, the manpower cost to build a wind tunnel like those defined in
figures 9 to 13 could be 3 man-months for the design and 16 man-months for the construction.
With these data, the cost of the complete circuit, excluding power plant, would be about
70.000,00 . In our opinion, the cost figure is very good, considering the fact that the complete
building time possibly may not exceed even 9 months.
We have more reliable data with regard to the ITER wind tunnel, built in 2000-01. The whole cost
of the wind tunnel, including power plant, work shop and control room, was 150.000,00 .
This wind tunnel was almost completely built with concrete. Figure 15 shows different stages
of the construction, starting from laying the foundations to the almost final view. The small
photos show the contraction, with the template used for wall finishing, and the power plant.
6. Conclusions
A method for quick design of low speed and low cost wind tunnels, either for aeronautical
and/or civil applications, has been presented.
The possibility of deciding between both applications means that the method allows achieving
flow quality level as good as desired.
The method also allows to the designer to get a quick and rough estimation of the overall wind
tunnel size, once the main design parameters are given.
The guidelines to choose the secondary design parameters are given as well.
To address the low cost of design and construction, the use of a multi fan power plant and
rectangular duct sections is proposed as well.
25
26
Figure 15. Photographic sequence of the construction of the ITER Low Speed Wind Tunnel. The top left picture shows
the foundations, the top right the contraction, the bottom left the power plant and the bottom right a view from the
outside almost at the end of the construction.
Nomenclature
CFD
DC1_CC2
Distance between the exit of the corner 1 and the centre of the corner 2
DF
DH
ei
F0
m2
F1
m2
Hent
Hexit
Li
Duct i length
li
LSWT
LWT
Contraction ratio
nW, nH
Volumetric flow
m3/s
m
Corner radius
Re
ri
t1
m/s
VTC
m/s
WCL, LCL
Went
Wexit
Wij, Hij
WTT
(xN,yN)
(xW,yW)
i /2
deg
i /2
deg
Pa
Fan efficiency
kg/m3
27
28
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge to Instituto Tecnolgico y de Energas Renovables
(ITER) and to Grupo _3 of the UPM for their contribution.
Author details
Miguel A. Gonzlez Hernndez1, Ana I. Moreno Lpez1, Artur A. Jarzabek1,
Jos M. Perales Perales1, Yuliang Wu2 and Sun Xiaoxiao2
1 Polytechnic University of Madrid, Spain
2 Beijing Institute of Technology, China
References
[1] Barlow, J. B, Rae, W. H, & Pope, A. Low-speed wind tunnel testing, John Wiley & Sons
New York, (1999). rd ed.
[2] Borger, G. G. The optimization of wind tunnel contractions for the subsonic range,
NASA Technical Translation / F-16899, NASA Washington, (1976).
[3] Eckert, W. T, Mort, K. W, & Jope, J. Aerodynamic design guidelines and computer
program for estimation of subsonic wind tunnel performance, NASA technical note /
D-8243, NASA Washington, (1976).
[4] Gorlin, S. M, & Slezinger, I. I. Wind tunnels and their instrumentation, Israel Program
for Scientific Translations Jerusalem, (1966).
[5] IdelCik. I.E., Memento des pertes de charge: Coefficients de pertes de charge singu
lires et de pertes de charge par frottement, Eyrolles Editeur, Paris (1969).
[6] Maskell, E. C. A theory of the blockage effects on bluff bodies and stalled wings in a
closed wind tunnel, R. & M. 3400, November, (1963).
[7] Mehta, R. D, & Bradshaw, P. Design Rules for Small Low-Speed Wind Tunnels, Aero.
Journal (Royal Aeronautical Society), (1979). , 73, 443.
[8] Scheiman, J. Considerations for the installation of honeycomb and screens to reduce
wind-tunnel turbulence, NASA Technical Memorandum / 81868, NASA Washington,
(1981).
[9] The Royal Aeronautical Society. Wind tunnels and wind tunnel test techniques, Royal
Aeronautical Society London, (1992).
Chapter 2
1. Introduction
Wind Tunnels have played and are continuing to play a significant role in providing controlled
test facilities in the aerodynamic research and development [1-43, 122-178].The present chapter
describes in detail, the design features of a subsonic return circuit wind tunnel that is currently
in operation at the Aerodynamics Laboratory of the University of New South Wales. It can be
considered to be a general purpose low speed tunnel with a sufficiently large contraction ratio.
It has a number of removable turbulence reduction screens to achieve low turbulence level. It
also has the provision of removable principal test section and three alternative test section
arrangements located at various parts of the wind tunnel circuit. The wind tunnel can provide
a wind speed in the range of 0-170 ft/sec at the lowest turbulence level. The top speed can be
200 ft/sec, if a higher turbulence level and spatial non-uniformities produced by omission of
the screens can be tolerated.
Floor space limitations of approximately of 65 ft x 12 ft have meant that the tunnel be vertical
in the vertical plane. From such consideration and ease of wind tunnel experiments, the test
section was placed at the laboratory floor level and the return circuit above the test section.
The upper structure of the laboratory roof was too flimsy and inaccessible for satisfactory
location of the fan and drive in that area so that the fan and the drive had to be at the floor
level. The fan is, therefore, placed downstream of the test section and first diffuser and
upstream of the first cascade corner. This unconventional arrangement is not, however,
without precedent; similar layout has been used in the N.B.S. 4.5 ft low turbulence wind tunnel
and Wichita University 10 ft x 7 ft wind tunnels [44-46].
2013 Ahmed; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
30
Figure 1. Side View of the Subsonic Wind Tunnel of the University of New South Wales
2. General considerations
The configuration chosen presents several design advantages as well as disadvantages. These
are detailed below:
Advantages:
1.
Because the fan is located in a comparatively high speed portion of the tunnel, a favourable
flow coefficient for a given tip speed may be more easily obtained, leading to high rotor
efficiency
2.
Except in the case of high lift or very bluff models, good inlet flow conditions to fan are
obtained. This situation does not always occur in tunnels with the conventional fan
location immediately after the second cascade corner. Maldistribution of flow may exist
due to faulty turning vane performance or the need to pass the fan rotor drive shaft
through the second cascade turning vanes. This, in turn, leads to reduced rotor perform
ance and increased noise levels.
3.
Flow disturbances created by the fan and its tail fairing in the conventional arrangement
may adversely affect the performance of the main return circuit diffuser and hence the
wind tunnel. The closed circuit type of diffuser is very sensitive to malfunctions in this
diffuser [44,46-48]
4.
The long flow return path between the fan and test section aids in achieving a low open
tunnel turbulence level. This permits a reduction in the number of screens for certain types
of test.
Design Features of a Low Turbulence Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel Having Interchangeable Test Sections
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52989
Disadvantages:
1.
Since the fan is located in line of sight of the test section, care must be taken in the fan
design to keep the noise level at the lowest possible value. Sound waves cause air motions
which produce an effect similar to that of turbulence and this may place a lower limit on
the tunnel turbulence level [44, 45, 49-51] In a tunnel with conventional fan location, the
higher noise frequencies are partly attenuated by the two sets of turning vanes separating
the fan and test section. Sound power transmitted to the test section from the fan may,
however, be reduced by the tunnel breather slot or the use of ducts with acoustic absorbent
inserts [49].
2.
Since, for reasons of safety, the fan must be observed in the design of the screen to prevent
its causing a high energy loss.
3.
Care must be exercised in the design of the fan prerotator blades (if fitted) to render them
comparatively insensitive to flow changes caused by the presence of high lifting or bluff
models in the test section. The contraction ratio was approximately 7:1, similar to one
employed in the N.B.S. 4.5 ft tunnel.
Considerable difficulties had to be overcome in the erection of the tunnel components, none
the least of which were the strengthening of the comparatively light floor and roof structures
of the laboratory so as to absorb lifting and installation stresses. In its present configuration,
the tunnel has an overall length of 67.5 ft, an overall height of 27.5 ft and an overall length of
11.5 ft, excluding interchangeable test sections. Various components of the wind tunnel were
built over a period, and the overall work from the start of design to manufacture of various
components to final installation took about five years to complete.
31
32
When the original layout was developed, provisions were made to provide arrangements for
removable test sections in various parts of the tunnel circuit. Four such test sections have been
provided for. The possible configuration for each of the four is described below:
1.
A principal test section having dimensions of cross section of 50 inch x 36 inch and 9.75 ft
long and a speed range of 20 to 200 ft/sec.
2.
A large test section can be inserted between the screen box/settling chamber assembly and
the contraction, the latter being rolled back on a rail system after removal of the principal
test section. This large test section is an octagon having maximum dimensions of 10 ft x
10 ft x 9.75 ft and a speed range of from 2 to 30 ft/sec. This test section is useful for a range
of industrial aerodynamics tests.
3.
4.
A vertical test section which may be interposed in the tunnel circuit in place of the fourth
diffuser. This test section permits testing in a vertical airstream and is of octagonal section
having maximum dimensions of 5.1 ft x 5.1.ft and a speed range of from 10 to 100 ft/sec.
Of the above four, the first two have been constructed. The test sections were constructed of
waterproof quality plywood of either inch or 1 inch thick, supported on angle from frames.
Large viewing windows are provided from inch and inch thick Perspex set in aluminium
frames. The principal test section is provided with doors which open up one complete side
over a length of 5 ft and extend two-thirds of the way across the top of the test section to
improve accessibility. The tunnel floor is provided with a 3 ft diameter incidence change
turntable mounted on a wire bearing race and controlled by a worm and piston drive. The
principal test section is removed by means of an overhead travelling trolley and rail system.
The large test section is traversed into position by means of a transverse floor rail system which
aligns the walls and then by a set of translation tables which move the test section axially
forward approximately 4 inches to close the pressure seal. Tapered dowel pins are used to
secure accurate alignment of internal airline surfaces and over centre clamps are used to secure
the vertical sections together.
3.2. Screen settling chamber design
Wind tunnel screens are required to perform at least two functions, that is, to reduce the:
1.
2.
airstream spatial non-uniformities before entrance into the contraction and test section
Design Features of a Low Turbulence Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel Having Interchangeable Test Sections
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52989
the test section and contraction must consist of wires of the smallest diameter that are consistent
with the strength required.
Batchelor [53] reports from experimental work that u and v turbulence components are
reduced by factors of 0.36 and 0.54 respectively for wire screens having a resistance co-efficient
of 2.0. According to additional experimental work by Dryden and Schubauer [B6), the mean
turbulence intensity is reduced by the factor of 0.58 for k=2.0 screen and they propose the
following relationship based on experiment but confirmed by appropriate theory:
U1/U3= (1+k)-0.5
U1 and U3 are the mean turbulence intensities before and after the screens respectively. The
relationship between the screen open area ratio or porosity and resistance co-efficient is best
found from the data of Annand [54].
The analysis of Batchelor and Drydoen and Schubaureer reveal that it is best to employ a
number of screens in series and that of Batchelor indicates that it is the reduction of v
component which is most difficult. Relation of the v component to the required level will
automatically ensure that the u component is reduced to a correspondingly low value.
3.2.2. Flow non-uniformity reduction
The screens are also required to reduce the flow spatial non-uniformities before the airstream
enters the contraction.
A theoretical analysis by Batchelor [55] and an earlier analysis by collar [56] have shown that
for steady non-uniform flow, the U component non-uniformities are reduced in the ratio:
(2 K ) / (2 + k )
This expression implies that if k=2, the non-uniformities are completely removed. The analysis
by Batchelor [53] indicates that the reduction factor can be more accurately expressed as:
(1 + K ) / (1 + + K )
where is the screen deflection coefficient defined as the ratio of (air exit angle)/(air entry
angle)
Taking the approximate value of [56], the reduction factor for k=2 and =0.64 is seen to be
0.1. Batchelor gives the theoretical reduction for V or transverse velocity non-uniformity
component as or 0.64 for a screen of resistance coefficient 2.0.
3.2.3. Limitations on screen arrangement
Batchelor analysis indicates that the v component of turbulence is reduced by increasing k to
a value of 4. However, screens having a resistance coefficient greater than 2 are not normally
used, particularly for the final screen, for the following reasons:
33
34
1.
2.
Works by Bradshaw [57], Patel [58] and De Bray [59] have revealed that the final screen
open-area ratios of less than 60% are likely to cause the development of flow instabilities
of the type described by Morgan [60]. These instabilities produce small angular deviations
in the flow downstream of the screens. De Bray suggests that a system of helical vortices
originates at the screens and persists through the contraction and interacts with the test
section boundary layers. The ultimate effect is to cause lateral variations in thickness and
skin friction distribution in the test section boundary layers. Patel also reports that a
similar effect is apparent if the screens are allowed to accumulate a build up of dust.
Although a single screen resistance coefficient of 2.0 implies screen porosities of about
50%, it is necessary to use, at least for the final screen, a resistance coefficient of approxi
mately 1.4 at 30 ft/sec in order to achieve a porosity of 57%. This is equivalent to a 20 mesh
by 30 or 31 gauge wire screen.
There is also evidence to suggest that test section boundary layer disturbance of the type
previously mentioned may be avoided by the use of a precision honeycomb located down
stream of the last screen [B1,B9,B17]. However, such a device must have very small cell sizes,
be of precision, and hence costly, construction and must be located in a very long settling length
upstream of the contraction so as to reduce test section turbulence to a value equivalent to that
obtained by the use of screen alone.
If screens are used, the attainment of a low turbulence level requires that use of several
turbulence reduction screens each with a resistance co-efficient of less than 2. Following
suggestion by Perry [B10], it appears reasonable to optimise the screen configuration by the
selection of individual screen resistance coefficients which give the maximum reduction in
turbulence intensity and spatial non-uniformity with the minimum overall loss. However, in
this tunnel, four screens of equal porosity give almost the optimum performance
3.2.4. Screen spacing and settling length
Because of space limitations, it is not usual in wind tunnel design to allow the full length
between the turbulence reduction screens required for complete decay of the turbulence
introduced by the screen wires. Dryden and Abbott [45] suggest that the turbulence is of the
order of the wire diameter wire at a distance of about 200 wire diameters downstream of a
screen. A survey of various designs [51] indicates that inter-screen settling lengths to wire
diameter ratios of as little as 250 are used. Dryden and Schubauer [62] found that no measurable
effect on the test section turbulence level of the N.B.S. 4 ft tunnel was observed when the
inter-screen spacing was varied from 2 to 28 inches. Bradshaw and Pankhurst [44] suggest a
distance of 500 wire diameters.
The parallel length after the last screen should, however, be as long as possible, consistent with
the space available. Most designs for low turbulence wind tunnels appear to have minimum
values of about 2000 to 3000 wire diameters [51]. Work of Manton and Luxton [63] shows that
Design Features of a Low Turbulence Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel Having Interchangeable Test Sections
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52989
the final period of turbulent decay is reached after a distance of approximately 700 wire
spacings.
The University of New South Wales 4 ft x 3 ft wind tunnel has a provision for four removable
turbulence reduction screens which have an inter-screen settling length of 400 wire diameters
and a final settling length of 2000 wire diameters based on the use of 30 gauge wire gauge. A
larger final settling length could not be achieved due to inadequate allowance for the screens
and turning vanes in the original aerodynamic layout. However, a removable screen facility
permits a considerable variety in screen settling length arrangements. The final screen was 20
mesh by 30 or 31 gauge wire and the remaining screens were the same to reduce turbulence
and spatial non-uniformities with minimum overall pressure loss.
Because of the long return path between the fan and test section and the closeness of the vane
spacing in the fourth cascade, the empty tunnel turbulence level was of the order of 0.2 to 0.3
%, falling to 0.08 to 0.1% with four screens fitted. The similar N.B.S. tunnel had had a turbulence
level of 0.26% without screens, decreasing to 0.04% with six screens fitted.
The screen box of the University of New South Wales tunnel is manufactured from inch
waterproof quality plywood reinforced by steel angle iron frames. The wire screens are
clamped by bolting between removable pairs of 3 inch x 2 inch Oregon frames which are a neat
sliding fit between pairs of similar fixed frames. The movable frames are supported on
overhead tracks by sets of small ball-bearing wheels. Ample space has been provided around
the edges of the screen box to install spring loaded screen tensioners, or individual frame air
seals. The removable frames are provided with adjustable transverse stops and quick acting
clamps so as to ensure their accurate and rigid alignment. The screen box door is sealed by a
refrigeration type hollow rubber seal and is locked in position by means of eight swing over
bolts and large hand wheels. Extensions of the screen sliding tracks are provided outside the
screen box to enable the screens to be removed easily.
4. Contraction design
A large contraction ratio is desirable for many reasons, some of which are:
1.
A low air speed is obtained in the settling chamber thus permitting the installation of
several low loss turbulence reduction screens without excessive power absorption
2.
Because of the resulting low air speed in the settling chamber, turbulence generated in the
last screen is lower for a given wire diameter
3.
For a well designed contraction, the ratio of turbulence intensity to the mean speed will
decrease as the mean speed increases at the test section entrance
4.
A large contraction ratio, in conjunction with several damping screens, renders the tunnel
test section characteristics least susceptible to disturbance in the tunnel circuit, such as
those caused by high lift or bluff models [44].
35
36
In general, modern wind tunnels are designed for very low turbulence levels require contrac
tion ratios of 12 to 16, in conjunction with up to six turbulence reduction screens. However,
quite low turbulence levels may be obtained in wind tunnels with a contraction ratio of the
order of 7:1, with four to six screens, and in conjunction with closely spaced vanes in the corner
upstream of the settling chamber, as for example, in the N.B.S. 4 ft tunnel [45].
The contraction ratio selected for the University of New South Wales tunnel produces
reduction in the percentage longitudinal velocity non-uniformities by a factor of 1/n2 or 0.022
[B19] and of the mean RMS turbulence intensity by a factor of the order of [45] :
U/UT= (2n/3+1/3n2)
0.5
/n= 0.31
2.
3.
4.
5.
Details of these methods can be found in References 64 to 84. The method employed for the
University of New South Wales tunnel was to sketch in the shape, keeping in mind the
demands of the constructional material techniques selected and the requirements for satisfac
tory performance [44, 46, 48, 64, 66, 69 and 85]. The contraction length was first estimated from
the fact that, for contraction ratios of the order of 6 to 10:1, the ratio [51], the length to major
inlet dimension, lies within 0.8 to 1.2.
The inlet and exit radii of curvatures are approximately 8 and 11 ft respectively for the
University of New South Wales tunnel. The resultant contraction shape is very similar to that
Design Features of a Low Turbulence Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel Having Interchangeable Test Sections
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52989
derived from an approximate theoretical solution by Cohen and Ritchie [64]. The contraction
shape was approximately checked by the application of finite differences applied to the
solution of the Laplace equation in radial symmetry [83]. A model was built and satisfactorily
tested to confirm further the assumed design shape.
The contraction of the tunnel was manufactured from in marine ply, mitred and reinforced
at the junction of the octagonal sides and built within accurately shaped frames of 3 inch x 2
inch Oregon. The Oregon frames were mounted at 1 ft centres upon a base consisting of
three longitudinal bearers of 6 inch x 4 inch Oregon. Flanged wheels and a rail system are
mounted under the contraction to enable it to be moved axially along the tunnel centreline
between the settling chamber and first diffuser.
5. Diffuser design
As mentioned in section 1, space limitation prevented the fitting of a controlled rapid expan
sion and the achievement of the optimum contraction ratio of 12 to 16:1. When it is possible to
fit such an arrangement, a variety of flow stabilization methods of varying suitability are
available for wide angle diffusers [86-94].
Considerable data is also available for the conventional diffuser design [98-104 ]. Unfortu
nately, however, little of this information has direct application to the design of threedimensional octagonal section wind tunnel diffusers of any practical compact design must
entail a certain amount of guess work or knowledge of previous experience in the selection of
appropriate diffuser angles. For example, attempts to use the data of Ref D6 would indicate
that for the large return diffuser of area ratio of 2.85:1, two-dimensional diffuser angles of up
to 120 might be employed. However, experience with the square cross-section three-dimen
sional main return diffuser of the R.A.E. No. 2, 11 ft x 8 ft, wind tunnel1 indicated that
equivalent cone angles of about 50 are satisfactory for this application. Shorter diffusers may
employ somewhat larger angles and advantage has been taken of the fact in the design of the
University of New South Wales tunnel where the equivalent cone angles used vary from 5.20
in the longest diffuser to a maximum of approximately 6 0 in the shortest diffusers.
The first diffuser downstream of the test section is a particularly difficult design problem as
the flow maldistribution caused by high lift and bluff models must be taken into account.
Moreover, work by Willis [105] indicates that unsteady flow in the diffuser is responsible for
a rise in a measured wall pressure spectra at low frequencies. The University of New South
Wales tunnel has an essentially two-dimensional first diffuser with an included angle of 7 0
and area ratio of 1.4:1 (equivalent cone angle of 3.40). Reference D6 indicates that a diffuser
angle of up to 170 might be employed without separation for this diffuser.
Diffuser performance is also related to the inlet boundary layer thickness and free stream
turbulence level [98, 99, 101-104). This makes the estimation of tunnel diffuser losses difficult.
In the estimation shown in Table 1, the five diffusers contribute 37% of the tunnel loss, the first
diffuser alone being about 14% of the tunnel loss. The design of the diffusion zone over the
37
38
fan tail-fairing is a special problem and has been conveniently summarised by Russel and
Wallis [106].
Diffuser numbers 4 and 5 of the University of New South Wales were built from inch thick
exterior waterproof quality plywood with angle iron and 5 inch x 1 inch timber supporting
frames. All sections are octagonal in shape as this permitted short length transitions to be made
between the main components of the return circuit and circular fan ducting. The mitred sides
of the octagons are constructed of 1/ inch ply mounted on 3 in x 2 in Oregon frames inside the
main diffuser shell.
Diffuser No.1, the fan ducting and associated transitions are constructed from 16 gauge mild
steel sheet which is reinforced with angle iron frames and rectangular bar steel frames and
stringers.
Heavy Perspex windows and fluorescent lighting are fitted to enable easy visualisation of flow
performance of the tunnel components. Each leg of the tunnel circuit between the turning vane
cascades is provided with one or more quick opening doors for easy access. The doors are
sealed with circular, foam rubber cord, formed into shape of an O ring.
Design Features of a Low Turbulence Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel Having Interchangeable Test Sections
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52989
quent literature [44]. Salters data has been recalculated according to the conventional cascade
definition of s/c ratio
The thin circular arc vanes tested by Salter appear to have a minimum loss co-efficient at an s/
c ratio of between 0.3 and 0.4. The difference in the magnitude of the loss co-efficient for the
Salter type 2 and 3 vanes could be due to the slightly different camber angles, but it is most
likely due to the threefold increase in Reynolds number for the type 3 vanes. The series of tests
by Ahmed revealed a considerable variation in loss coefficient with Reynolds number up to a
value of about 4 x 105 after which the loss coefficient remained essentially constant. The curves
designated Salter 2 and 3 are mean loss coefficients for a cascade corner including losses due
to boundary layer and secondary flow effects. Salter also measured the loss coefficient for the
potential flow region alone. The greater relative difference can be attributed to the fact that the
lesser number of vanes and lower aspect ratio of the type 3 vanes contributes to a larger
secondary flow loss. Salter concludes that for 900, thin circular arc turning vanes, having 10%
straight tangent extensions on the leading and trailing edges, the mean loss coefficient should
not exceed 0.1 for Reynolds numbers in excess of 2 x 105. Salter recommends that, to ensure
flow stability, the gap chord ratio should be about 0.2 with a vane aspect ratio greater than 3.
This gap chord ratio of 0.2 corresponds to an s/c ratio of 0.28 by the conventional cascade
definition. Also evident from Salters results is that the optimum s/c ratio for thick aerofoil
profile vanes is in the region of 0.5 to 0.6.
The types of thin sheet metal vanes tested by Silberman[110] have a minimum loss coefficient
at an s/c ratio of 0.5 to 0.7 depending upon the vane shape. The curves shown represent the
loss coefficients in the potential flow region only. Silbermans results for thick vanes indicate
a minima at an s/c value of 0.5.
Since s/c is not the only parameter determining the turning vane design for wind tunnels, a
choice must be made of either vane spacing s or chord c. This apparent variation possible
in this choice is exemplified by the values for the fourth cascade corners of two successful wind
tunnels of roughly comparable size and performance, i.e., the R.A.E. 4 ft x 3 ft and N.B.S. 4
ft tunnels. For the R.A.E. tunnel, an s/c ratio of 0.26 was selected using thick profiled turning
vanes of 30 inch chord. For the N.B.S. tunnel, the s/c ratio was 0.52 with a chord of 2 7/8 inches,
employing thin sheet metal vanes. These two designs represent opposite limits of cascade
performance. The R.A.E. vanes appear to have been designed for low loss, whereas those of
the N.B.S tunnel were designed for low turbulence. The large chord of the R.A.E. vanes implies
high Reynolds numbers and lower loss coefficients. In the N.B.S. tunnel1, the smaller blade
spacings selected (approximately 1 inches) resulted in a lower turbulence level measured at
the screen location. The u turbulence component of the N.B.S. tunnel1 referred to the settling
chamber velocity and, measured in the settling chamber downstream of the fourth cascade,
was about 2.3% and about 60% greater than the v or w components. This is a favourable
design situation as it is the v and w components which are least reduced by passage through
the screens and contraction. In the R.A.E. tunnel, the turbulence level in the comparable
location was about 5 % and roughly equal for all three components.
It, therefore, appears that wind tunnel turning vanes can be constructed from thin sheet metal
circular arcs, having an s/c ratio in the region of 0.28 to 0.35 and a passage aspect ratio of 6 or
39
40
more. It appears that vanes for more than 900 corners should have a camber angle of 860 to
870 and that they should be set initially at a positive angle of about 30 to 40 with trailing edge
angle of zero relative to the tunnel centreline at exit. The selection of the value of blade spacing
depends upon the application envisioned. Low turbulence tunnels require that small blade
spacing be used, for example, a spacing dimension of 2 inch or 3 inch would be unreasonable.
Tunnels not requiring a low open tunnel turbulence level might employ spacing dimensions
of 12 to 24 inches. Additional compromises to be effected are those of cost and structural
integrity. Small vane spacings imply a large number of thin vanes of small chord with a
resulting high cost and the possibility of vibration occurring due to relatively low vane natural
frequency. Tunnels designed for low corner losses might be designed with a relatively large
vane spacing and chord in order to ensure Reynolds numbers in excess of about 4 x 105. Salter
suggests that a minimum of 20 turning vanes should be used in low loss corners.
The university of New South Wales tunnel employs s/c ratios of 0.25 and 0.27 for the first and
the second cascade corners increasing to 0.31 for the third and fourth corners. Blade spacings
vary from 2 to 5 inches and the number of turning vanes from 41 to 33 for the first and fourth
cascade corners respectively. The maximum and minimum vane Reynolds numbers at design
speed are approximately 5 x 105 and 2.4 x 105 for the first and fourth corners respectively.
Turning vane t/c ratios vary between 0.7 to 1.5%.
Because the University of New South Wales wind tunnel cross section is octagonal at all
cascade corners and the vane chord is an appreciable dimension, special care had to be taken
in the design of the junction between the turning vanes and the octagonal fillet so as to prevent
the airstream expanding and subsequently contracting in its passage around the junction zone.
The problem was solved by the manufacture of special concave and convex cross sections
which were fitted in the cascade corner fillets. The shape of these special corner sections was
generated so as to provide a straight line intersection normal to the vane span at the junction
of each turning vane and the corresponding corner fillet.
All turning vanes were produced from 10 gauge (1/8 inch) mild steel plate by brake pressing.
The turning vanes are set in mild steel plate supporting frames which are reinforced with
angle iron.
Design Features of a Low Turbulence Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel Having Interchangeable Test Sections
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52989
The location of the fan in a relatively high speed portion of the tunnel is associated with a mean
rotor blade flow co-efficient of 0.56, which approaches the optimum range of flow coefficients
for high fan rotor efficiency with the amount of pre-rotation employed. However, there are
conflicting fan duty requirements due to the need for relatively high pressure rise and low fan
noise level.
As may be calculated from the estimated tunnel pressure loss characteristic, the fan duty required
is 3.8 in w.g. pressure rise at a flow of 1f 122,000 CFM. The tunnel coefficient utilisation is:
(test section energy)/ ( circuit losses) = 1.6 to 2.3
depending on the number of screens used.
These requirements have led to the selection of an 8-bladed fan rotor of 5 ft diameter, limited
to a maximum tip speed of 315 ft/sec. The rotor blade chords vary from 9.9 inches at the root
to 6.4 inches at the tip.
The noise spectrum from an axial flow fan can be described as consisting of two components:
broad band noise and discrete frequency noise.
Broad band noise is attributed to two basic mechanisms: vortex shedding from blade boundary
layers and interactions between the blading and random turbulence in the intake flow. The
theoretical analysis of Refs 116 and 117 show that, for rotor blades operating at their design
point, the vortex shedding component of broad band noise is proportional to blade relative
velocity to the power 5.6 and that the intake turbulence interaction component is proportional
to relative velocity to the power of 4. Reduction in broad band noise can thus be realized mainly
by keeping flow velocities adjacent to solid boundaries and, specifically, blade tip velocities,
to minimum values consistent with satisfactory aerodynamic performance.
Discrete frequency noise is caused by periodic aerodynamic interaction between fixed and
moving blade rows. Like broad band noise, discrete frequency noise has two basic mecha
nisms. These are the force fluctuations on individual blades which arise from variations in
mean velocity of the incoming flow. The data in Refs 116-118 indicate that interaction noise is
strongly dependent upon pre-rotator-rotor axial spacing and the shape and size of the
individual pre-rotator vanes. The axial spacing affects mainly the potential pressure field
interaction mechanism and the vane shape, the mean velocity variation mechanism. As an
example, the discussion to Ref 118 indicates that the pressure variation due to the wake
persistence is still about 10% of the maximum theoretically possible at a distance equal to one
stator chord downstream, for typical accelerating cascades. Experimental data seems to
indicate that, consistent with satisfactory aerodynamics, interaction noise is considerably
reduced by using separations between stator an rotor of three-quarters to one vane chord in
conjunction with small vane areas and slender profiles.
Blade sections chosen for the pre-rotators and rotor are C4 compressor sections on circular arc
camber lines [112,114-115 and 119]. These sections give high isolated aerofoil lift coefficients
at angles of incidence of 30 to 40 and have a high stalling incidence. The straightener design is
based on the use of the symmetrical NACA 0012 section which starts to stall at about 140 in
the isolated aerofoil condition. Pre-rotator blades of cambered plates were considered [117]
41
42
because of their comparatively low cost but were abandoned in view of their relatively poor
performance under off-design conditions when compared with C4 sections.
Another parameter requiring careful selection was the choice of boss ratio as this affects the
overall efficiency of the fan and tail fairing diffuser assembly. Due to the proximity of the first
cascade corner, this ratio was fixed at a value of 0.4 which is less than optimum for the rotor
alone.
The fan rotor blades have been stressed for centrifugal loading, torsional loads and loads due
to non-coincident profile centroids and estimates have been made of the blade natural
frequencies [120-121]. The fan rotor was dynamically balanced to an effective centre of gravity
displacement of 3 to 5 microns.
The fan design requires a power output of 90 HP at 1200 RPM and a variety of fan drive schemes
were considered. Thus a 90 HP compound wound DC motor and ancillaries that included
switchgear and speed variation equipment were purchased. The Ward Leonard type speed
control system proposed presented considerable difficulty in providing tunnel automatic
dynamic head control. In addition, aerodynamic problems were encountered in designing the
drive arrangement. A conventional shaft drive through the first cascade was at first envisaged
but abandoned when it was realised that the required fairing through the cascade turning
vanes caused severe blockage of a component which was already heavily loaded aerodynam
ically. A direct mechanical drive through a right angle bevel gearbox was next considered.
However, a large fairing was needed for the drive shaft and problems were encountered in a
gearbox design due to high power transmission requirements in a confined space. Alternative
drive systems such as eddy-current variable speed couplings and Thyristor controlled DC
drives were also investigated. All these units were costly and suffered from the same basic
disadvantage that the prime movers, being large, had to be located outside the tunnel and
required some sort of drive shaft arrangement through the tunnel structure to the fan rotor.
Thus the feasibility of using a hydraulic drive system was studied. This system comprises an
axial piston hydraulic pump driving similar motor unit and is of the same order of cost as the
other systems. The system has many advantages, the main ones being:
1.
The drive motor is only 10 inches in diameter and 20 inches long for maximum power
output of 125 HP at 1200 RPM. It fits radially inside the fan nacelle fairing where the local
diameter is 23 to 24 inches. This eliminates aerodynamic problems associated with a drive
shaft through the tunnel structure.
2.
Automatic tunnel dynamic head control can be obtained with conventional pneumatic
control equipment to a repeatability of 0.4 %.
3.
The motor speed is fully variable from 0 to 14oo RPM by means of a diaphragm actuator
and conventional pressure regulator.
4.
The hydraulic pump can be driven by a standard 415 volt, 3-phase induction motor, for
which installed electrical capacity was available.
The system finally selected consists of a 150 HP induction motor of 92% efficiency, driving a
Lucas PM 3000 series, seven axial piston hydraulic pump fitted with servo-control of the
Design Features of a Low Turbulence Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel Having Interchangeable Test Sections
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52989
swashplate angle. The servo is operated by a standard 3-15 psi diaphragm actuator. The pump
provides high pressure oil at approximately 2300 psi which is supplied to, and returned from
the motor by 1 inch outside diameter high pressure tubes through the fan straightener and
supporting vanes. Oil flow is approximately 3500 GHP and the overall efficiency of the
combined pump and rotor unit is of the order of 82 to 85 %, over the complete speed range.
The system also includes ancillary equipment such as a 70 gallon oil reservoir, an oil cooler,
boost pump and oil filtration equipment. The main disadvantage of the arrangement is high
noise level from the rotor. Provision was, therefore, included in the design for reducing noise
transmission of both hydraulic pump and motor.
The fan and drive system and first cascade corner are mechanically isolated from the rest of
the tunnel structure, and the laboratory floor, so as to prevent the possibility of any vibrations
being transmitted to the test section or instrumentation.
The fan rotor is mounted on an overhung bearing assembly supported off the front of the
straightener vane assembly. The straightener vanes are manufactured from inch mild steel
plate with radial and longitudinal plate stiffeners which both provide torsional rigidity and
define the aerodynamic profile of the straighteners. The front and the rear of the straightener
vanes are attached to heavy steel diaphragm plates at the hub. The front diaphragm plate
supports a rigid bearing assembly which carries the overhung fan rotor. The rear diaphragm
plate carries another diaphragm plate to which is bolted the hydraulic motor. A flexible
coupling connects the very short fan rotor drive shaft and the motor output shaft between the
front and rear diaphragm plates. Provision is made in the rotor bearing design to absorb the
400 lb rotor thrust loading. The five straightener vanes have bolted-on cast aluminium nose
and tail pieces with the sides sheathed in 16 gauge aluminium sheet.
The fan rotor is of built up construction with blades being held in split root fixings which are
in turn clamped between mild steel shroud plates. The rotor blades are high quality aluminium
alloy castings with large cylindrical root attachments which enable the blades to be adjusted
to any angle by releasing the rotor shroud plate clamping bolts.
The pre-rotator vanes are aluminium alloy castings and are clamped between the shroud plates
at the roots to form a rigid prerotator drum assembly. The nacelle nose and tail fairings are
spun from 16 gauge aluminium alloy sheet. The nose fairing is bolted on to the front of the
pre-rotator drum and the tail fairing to the rear diaphragm plate carrying the hydraulic motor.
Estimations have been made of the tunnel air temperature rise due to power dissipation around
the circuit. It was found that without any form of tunnel air exchange or heat exchanger, the
air temperature rose by as much as 10 to 150 C above ambient after a period of operation of
about 10 minutes at a speed of 150 ft/s in the principal test section. This may be doubled for
long periods of operation at 200 ft/sec.
The tunnel control system is reasonably straight forward. Instrumentation comprises an
optical tachometer, electric drive motor anemometer and pressure gauges for hydraulic
system. Electrical interlocks are provided against loss of hydraulic boost pressure and
inadvertent starting of the hydraulic system with the hydraulic motor set at the maximum
speed condition. Possible fan blade failures are provided for by a fan vibration cut-out switch.
43
44
9. Conclusion
A general purpose return circuit low speed wind tunnel has been designed for the Aerody
namics Laboratory of the University of New South Wales. A contraction ratio of 7:1 and four
turbulence reduction screens are used. Low turbulence level is achieved with the assistance of
some innovative design features. The fan is located upstream of the first corner. Corner cascade
and screen configurations have received special attention.
Other unusual aspects of the design are three sizes of interchangeable test sections in the speed
ranges of 0-25 ft/sec, 0-100 ft/sec and 0 -200 ft /sec.
The fan is driven by a hydraulic motor which considerably simplifies power transmission and
control problems in this application.
Acknowledgements
The Author wishes to gratefully acknowledge the hard works and dedication of Barry Motson
and the late Associate Professor Archer in the Design of this Wind Tunnel
Design Features of a Low Turbulence Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel Having Interchangeable Test Sections
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52989
Author details
N. A. Ahmed
School Of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of New South Wales,
Sydney, NSW, Australia
References
[1] Findanis, N, & Ahmed, N. A. Wind tunnel concept of proof investigations in the de
velopment of novel fluid mechanical methodologies and devices, invited Chapter, in
Wind Tunnels and Experimental Fluid Dynamics Research, edited by J.C. Lerner
and U.Boldes, published by In-Tech Organization, Austria, 978-9-53307-623-2July,
(2011).
[2] Ahmed, N. A. Wind driven Natural-Solar/Electric Hybrid Ventilators, in Wind
Power, Section D: The Environmental Issues, Chapter 21, edited by S.M.Muyeen
Kitami, published by In-Tech Organization, Austria, 978-9-53761-981-7February,
(2010).
[3] Lien, J, & Ahmed, N. A. Wind driven ventilation for enhanced indoor air quality, in
vited Chapter, in Chemistry, Emission, Control, Radiaoactive Pollution and Indoor
Air Quality, edited by Nicholas A Mazzeo, published by In-Tech Organization, Aus
tria, 978-9-53307-570-9June, (2011).
[4] Ahmed, N. A, Elder, R. L, Foster, C. P, Jones, J. D. C, & Novel, A. D Laser Anemome
ter for Boundary Layer Studies, ASME Conf, Boston, USA, 15th December (1987).
Also in the 3rd International Symposium on Laser Anemometry, edited by A Dybs et
al, ASME, The Fluids Engineering Division, , 55, 175-117.
[5] Ahmed, N. A, Elder, R. L, Foster, C. P, & Jones, J. D. C. Miniature Laser Anemometer
for 3D Measurements, J of Measurement Sc Technol, (1990). , 1, 272-276.
[6] Ahmed, N. A, Elder, R. L, Foster, C. P, & Jones, J. D. C. Miniature Laser Anemometer
for 3D Measurements, Engineering Optics, (1990). , 3(2), 191-196.
[7] Ahmed, N. A, Elder, R. L, Foster, C. P, & Jones, J. D. C. Laser Anemometry in Turbo
machines, IMechE Proc, Part G, J of Aerospace Engineering, (1991). , 205, 1-12.
[8] Ahmed, N. A, Hamid, S, Elder, R. L, Foster, C. P, Jones, J. D. C, & Tatum, R. Fibre
Optic Laser Anemometry for Turbo machinery Applications, Optics and Lasers in
Engineering, nos 2 and 3, (1992). , 15, 193-205.
[9] Ahmed, N. A, & Elder, R. L. Flow Behaviour in a High Speed Centrifugal Impeller
Passage under Design and Off-design Operating Conditions, Fluids and Thermal
Engineering, JSME International series B, February, (2000). , 43(1), 22-28.
45
46
Design Features of a Low Turbulence Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel Having Interchangeable Test Sections
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52989
[24] Ahmed, N. A. An acoustic energy concept for the design of a flow meter, Interna
tional Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, March (2003). , 8(1), 52-58.
[25] Pissasale, A, & Ahmed, N. A. Examining the effect of flow reversal on seven-hole
probe measurements, AIAA Journal, (2003). , 41(12), 2460-2467.
[26] Pissasale, A, & Ahmed, N. A. Development of a functional relationship between port
pressures and flow properties for the calibration and application of multi-hole
probes to highly three-dimensional flows, Experiments in Fluids, March, March,
(2004). , 36(3), 422-436.
[27] Shun, S, & Ahmed, N. A. Utilizing wind and solar energy as power sources for a hy
brid building ventilation device, Renewable Energy, June (2008). , 33(6), 1392-1397.
[28] Findanis, N, & Ahmed, N. A. The interaction of an asymmetrical localised synthetic
jet on a side supported sphere, Journal of Fluids and Structures, (2008). , 24(7),
1006-1020.
[29] Longmuir, M, & Ahmed, N. A. Commercial Aircraft Exterior Cleaning Optimiza
tion, AIAA, Journal of Aircraft, Jan-Feb issue, (2009). , 46(1), 284-290.
[30] Lien, S. J, & Ahmed, N. A. (2010). Numerical simulation of rooftop ventilator flow.
Building and Environment, , 45, 1808-1815.
[31] Lien, S. J, & Ahmed, N. A. (2011). Effect of inclined roof on the airflow associated
with a wind driven turbine ventilator. Energy and Buildings, , 43, 358-365.
[32] Lien, J, & Ahmed, N. A. An examination of the suitability of multi-hole pressure
probe technique for skin friction measurement in turbulent flow, in press, Journal of
Flow Measurement and Instrumentation, (2011). , 22, 153-164.
[33] Wu, C, & Ahmed, N. A. Numerical Study of Transient Aircraft Cabin Flowfield with
Unsteady Air Supply, AIAA Journal of Aircraft, Nov-Dec issue, (2011). , 48(6),
1994-2002.
[34] Findanis, N, & Ahmed, N. A. Three-dimensional flow reversal and wake characteri
sation of a sphere modified with active flow control using synthetic jet, Advances
and Applications in Fluid Mech, (2011). , 9(1), 17-76.
[35] Behfarshad, G, & Ahmed, N. A. Effect of unsteady and sinusoidally varying free
stream on turbulent boundary layer separation, Advances and Applications in Fluid
Mechanics, (2011). , 10(2), 79-98.
[36] Shun, S, & Ahmed, N. A. Airfoil Separation Control using Multiple Orifice Air Jet
Vortex Generators, AIAA Journal of Aircraft, Nov-Dec issue, (2011). , 48(6),
1994-2002.
[37] Ahmed, N. A. Engineering solutions towards cost effective sustainable environment
and living Journal of Energy and Power Engineering, February (2012). , 6(2),
155-167.
47
48
Design Features of a Low Turbulence Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel Having Interchangeable Test Sections
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52989
[54] Annand, P. The Resistance to Air Flow of Wire Gauges, J Royal Aero Soc, March,
(1953). , 141-146.
[55] Bachelor, G. K. On the Concept and Properties of the Idealised Hydrodynamic Re
sistance, ACA Report ACA-13, (1945).
[56] Collar, A. R. The Effect of a Gauge on Velocity Distribution in a Uniform Duct, ARC
R&M 1867, (1939).
[57] Bradshaw, P. The Effect of Wind Tunnel Screens on 2 D Boundary Layers, NPL Aero
Report 1085, December, (1963).
[58] Patel, N. P. The Effects of Wind Tunnel Screens and Honey Combs on the Spanwise
Variation and Honeycombs on the Spanwise Variation of Skin Friction in 2D Turbu
lent Boundary Layers, McGill University Mech Engg Tech Note October, (1964). ,
64-7.
[59] De Baray, B. G. Some Investigations into the Spanwise Non-uniformity of nominally
2D Incompressible Boundary Layers Downstream of Gauge Screens, ARC Fluid
Memo, FM 3863, ARC 29271, July (1967).
[60] Morgan, P. G. The Stability of Flow Through Porous Screens, J of Roy Aero Soc, June
(1960). , 359-362.
[61] Lumley, J. L. Passage of a Turbulent Stream Through Honeycomb of Large Length-to
Diameter Ratio, Tran ASME, Series D, June (1964). , 218-220.
[62] Dryden, H. L, & Schubauer, G. B. The Use of Damping Screens for the Reduction of
Wind Tunnel Turbulence, J of Aero Sci., April (1947). , 221-228.
[63] Manton, M. J, & Luxton, R. E. Note on the Decay of Isentropic Turbulence, Inst of
Engineers Austr. Conf. On Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, November, (1968). ,
93-97.
[64] Cohen, M. J, & Ritche, N. J. B. Low Speed 3D Contraction Design, J of Roy Aero Soc,
April, (1962). , 66, 232-236.
[65] Batchelor, G. K, & Shaw, F. S. A Consideration of the Design of Wind Tunnel Con
tractions, Aust Council Aeronautics Report, ACA-4, (1944).
[66] Cohen, I. A. An Experimental Comparison of the Flow Induced in the Working Sec
tion of a Wind Tunnel by Contractions having 2D and 3D Flow Characteristics,
Monash Univ Report, MME/65/1, August, (1965).
[67] Thwaites, B. On the Design of Contractions for Wind Tunnels, ARC R & M 2278,
March, (1946).
[68] Cheers, F. Notes on Wind Tunnel Contractions, R & M 2137, March, (1945).
[69] Gibbins, J. C, & Dixon, J. R. D Contracting Duct Flow, Quarterly J of Mech and Ap
plied Maths, (1957). , 10, 24-41.
49
50
[70] Stanitz, J. D. Design of 2D Channels with prescribed Velocity Distribution along the
Channel Walls, Part I: Relaxation Solutions, NACA TN 2593, 1952, Part II: Solutions
by Greens Function, NACA TN 2595, (1952).
[71] Smith, A. M. O, & Pierce, J. Exact Solutions of the Newmann Problem: Calculation of
Non-Circulatory Plane and Axially Symmetric Flows about or Within Arbitrary
Boundaries, Douglas Aircraft Co. Inc Report ES26988, April (1958).
[72] Gibbins, J. C. Design of an Annular Entry to a Circular Duct, Aero Qtly, (1959). , 10,
361.
[73] Libby, P. A, & Reiss, H. R. M. The Design of 2D Contraction Sections, QAM, vol IX,
April (1951).
[74] Jackson, J. D. A Description of some Wind Tunnel Contraction Design Data which
has been obtained using the Ferranti Mercury High Speed Digital Computer, ARC
Report 23, (1962).
[75] Harrop, R. A Method of Designing Wind Tunnel Contactions, J of Roy Aero Soc.,
(1951). , 55, 169-180.
[76] Smith, R. H, & Wang, C. T. Contracting Cones giving uniform Throat Speeds, J of
Aero Sc, October, (1944). , 11
[77] Jordinson, R. Design of Wind Tunnel Contractions, Aircraft Engg, October, (1944). ,
33, 294-297.
[78] Whitehead, L. G, Wu, L. Y, & Waters, M. H. L. Contracting Ducts of Finite Length,
Aero Qtly, February (1951). , 2, 254-271.
[79] Tsien, H. S. On the Design of the Contraction Cone for a Wind Tunnel, J of Aero Sci.,
(1943). , 10, 68-70.
[80] Szczeniowski, B. Contraction Cone for a Wind Tunnel, J of Aero Sci., (1943). , 10,
311-313.
[81] Lighthill, M. J. A new Method of 2D Aerodynamic design, ARC R & M., 2112, (1945).
[82] Lilley, G. M. Some Theoretical Aspects of Nozzle Design, M.Sc. Thesis, UL, (1945).
[83] Woods, L. C. A new Relaxation treatment of Flow with Axial Symmetry, Qtly J of
Mech and Appl Maths, Part 3, (1951). , 4, 358-370.
[84] Lau, W. T. F. An Analytical Method for the Design of 2D Contactions, J of Roy Aero
Soc, January, (1964). , 68
[85] Salter, C, & Raymer, W. C. The NPL 7 ft Wind Tunnel: Sundry Notes and Comments
following Measurements of Flow Distribution, Wall Pressures etc., NPL Aero Note
1023, October (1963).
Design Features of a Low Turbulence Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel Having Interchangeable Test Sections
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52989
51
52
Design Features of a Low Turbulence Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel Having Interchangeable Test Sections
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52989
[121] RoxbeeCox, H., (ed) Gas Turbine principles and Practice, Chapter 12: Vibrations, G.
Newnes, London, (1955).
[122] N.A.Ahmed, Investigation of dominant frequencies in the transition Reynolds num
ber range of flow around a circular cylinder Part I: Experimental study of the relation
between vortex shedding and transition frequencies, Journal of CSME, vol.19, No.2,
2006, pp159-167
[123] N.A.Ahmed, Investigation of dominant frequencies in the transition Reynolds num
ber range of flow around a circular cylinder Part II: Theoretical determination of the
relationship between vortex shedding and transition frequencies at different Rey
nolds numbers, Journal of CSME, vol.19, No.3, 2006, pp 317-326
[124] G.Behfarshad and N.A.Ahmed, Vortex flow asymmetry of slender Delta Wings, In
ternational Review of Aerospace Engineering, Vol.4, No.3, 2011, pp 184-188
[125] G.Behfarshad and N.A.Ahmed, Reynolds Stress Measurement Over Four Slender
Delta Wings, International Review of Aerospace Engineering, Vol.4, No.4, 2011, pp
251-257
[126] N.A.Ahmed, Detection of Separation bubble using spectral analysis of fluctuating
surface pressure, International review of Aerospace Engineering, International Re
view of Aerospace Engineering, vol.4, no. 4, June, 2011
[127] G.Behfarshad and N.A.Ahmed, Experimental Investigations of Sideslip Effect on
Four Slender Delta Wings, International Review of Aerospace Engineering, Vol.4,
No.4, 2011, pp 189-197
[128] N.A.Ahmed and J.R.Page, Real-time Simulation as a new tool in Future Advanced
Aerospace Project Design and Manufacturing Processes, Advanced Materials Re
search, Vols. 317-319 , 2011, pp 2515-2519
[129] N.A.Ahmed and J.R.Page, Developing and integrated approach to advanced aero
space project design in tertiary education, Advanced Materials Research, Vols.
317-319 , 2011. pp 2520-2529
[130] H. Riazi, and N.A. Ahmed, Numerical investigation of four orifice synthetic jet ac
tuators, International Review of Aerospace Engineering, Vol.4, No. 5, 2011, pp
272-276
[131] S. Shun and N.A. Ahmed, Airfoil Separation Control using Multiple Orifice Air Jet
Vortex Generators, AIAA Journal of Aircraft, vol 48, no.6, Nov-Dec issue, 2011, pp
1994-2002
[132] N.A.Ahmed, Engineering solutions towards cost effective sustainable environment
and living Journal of Energy and Power Engineering, Vol 6, No.2, February 2012,
pp155-167
53
54
[133] S. Shun and N.A. Ahmed, Design of a Dynamic Stall Test Rig, Applied Mechanics
and Materials Vols. 215-216 (2012) pp 785-795, (2012) Trans Tech Publications,
Switzerland
[134] G.Behfarshad and N.A.Ahmed, Investigation of Newtonian liquid jets impacting on
a moving smooth solid surface, Advances and Applications in Fluid Mechanics, vol.
12, no.1, 2012
[135] S. Shun and N.A. Ahmed, Rapid Prototyping of Aerodynamics Research Models,
Applied Mechanics and Materials Vols. 217-219 (2012) pp 2016-2025, (2012) Trans
Tech Publications, Switzerland
[136] N.A.Ahmed, Novel developments towards efficient and cost effective wind energy
generation and utilization for sustainable environment, Renewable and Power Qual
ity Journal, ISSN 2172-038X, No. 10, April issue, pp PL4, 2012
[137] Y.Y.Zheng, N.A.Ahmed and W.Zhang, Feasibility Study of Heat Transfer with Flu
idic Spike, International Review of Aerospace Engineering, vol. 5, no.2, 2012, pp
40-45.
[138] N.A.Ahmed, New Horizons of Applications of the 21st Century Aerodynamic Con
cepts from Aerospace to Power Generation and Utilization, Procedia Engineering,
Elsevier Publications, vol. 49, 2012, pp 338-347
[139] S. Shun and N.A. Ahmed, "Wind Turbine Performance Improvements Using Active
Flow Control Techniques", Procedia Engineering, Elsevier Publications, vol. 49, 2012,
pp 83-91
[140] Matsoukas, G., and Ahmed, N.A., Experimental Investigation of Employing Asym
metrical Electrodes in Propulsion of Vehicles, Procedia Engineering, Elsevier Publi
cations, vol. 49, 2012, pp 247-253
[141] G.Behfarshad and N.A.Ahmed, Splash measurement of Newtonian Liquid Jets Im
pacting on a Moving Solid Surface International Conference on Mechanical Engi
neering and Mechatronics, Ottawa, August 16-18, 2012
[142] Y.Y.Zheng, N.A.Ahmed and W.Zhang, Heat dissipation using minimum counter
flow jet ejection during spacecraft re-entry, Procedia Engineering, Elsevier Publica
tions, vol. 49, 2012, pp 271-279
[143] Wu, C., and Ahmed, N.A., Application of Flow Control Technique for Indoor Venti
lation Procedia Engineering, Elsevier Publications, vol. 49, 2012, pp 135-141
[144] Riazi, H., and Ahmed, N.A., Effect of the ratio of specific heats on a small scale solar
Brayton cycle, Procedia Engineering, Elsevier Publications, vol. 49, 2012, pp 263-270
[145] Yen. J., and Ahmed, N.A., Improving the Safety and Performance of Small-Scale
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine, Procedia Engineering, Elsevier Publications, vol. 49,
2012, pp 99-106
Design Features of a Low Turbulence Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel Having Interchangeable Test Sections
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52989
[146] Wongpanyathaworn, M., and Ahmed, N.A., Optimising louver locations to improve
indoor thermal comfort based on natural ventilation, Procedia Engineering, Elsevier
Publications, vol. 49, 2012, pp 169-178
[147] Findanis, N., and N.A. Ahmed, Control and Management of Particulate Emissions
using Improved Reverse Pulse-Jet Cleaning Systems, Procedia Engineering, Elsevier
Publications, vol. 49, 2012, pp 338-347
[148] T.G.Flynn, G.Behfarshad and N.A. Ahmed, Development of a Wind Tunnel Test Fa
cility to Simulate the Effect of Rain on Roof Ventilation Systems and Environmental
Measuring Devices, Procedia Engineering, Elsevier Publications, vol. 49, 2012, pp
239-246
[149] J. Lien and N.A. Ahmed, Numerical evaluation of wind driven ventilator for en
hanced indoor air quality, Procedia Engineering, Elsevier Publications, vol. 49, 2012,
pp 124-134
[150] N.A. Ahmed, Diverse Applications of Active Flow Control, Commissioned for pub
lication in Progress in Aerospace Sciences, a commissioned paper by invitation of
Journal board, expected publication, 2013
[151] J. Lien and N.A. Ahmed, Indoor Air Quality Measurement with the Installation of a
Rooftop Turbine Ventilator, Journal of Environment Protection, Vol.3, No.11, No
vember 2012, pp1498-1508
[152] J.Yen and N.A.Ahmed, Enhancing Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Safety and Perform
ance Using Synthetic Jets, Journal of Wind and Industrial Engineering, vol.114, 2013,
pp12-17
[153] I.H. Salmom and N.A.Ahmed, Delaying Stall by Acoustic Excitation Using a Vibrat
ing Film Wing Surface, AIAA 22nd Applied Conference and Exhibit, 16-19 August
2004, Providence, Rhode Island, AIAA Paper No. 2004-4962
[154] N.A.Ahmed, Turbulent Boundary Layer Analysis of Flow in a Rotating Radial Pas
sage, 2nd BSME-ASME International Conference on Thermal Engineering, 2-4 Janu
ary, 2004, Dhaka, pp 325-333
[155] T.G.Flynn and N.A.Ahmed, Investigation of Rotating Ventilator using Smoke Flow
Visualisation and Hot-wire anemometer, Proc. of 5th Pacific Symposium on Flow
Visualisation and Image Processing, 27-29 September, 2005, Whitsundays, Australia,
Paper No. PSFVIP-5-214
[156] N.Findanis and N.A.Ahmed, Wake study of Flow over a sphere, 25th AIAA Applied
Aerodynamics Conference, San Francisco, USA, 8-10 June, 2006, AIAA-2006-3855
[157] S.J. Lien and N.A. Ahmed, Skin friction determination in turbulent boundary layers
using multi-hole pressure probes25th AIAA Applied Aerodynamics Conference, San
Francisco, USA, 8-10 June, 2006, AIAA-2006-3659
55
56
[158] N.Findanis and N.A.Ahmed, A Flow Study Over a Sphere with Localised Synthetic
Jet, 12th Australian International Aerospace Congress/12th Australian Aeronautical
Conference19-22 March 2007, Melbourne, Victoria Australia
[159] S.J. Lien and N.A. Ahmed, A novel method for Skin friction determination using
multi-hole pressure probes, 12th Australian International Aerospace Congress/12th
Australian Aeronautical Conference19-22 March 2007, Melbourne, Victoria Australia
[160] B. Ahn and N.A. Ahmed, Internal Acoustic excitation to enhance the airfoil perform
ance at high Reynolds number, 14th International Conference on Sound and Vibra
tion, 9-12 July, 2007, Cairns, Australia
[161] N.A.Ahmed, 'The Study of Spectral Properties of a Separation Bubble on a Circular
Cylinder under the effects of free stream )turbulence 4th BSME-ASME International
Conference on Thermal Engineering, 27-29 December, 2008, Dhaka
[162] N.Findanis and N.A.Ahmed Active Flow Control Over a Bluff Body Utilising Local
ised Synthetic Jet Technology , 13th Australian International Aerospace Congress/
13th Australian Aeronautical Conference, 9 - 12 March 2009, at the Melbourne Con
vention Centre, Melbourne, Australia
[163] J.Lien and N.A.Ahmed Prediction of Turbulent Flow Separation with Pressure Gra
dient , 13th Australian International Aerospace Congress, 13th Australian Aeronauti
cal Conference, 9 - 12 March 2009, at the Convention Centre, Melbourne, Australia
[164] N.A.Ahmed and J.R.Page, An Improved Approach for Future Aerospace Design
process, 13th Australian International Aerospace Congress/13th Australian Aero
nautical Conference, 9 - 12 March 2009, at the Convention Centre, Melbourne, Aus
tralia
[165] N.A.Ahmed, Engineering solutions towards cost effective sustainable environment
and living, International Conference on Mechanical, Industrial and Energy Engi
neering, 22-24 December, 2010
[166] T.J.Flynn and N.A.Ahmed, An Investigation of Pitot Tube and Multi Hole Pressure
Probe Performance Using a Wet Weather Wind Tunnel Test Section14th AIAC, Mel
bourne, 28 Feb-3rd March, 2011
[167] C.Wu and N.A.Ahmed, Using Pulsed Jet of Fresh Air to Control CO2 Concentration
in an Air Cabin, 14th AIAC, Melbourne, 28 Feb-3rd March, 2011
[168] C.Wu and N.A.Ahmed, Aircraft cabin flow pattern under unsteady air supply, 29th
AIAA Applied Aerodynamics Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. 27 June 2011
[169] H. Riazi and N.A. Ahmed, Numerical investigation on two-orifice synthetic jet ac
tuators of varying orifice spacing and diameters, 29th AIAA Applied Aerodynamics
Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. 27 June 2011
Design Features of a Low Turbulence Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel Having Interchangeable Test Sections
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52989
57
Chapter 3
1. Introduction
Wind erosion of soils refers to the detachment, transport, and subsequent deposition of sedi
ment or surface soils by wind. This process is sometimes termed aeolian movement and is
responsible for the formation and migration of dunes, soil degradation in agricultural areas,
and formation of deep loess deposits in areas downwind from major sediment sources.
From cross-bedding in ancient sandstones, it has been determined that aeolian movement of
soils and sediments has been occurring for eons and is a natural geomorphic process. Wind
erosion affects over 500 million ha of land worldwide and is responsible for emitting be
tween 500 and 5000 Tg of fugitive dust into the atmosphere annually [1]. These fugitive dust
emissions contain a disproportional amount of soil organic carbon and plant nutrients and
the winnowing and loss of these materials degrades the soil [2, 3].
Much of what we know about aeolian processes comes from wind tunnel-based investiga
tions. The seminal work of Ralph Bagnold was largely conducted in a stationary suctiontype wind tunnel 9 m in length [4]. Wind tunnels allow control over the wind and surface
factors controlling aeolian movement and thus much more definitive investigations can be
conducted in a shorter period of time than in the natural environment where these factors
are highly variable in time and space. Other early aeolian researchers used wind tunnels to
assess the erodibility of soil surfaces without plant residues based on the texture of the soil
and relative abundance of aggregates too large to be entrained by the wind [5]. Large sta
tionary wind tunnels have allowed sufficiently detailed understanding of the physical proc
esses of aeolian movement that predictive models such as the Wind Erosion Equation [6]
and the Wind Erosion Prediction System [7, 8] have been developed.
Stationary wind tunnels continue to be used for aeolian research at scales from single grain
movement [9] through soil surface scale [10] to landscape scale [11]. The ability to control
2013 Van Pelt and Zobeck; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
60
the humidity of the atmosphere has enabled scientists to study such sensitive processes as
the electrostatic interactions between particles and electrical fields generated during aeolian
activities [12]. Stationary wind tunnels have also been used to study abrasion effects of
wind-driven sands on building materials [13], crop plants [14], bare crusted soil surfaces
[15], and soil surfaces with microphytic crusts [16] as well as to compare and calibrate in
strumentation for aeolian filed studies [17, 18].
Fugitive dust is perhaps the most visible product of aeolian activity and stationary wind
tunnels have been used to study fugitive dust emissions from eroding soils. From wind tun
nel testing of crusted soils and aggregates, it has been determined that sandblasting of these
otherwise non-erodible features is responsible for much of the dust generated during aeoli
an events [19, 20]. Soluble salts such as CaCO3 effects on dust emissions have also been in
vestigated in stationary wind tunnels [21] as have complex and vegetated surfaces [22] and
specific soils from Death Valley, a major dust source area in North America [23]. Although
stationary wind tunnels have great utility, they are limited to testing disturbed soil surfaces
that have been removed from their natural setting. The development of field portable wind
tunnels has greatly expanded our ability to investigate aeolian processes in the field under
controlled conditions.
Portable Wind Tunnels for Field Testing of Soils and Natural Surfaces
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54141
threshold wind velocity necessary for particle movement on natural surfaces compared with
disturbed surfaces and sieved soil [29]. Another very small suction-type portable wind tun
nel has been used in Australia to determine the relative dust emission rates for a range of
iron ores and road surfaces [30].
Figure 1. A Typical portable field wind tunnel showing component parts and sampling devices
Australians have also built a truck-mounted portable wind tunnel, tested rectangular and
triangular working sections, and determined that the rectangular cross section was superior
to the triangular one [31]. These same researchers noted the importance of wind flow condi
tioning upstream of the working section. Their wind tunnel has been used to assess the
erodibility of bare cultivated and uncultivated soil [32], the effects of disturbance on the
erodibility of cryptogamic crusts [33], and the sandblast injury and subsequent growth of
narrow-leaf lupine [34].
In North America, a pusher-type wind tunnel was built to test the effects of oriented
and random surface roughness elements on soil erodibility [35, 36]. This wind tunnel
needed a small tractor and a secondary transmission for its power source and was trans
ported using a large truck and 16 m long trailer. Another large portable wind tunnel
built in North America was a suction-type wind tunnel that had a 12 m long working
section. This wind tunnel was used to determine the erodibilities of natural crusted sur
faces in North America and Africa [37-40]. A pusher-type wind tunnel with the power
source and blower mounted on a truck bed and the working section lifted from the
truck bed and lowered into place on the soil surface by hydraulic arms has been success
fully employed to assess dust emissions from loess soils with and without surface cover
in the Pacific Northwest of North America [24, 41-44] (Figure 2).
61
62
Figure 2. A large wind tunnel working section being lowered into place by a hydraulic arm.
Although large portable wind tunnels requiring mechanical devices to install may be pow
erful and allow testing of relatively large surface areas, the logistics of transporting them
and finding a suitable footprint of level ground to test limit their utility. Examples of medi
um-size tunnels that may be installed by human power include a German tunnel that was
field calibrated [45], a portable boundary layer wind tunnel with a working section formed
of three 2 m long elements that fits on a 5 m trailer [46], and another German design that
incorporates a rainfall simulator to induce wind-driven rain splash [47]. A summary of port
able field wind tunnels, the dimensions of their working sections, maximum wind velocities
developed, and reported boundary layer depths is presented in Table 1.
Portable Wind Tunnels for Field Testing of Soils and Natural Surfaces
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54141
Publication
Tunnel Design
Width
Height
Length
Umax
Bdy. Lyr.
(m)
(m)
(m)
(m s-1)
(m)
Zing [25]
Pusher
0.91
0.91
9.12
17
0.23
Pusher
0.91
1.22
7.32
18
----
Gillette [29]
Suction
0.15
0.15
3.01
----
Pusher
0.60
0.90
7.00
20
0.15
Suction
1.00
0.75
11.90
15
>0.2
Pusher
1.20
0.90
4.20
14
0.40
Pusher
1.00
1.20
5.60
"/>20
>1.0
Suction
0.05
0.10
1.00
19
----
Suction
0.60
0.70
9.40
15
----
Pusher
0.50
1.00
6.00
19
0.50
Pusher
0.70
0.70
3.00
0.2
Table 1. Summary of previous and present portable wind tunnel designs, dimensions, maximum wind speed reported,
and boundary layer thickness.
The wind tunnel must be capable of producing an air stream free of general rotation
and of known and steady characteristics.
2.
It must provide easy and positive control of a range of wind velocities and forces com
mon to the natural wind.
63
64
3.
It must be durable.
4.
5.
It should have sufficient size to afford free movement and representative sampling of
eroding materials over field surfaces.
6.
7.
It should be light in weight and amenable to quick and positive assemblage and dis
mantling.
Another criterion that he used but did not list was the use of commercially available equip
ment when available.
3.2. Aerodynamic design criteria
Mike Raupach and John Leys [31] suggested six aerodynamic criteria that should be consid
ered in addition to the seven practical criteria proposed by Zingg. These aerodynamic crite
ria are listed below:
1.
The flow must reproduce the logarithmic wind speed profile in the natural atmosphere,
thus ensuring realistic aerodynamic forces on saltating grains.
2.
The surface shear stress must scale correctly with the wind speed above the surface so
that realistic aerodynamic forces act on grains of all sizes at the surface.
3.
The vertical turbulence intensity and scale in the region close to the ground must be re
alistic, ensuring that vertical turbulent dispersion of suspended grains is properly mod
eled.
4.
The flow must be spatially uniform to avoid local scouring by anomalous regions of
high surface stress.
5.
Gusts should be simulated in the tunnel due to the fact that higher shear stress is re
quired to initiate erosion than to sustain it.
6.
A portable wind tunnel simulation of erosion should allow for the introduction of sal
tating grains at the beginning of the working section if more than the very upwind area
of an eroding field is to be simulated.
They noted that criteria 1 to 4 are satisfied if the air flow near the ground surface is a
well developed equilibrium boundary layer sufficiently deep to contain particle motion
in the inner region where the mean wind speed profile is logarithmic and uniform over
the eroding area. The logarithmic wind speed profile for neutral atmospheric stability
has been described by:
U z = ( u * / k ) ln ( z / zo )
(1)
Portable Wind Tunnels for Field Testing of Soils and Natural Surfaces
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54141
where U is the wind speed at height z above the surface, u* is the friction velocity, z is the
aerodynamic roughness length of the underlying surface, and k is the von Karman constant,
usually assigned a value of approximately 0.4.
z
Criterion 5 requires turbulence with length scales greater than possible within the practical
dimensions of portable wind tunnels and cannot be naturally generated by shear forces
within either the working sections or flow conditioning sections of a portable wind tunnel.
They tried to simulate gustiness using mechanical interruption of air flow in the flow condi
tioning section of their tunnel but discovered that the turning vane they employed for this
purpose reduced the mean wind speed without increasing the vertical turbulence.
3.3. Simulating saltation
Although criterion 6 is not truly aerodynamic, it is very necessary in order to simulate well
developed steady state saltation of sand grains over an eroding surface. However, it also
raises more questions as to the design and operation of the portable wind tunnel such as
how much material to introduce, what the size distribution should be, and how to distribute
it realistically in the flow before it strikes the ground surface tested in the working section.
An orifice controlled gravity fed saltation initiator that drops the sand abrader into inclined
tubes for acceleration before striking a sandpaper surface and bouncing into the flow stream
is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. A complex flow conditioning section showing the abrader hopper and inclined tubes used to initiate salta
tion into the flow stream.
Saltation has been shown to reach a maximum at about 7 m length in wind tunnels [51] and
decreases at longer distances, reaching equilibrium at between 10 and 15 m into the working
section [45]. Longer working sections have limited utility however due to their lower trans
portability [47] and require a substantially longer uniform level surface on which to be set
65
66
[52]. Working section lengths of portable field wind tunnels have varied from 3 m [19, 47] to
almost 12 m [38, 39]. Recently, a small circular device named the Portable In-Situ Wind Ero
sion Research Laboratory (PI-SWERL) [52] has been used to develop shear stress over a sur
face and entrain particles using radially induced rather than linearly induced shear stress.
3.4. Power sources
Power sources have ranged from external sources such as the power take-off shaft of a trac
tor as input to a transmission that output to drive chains [35, 36], to self-contained direct
drive internal combustion engines [24, 25, 28, 31, 38-40], self contained internal combustion
engines driving hydraulic pumps to provide for a hydraulic drive motor at the blower [46],
and electric motors supplied by portable generators [45, 47]. All these power sources are
field tested and reliable. The wind speed may be adjusted by varying the engine or motor
speed or by changing the pitch of the fan or blower blades.
3.5. Fans and blowers
The fans and blowers employed for wind tunnels are of two primary types. Axial fans (Fig
ure 4a) are composed of fixed or adjustable pitched blades arranged radially around the axis
of rotation, which is often aligned with the axis of flow through the wind tunnel. Although
axial fans are highly efficient at inducing flow, the flow tends to spiral and this problem
must be addressed [53] if the flow conditions of Zinggs first criterion are to be met. Centri
fugal blowers (Figure 4b) have fixed pitch blades or impellers that are arranged parallel to
the axis of rotation at the circumference of a blower cage. The axis rotation is commonly nor
mal to the axis of air flow down the wind tunnel. Centrifugal blowers tend to be more flexi
ble with respect to design, are more stable and efficient over a variety of flows, and produce
less spiraling in the flow than axial fans [53].
Some portable field wind tunnels are too compact for adequate flow conditioning. This
shortcoming is very problematic as flow considerations are the most important factor in
the successful operation of the wind tunnel [31]. Wind tunnels may not reach true trans
port capacity or overshoot true transport capacity if flow conditioning upwind of the
working section is inadequate [54] and wind tunnel height may limit the amount of up
ward mixing during strong turbulent diffusion [23]. The height of the working section
affects the depth of the boundary layer that may be achieved. Upper limits of the Froude
number F have been proposed for wind tunnel design of from 10 [55] to 20 [24]. The
Froude number is defined by:
F = U 2 / gH
(2)
Where U is the wind tunnel design wind speed, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and H is
the wind tunnel height. A well developed boundary layer at least 50 cm thick is recom
mended to ensure initiation of vertical particle uplift [45]. For this reason, mini-tunnels and
micro-tunnels may be too small to allow results that can be scaled up to field scales [56].
Portable Wind Tunnels for Field Testing of Soils and Natural Surfaces
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54141
Figure 4. An axial fan (a) and a centrifugal blower (b) typical of those used in construction of portable field wind tunnels.
67
68
Figure 5. A flow conditioner showing the large cell honeycomb used to break the scale of eddies and straighten flow and
also the 10 mm screen layers used to even the flow and create a logarithmic wind speed profile in the wind tunnel.
4. Conclusions
Over the last 6 decades, portable field wind tunnels have been successfully used on several
continents to study the controlling processes of aeolian particle movement, assess the erodi
bility of natural surfaces subjected to different disturbances, estimate dust emission rates for
natural surfaces, investigate the partitioning of chemical and microbiological components of
the soil on entrained sediment, and to estimate the threshold wind velocity necessary to ini
tiate aeolian particle movement. Although not a perfect replacement for wind in the natural
environment due to the absence of turbulent gusts, the forces created by the wind are re
peatable and the accuracy of the tunnel is solely dependent on the accuracy of the devices
measuring critical operating parameters such as wind velocity and sediment loading. When
properly designed, calibrated, constructed, and operated, very useful information can be ob
tained in a relatively short period of time with these tools.
Acknowledgements
USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
Portable Wind Tunnels for Field Testing of Soils and Natural Surfaces
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54141
Author details
R. Scott Van Pelt1* and Ted M. Zobeck2
*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]
1 United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), Big
Spring, Texas, USA
2 USDA-ARS, Lubbock, Texas, USA
References
[1] Grini A, Myhre G, Zender C, Sundet J, Isakssen I. Model Simulations of Dust Source
and Transport in the Global Troposphere: Effects of Soil Erodibility and Wind Speed
Variability. Institute Report Series No. 124. Norway, University of Oslo, Department
of Geosciences 2003.
[2] Zobeck T, Fryrear D. Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Windblown Sediment:
II. Chemical Characteristics and Total Soil and Nutrient Discharge. Transactions of
the ASAE 1986; 29(4) 1037-1041.
[3] Van Pelt R, Zobeck T. Chemical constituents of fugitive dust. Environmental Moni
toring and Assessment 2007; 130 3-16.
[4] Bagnold R. The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. London: Methuen; 1941.
[5] Chepil W. Properties of Soil Which Influence Wind Erosion: I. The Governing Princi
ple of Surface Roughness. Soil Science 1950; 69(2) 149-162.
69
70
[6] Woodruff N, Siddoway F. A Wind Erosion Equation. Soil Science Society of America
Proceedings 1965; 29(5) 602-608.
[7] Hagen L. Evaluation of the Wind Erosion Prediction System (WEPS) Erosion Submo
del on Cropland Fields. Environmental Modeling and Software 2004; 19(2) 171-176.
[8] Hagen L, Wagner L, Skidmore E. Analytical Solutions and Sensitivity Analyses for
Sediment Transport in WEPS. Transactions of the ASAE 1999; 46(6) 1715-1721.
[9] Huang N, Zheng X, Zhou Y, Van Pelt, R. Simulation of Wind Blown Sand Movement
and Probability Density Function of Liftoff Velocities of Sand Particles. Journal of Ge
ophysical Research 2006; D20201, doi:10.1029/2005JD006559.
[10] Kohake D, Skidmore E, Hagen L. Wind Erodibility of Organic Soils. Soil Science Soci
ety of America Journal 2010; 74(1) 250-257.
[11] Offer Z, Goossens D. Wind Tunnel Experiments and Field Measurements of Aeolian
Dust Deposition on Conical Hills. Geomorphology 1995; 14(1) 43-56.
[12] Zheng X, Huang N, Zhou Y. Laboratory Measurement of Electrification of WindBlown Sands and Simulation of Its Effect on Sand Saltation Movement. Journal of
Geophysical Research 2003; 108(D10): 4322 doi:10.1029/2002/D002572.
[13] Liu L, Gao S, Shi P, Li Y, Dong Z. Wind Tunnel Measurements of Adobe Abrasion by
Blown Sand: Profile Characteristics in Relation to Wind Velocity and Sand Flux. Jour
nal of Arid Environments 2003; 53(3) 351-363.
[14] Baker J. Cotton Seedling Abrasion and Recovery by Wind-Blown Sand. Agronomy
Journal 2007; 99(2) 556-561.
[15] Zobeck T. Abrasion of crusted Soils: Influence of Abrader Flux and Soil Properties.
Soil Science Society of America Journal 1991; 55(4) 1091-1097.
[16] McKenna Neumann C, Maxwell C. A Wind Tunnel Study of the Resilience of Three
Fungal Crusts to Particle Abrasion During Aeolian Transport. Catena 1999; 38(2)
151-173.
[17] Goossens D, Offer Z. Wind Tunnel and Field Calibration of Six Aeolian Dust Sam
plers. Atmospheric Environment 2000; 34(7) 1043-1057.
[18] Van Pelt R, Peters P, Visser S. Laboratory Wind Tunnel Testing of Three Commonly
Used Saltation Impact Sensors. Aeolian Research 2009; 1(1-2) 55-62.
[19] Gillette D. A Wind Tunnel Simulation of the Erosion of Soil: Effect of Soil Texture,
Sandblasting, Wind Speed, and Soil Consolidation on Dust Production. Atmospheric
Environment 1978; 12(8) 1735-1743.
[20] Rice M, McEwan I. Crust Strength; A Wind Tunnel Study of the Effect of Impact by
Saltating Particles on Cohesive Soil Surfaces. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms
2001; 26(7) 721-733.
Portable Wind Tunnels for Field Testing of Soils and Natural Surfaces
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54141
[21] Amante-Orozco A, Zobeck T. Clay and Carbonate Effect on Dust Emissions as Gen
erated in a Wind Tunnel. In: Lee J, Zobeck T. (eds.) ICAR5/GCTE-SEN Joint Confer
ence Proceedings 2002, Lubbock, TX, USA.
[22] Kim D, Cho G, White B. A Wind-Tunnel Study of Atmospheric Boundary-Layer
Flow over Vegetated Surfaces to Suppress PM10 Emissions on Owens (Dry) Lake.
Boundary-Layer Meteorology 2000; 97(2) 309-329.
[23] Roney J, White B. Estimating Fugitive Dust Emission Rates Using an Environmental
Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel. Atmospheric Environment 2006; 40(40): 7668-7685.
[24] Pietersma D, Stetler L, Saxton K. Design and Aerodynamics of a Portable Wind Tun
nel for Soil Erosion and Fugitive Dust Research. Transactions ASAE 1996; 39(6)
2075-2083.
[25] Zingg A. A Portable Wind Tunnel and Dust Collector Developed to Evaluate the
Erodibility of Field Surfaces. Agronomy Journal 1951; 43(2) 189-191.
[26] Zingg A. Evaluation of the Erodibility of Field Surfaces with a Portable Wind Tunnel.
Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 1951; 15(1) 11-17.
[27] Zingg A, Woodruff N. Calibration of a Portable Wind Tunnel for the Simple Deter
mination of Roughness and Drag on Field Surfaces. Agronomy Journal 1951; 43(2)
191-193.
[28] Armbrust D, Box J. Design and Operation of a Portable Soil-Blowing Wind Tunnel.
USDA-ARS Pub. No. 41-131, US Govt. Print Off. Washington, D.C. 1967.
[29] Gillette D. Tests with a Portable Wind Tunnel for Determining Wind Erosion Thresh
old Velocities. Atmospheric Environment 1978; 12(12) 2309-2313.
[30] Leys J, Strong C, McTainsh G, Heidenreich S, Pitts O, French P. Relative Dust Emis
sion Estimated from a Mini-Wind Tunnel. In: Lee J, Zobeck, T (eds.) ICAR5/GCTESEN Joint Conference Proceedings 2002, Lubbock, TX, USA.
[31] Raupach M, Leys J. Aerodynamics of a Portable Wind Erosion tunnel for Measuring
Soil Erodibility by Wind. Australian Journal of Soil Research 1990; 28(2) 177-191.
[32] Leys J, Raupach, M. Soil Flux Measurements Using a Portable Wind Erosion Tunnel.
Austalian Journal of Soil Research 1991; 29(4) 533-552.
[33] Leys J, Eldridge D. Influence of Cryptogamic Crust Disturbance to Wind Erosion on
Sand and Loam Rangeland Soils. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 1998;
23(11).
[34] Bennell J, Leys J, Cleugh H. Sandblasting Damage of Narrow-Leaf Lupine (Lupinus
angustifolius L.): A Wind Tunnel Simulation. Australian Journal of Soil Research
2007; 45(2) 119-128.
[35] Fryrear D. Soil Ridges-Clods and Wind Erosion. Transactions of the ASAE 1984; 27(2)
445-448.
71
72
[36] Fryrear D. Soil Cover and Wind Erosion. Transactions of the ASAE 1985; 28(3)
781-784.
[37] Nickling W, Gillies J. Emission of Fine-Grained Particulates from Desert Soils. In: Lei
nen M, Sarnnthein M. (eds) Paleoclimatology and Paleometeorology: Modern and
Past Patterns of Global Atmospheric Transport, Series C: Mathematical and Physical
Sciences, 282, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, Kluwer Academic; 1989. p133-165.
[38] Houser C, Nickling W. The Emission and Vertical Flux of Particulate Matter <10 m
from a Disturbed Clay-Crusted Surface. Sedimentology 2001; 48(2) 255-267.
[39] Houser C, Nickling W. The Factors Influencing the Abrasion Efficiency of Saltating
Grains on a Clay-Crusted Playa. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 2001; 26(5)
491-505.
[40] Macpherson T, Nickling W, Gillies J. Dust Emissions from Undisturbed and Distur
bed Supply-Limited Desert Surfaces. Journal of Geophysical Research 2008; 113:
F02S04, doi:10.1029/2007JF000800.
[41] Saxton K, Chandler D, Stetler L, Lamb B, Claiborne C, Lee B. Wind Erosion and Fugi
tive Dust Fluxes on Agricultural Lands in the Pacific Northwest. Transactions of the
ASAE 2000; 43(3) 623-630.
[42] Chandler D, Saxton K, Busacca A. Predicting Wind Erodibility of Loessial Soils in the
Pacific Northwest by Particle Sizing. Arid Land Resource Management 2005; 19(1)
13-27.
[43] Sharratt B. Instrumentation to Quantify Soil and PM10 Flux Using a Portable Wind
Tunnel. In: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Air Quality and Waste
Management for Agriculture. ASABE Paper No. 701P0907cd. St. Joseph, Michigan,
USA; ASABE 2007.
[44] Copeland N, Sharratt B, Wu J, Foltz R, Dooley J. A Wood-Strand Material for Wind
Erosion Control: Effects on Sediment Loss, PM10 Vertical Flux, and PM10 Loss. Journal
of Environmental Quality 2009; 38(1) 139-148.
[45] Maurer T, Hermann L, Gaiser T, Mounkaila M, Stahr K. A Mobile Wind Tunnel for
Wind Erosion Field Measurements. Journal of Arid Environments 2006; 66(2)
257-271.
[46] Van Pelt R, Zobeck T, Baddock M, Cox J. Design, Construction, and Calibration of a
Portable Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel for Field Use. Transactions of the ASAE 2010;
53(3) 1413-1422.
[47] Fister W, Iserloh T, Ries J, Schmidt R. A Portable Wind and Rainfall Simulator for In
Situ Soil Erosion measurements. Catena 2012; 91(1) 72-84.
[48] Mehta R. The Aerodynamic Design of Blower Tunnels with Wide-Angle Diffusers.
Progress in Aerospace Science 1977; 18 59-120.
Portable Wind Tunnels for Field Testing of Soils and Natural Surfaces
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54141
73
Chapter 4
1. Introduction
The design of a Supersonic Wind Tunnel is complex, expensive and time consuming. One of
the pre-requisites of such a facility is the availability of compressed air necessary to generate
the required speed.
2013 Ahmed; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
76
In this Chapter, the design and construction of the basic gas dynamics facility (Fig. 1) is de
scribed first in Part I followed by that of a blow down type supersonic wind tunnel (Fig. 2)
in Part II. The two facilities are currently in operation at the School of Mechanical and Man
ufacturing Engineering of the University of New South Wale.
Design and Development of a Gas Dynamics Facility and a Supersonic Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52988
and capable of operation separately to provide a mass flow of 0.75 lb/sec or in parallel for an
output of 1.5 lb/sec were acquired. Each compressor maximum pressure ratings is 100 psig for
continuous operation and 115 psig for intermittent operation such as that required for use
with supersonic wind tunnels. Each unit is driven by a 150 HP 1440 RPM induction motor
controlled by an auto-transformer started capable of up to 15 starts per hour. Each compres
sor unit was installed on Vulcascot anti-vibration matting and was isolated from the dis
charge pipe work by means of a flexible pipe work connector. As an additional precaution, the
first length of outlet pipe work to the after coolers was supported on anti-vibration matting.
The result is that with both compressor operating, virtually no vibration is transmitted to the
Laboratory building. A schematic of the compressed air plant is shown in Fig 1.
Control of the compressor output pressure is by either an automatic stop-start system or a con
stant speed uploading system operating between pre-set pressure limits. In operation, the con
stant speed uploading mode has been most frequently used but the original pneumatic system
supplied with the compressors for this purpose proved to be unreliable. Subsequently, this
was replaced with an electrical system utilising an electric control pressure gauges. This sys
tem has proved to be very satisfactory in operation and enables repeatable and readily varied
settings of cut-in and cut-out pressure to be obtained with differentials as small as 2 psi.
The compressors are cooled by oil injection and lubricated by the same oil pressurised from
a small pump. The cooling/lubricating oil is stored in a 40 gallon tank and cooled by an oil/
water heat exchanger. The air, after compression, passes through a multi-stage reverse flow
oil separator with absorbent filters so as to remove most of the oil present. Claimed oil con
sumption is one gallon per compressor per 400 hours of operation. Fig. 3 shows the Com
pressor of the gas dynamics facility.
77
78
Design and Development of a Gas Dynamics Facility and a Supersonic Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52988
The air dryer is of the single tower at a larger stage. Regeneration is accomplished by air
pre-heated in an 80 kW electrical heater and forced through the dryer stack in a counterflow direction by a centrifugal blower. The desiccant employed is 800 lb of activated alumi
na in a 2 ft diameter by 4.5 ft high bed, preceded by 80lb of buffer desiccant whose purpose
is to prevent damage to the main desiccant by liquid carry over from filtration equipment.
The dryer is fitted with a water coil for cooling the desiccant bed after regeneration and a
felt pad and fibreglass after-filter is installed to prevent any carryover of desiccant dust into
the storage vessels.
In operation, dew points of as low as -80 0 F have been obtained after regeneration. With one
compressor in operation, drying times of up to six hours have been achieved, although a
higher final dew points than -50 0 F regeneration time is about four hours for heating and
four hours for cooling.
1.2.4. Air storage vessels
Four storage vessels (Fig.5 ), each 5 ft diameter by 11 ft 6 ins overall length and designed for
a working pressure of 130 psig have been installed with a total storage capacity o f800 cubic
feet as mentioned earlier were placed in an overhead structural steel support in the Aerody
namics laboratory near which a supersonic wind tunnel was built.
79
80
Because the pressure available for supersonic tunnel injection is comparatively low, care
was taken in the design and piping and filtration equipment to reduce pressure losses. The
overall pressure drop between compressor outlet and storage vessels has been kept between
3 and 5 psi depending upon filter condition.
1.2.6. Air distribution manifolds
The supply pipe work inter-connecting the five pressure vessels is of 6 inch inside pipe di
ameter pipe. There is a 6 inch branch to the supersonic tunnel. Gas dynamics rigs in the Aer
odynamics Laboratory are supplied from two 4 inch pipe manifolds, one wall mounted and
the other suspended from the ceiling. A four inch line, reducing to 3 inch, supply air to the
Hydraulics Laboratory.
Maximum intermittent flow rates are about 10 lb/sec through the 6 inch branch supplying
the supersonic tunnel and 4 lb/sec through the 4 inch manifolds. At these flow rates, the
pressure drop between reservoirs and manifold outlets does not exceed about 3 psi. The hy
draulics Laboratory supply system permits an intermittent flow rate of about 5 psi.
A 2 inch dump line is provided, together with a control valve and attenuating duct silencer to
empty the storage vessel contents or to permit an adjustable air bled for stabilization purposes.
Design and Development of a Gas Dynamics Facility and a Supersonic Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52988
81
82
The Stagnation pressure control system was deliberately chosen to be manual in orer to sim
plify control although a hybrid system could be incorporated at a later stage if desired. This
system would consist of manual start and initial stabilisation with switch over to automatic
operation once the stagnation pressure has stabilised. Some of the problems of supersonic
tunnel automatic stagnation pressure control have been discussed by Pugh and Ward [1]
and Conolan [2].
2.1.2. Stagnation chamber
The stagnation chamber has an inside diameter of 13.5 inches and is connected to the 6 inch
inlet pipe work by a 300 conical rapid expansion. Flow stabilisation and smoothing devices
consist of a conical perforated plate and flow smoothing and turbulence reduction screens
(Fig. 6). A parallel settling length is provided downstream of the screens and is fitted with
stagnation temperature and pressure tappings.
The mean velocity at the screens is approximately 20 ft/sec for Mach 3 operation. The cham
ber is also sized to permit operation down to Mach 1.5 using the same test section area when
the velocity at the screens could increase to about 70 ft/sec. This remains within the range of
10 to 80 ft/sec as recommended by Pope [3].
The perforated cone has an apex angle of 900 and is manufactured from a inch plate with
3/8 inch diameter holes on 9/6 inch centres. The perforations have an open area ratio of 40%.
The mean Mach number through the perforations under the worst conditions, which occur
at the lowest test section Mach number, is less than 0.1. The cone is welded into the wide
angle expansion. In operation, it appears to have eliminated any pressure fluctuations gen
erated by the stagnation pressure control valve as well as assisted in filling the wide angle
diffuser.
The four stainless steel flow smoothing screens are of 24 mesh by 34 gauge wire and have an
open area ratio of 49.5%. The screens are fixed in individual aluminium retaining ring
frames. These frames are clamped together by long bolts passing through large frames at
tached to the rapid expansion and settling length sections of the stagnation chamber. The
individual frames are spigoted together to ensure internal surface alignment and are sealed
by O rings at each joint.
The parallel settling length downstream of the screen is 1500 screen wire diameters long, or
a length of approximately 18 inches.
A two dimensional contraction and section change transition region is provided at the down
stream end of the settling chamber. This region has a rectangular outlet area of 12 inch x 4 inch
and a circular 13.25 inch diameter inlet section. The area contraction ratio is 2.9:1. A further
two-dimensional contraction, of ratio 10:1, is built into the nozzle blocks to contract the air
stream to a sonic throat 1.185 inch high by 4 inches wide. The method of contraction design
presented by Gibbings [4] is recommended. This method is also applicable to contractions in
which there is an appreciable axial trigger between the plan and elevation profiles.
Design and Development of a Gas Dynamics Facility and a Supersonic Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52988
In operation, the stagnation chamber provides a steady pressure with accuracy of control of
1% or better. Estimated pressure loss for the stagnation chamber flow smoothing devices
was 2 psi approximately, making a total estimated loss between pressure vessels and stagna
tion pressure measurement station of nearly 7 psi. In operation, this pressure loss varies be
tween 7 -10 psi.
2.1.3. Nozzle box and test section
The nozzle box is of conventional construction and is manufactured from steel plate with
internal surfaces ground after welding and stress relieving. Heavy stiffening ribs prevent
deformation under pressure forces, particularly in the throat region. Dowels are fitted to en
sure accurate and repeatable alignment of adjacent parts. Circumferential O ring seals are
provided at each end of the nozzle box. One side wall opens downwards on hinges to facili
tate nozzle block changes. The complete assembly of nozzle box and settling length section
of the stagnation chamber can be moved on rollers to permit easy screen removal. The roll
ers are brought into operation by four jack screws. An axial movement of 3 inches in the
downstream direction is possible.
There are circular Schlieren window positions in the nozzle box walls, one pair at the throat
and one pair at the test section. The windows have a clear diameter of 7.5 inches and thick
ness of 1 inch and are held in a sub-frame which is fixed to the tunnel by a clamping ring.
This arrangement permits easy removal and rotation of each window. Rotation of the win
dow assembly permits selection of the optimum orientation for optical characteristics of the
glass fitted. This allows the use of cheap and comparatively low grade plate glass. The glass
is sealed to the sub-frame with Dow Corning Silastic 732 RTV silicon rubber compound. A
special jig has been developed for window assembly which ensures that the glass is com
pletely floating in Silastic and is also flush to within 0.001 inches with the frame edges. A
set of high quality glass windows obtained from Optical Works, UK are also available for
specially sensitive Schlieren applications.
The supersonic nozzle blocks are manufactured from extruded AA28S aluminium alloy. The
contours were generated by a programmed Hydroptic jig borer and were finally hand fin
ished to remove machining marks. Each block is fitted with a continuous, circular cross sec
tion rubber seal which runs as close to the contoured surface as is possible using straight
line approximations. The nozzle blocks are held in the nozzle box with the bolts passing
through the top and bottom walls of the box into barrel nuts inside each block. Location is
by integral machined pads on the basis of each block. It is now realised that the provision of
separate ground pads on the base of each nozzle block configuration would have permitted
the fitting of permanent shims clamped between pad and block, thereby simplifying the fit
ting and accurate setting up of each nozzle block configuration within the nozzle box.
The nozzle block co-ordinates are those derived by McCabe [5] for operation at Mach 3 in a
nominal 5.5 inch x 5.5 inch test section. The design method used by McCabe divides the noz
zle inviscid core flow into five main regions, as follows:
A subsonic contraction
83
84
Design and Development of a Gas Dynamics Facility and a Supersonic Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52988
85
86
The only design decision required for a constant area supersonic diffuser is the optimum
length of duct. In such a diffuser the normal shock appears as a shock system which is
strongly affected by the state of the boundary layer. Experimental dat quoted by Lukasiewcz
[16] confirms that for best efficiency the shock compression process should be completed in
the constant area duct and not in the divergent subsonic diffuser downstream of the super
sonic diffuser. Faro [11] illustrates the gain in isentropic efficiency with increasing length to
height ratio for a constant area duct at Mach 2. The significant reduction in operating pres
sure ratio with increasing length of parallel duct may be seen in curves plotted for length to
height ratios of 0, 2 and 7. Further design data for constant area diffusers is demonstrated by
Faro [11]. Two points are noted in connection with his work:
The Mach number Mav is the average Mach number at the supersonic diffuser inlet and
would be less than the test section Mach number because of the presence of the model
and its support system and boundary layer growth between test section and diffuser.
The effect of the free stream Reynolds number is not accounted for. Some indication of the
reduction in the length of the shock compression system at high Reynolds numbers may
be obtained from [16]. This data is applicable to a Mach number of approximately 2.
Faro [26] indicates that a single wedge such as the leading edge of a sting support strut may
be used to provide an oblique shock system which will improve diffuser efficiency over the
simple normal shock case. The benefits for this type of device are limited, however, is that
high efficiency can only be obtained with a large number of oblique shocks which in turn
implies design for a specific Mach number and thus a narrow range of off-design conditions.
The simple strut type oblique shock generator gives moderate efficiency gains over a wider
range of Mach numbers.
To summarise, little data for the design of constant area supersonic diffusers or for the effect
of a model and strut system on diffuser efficiency can be found. The available information
suggests that:
The shock system compression process should be completed within the parallel diffuser
duct for best efficiency
The optimum length of parallel duct required to complete the compression process is a
strong function of Mach number and Reynolds number. This length is probably within
the 5 to 12 diffuser heights of Mach numbers of 1.5 to 3.5 and Reynolds numbers of 2 x 105
to 6 x 106. Design data for supersonic diffusers may be obtained from Refs 16-22].
The supersonic diffuser of the University of New South Wales tunnel is a parallel wall rec
tangular duct fabricated from 4 inch x 1 inch extruded aluminium bar top and bottom walls
and 0.5 inch aluminium plate side walls. The top and bottom walls may be easily replaced
with a set of contoured blocks so as to provide a fixed area second throat, if so desired. The
parallel diffuser length is 8.4 diffuser heights from the rear of the model support strut and
11.4 heights from the end of the supersonic nozzle with model support system removed. A
removable parallel subsonic make-up duct permits the fitting of an additional 4.3 diffuser
Design and Development of a Gas Dynamics Facility and a Supersonic Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52988
heights. The window blanks alongside the model support strut also allow for experiments
involving de-blocking of the area around the strut.
The design of the subsonic diffuser was straightforward. The data of Lukasiewicz [16] indi
cates that, in the Mach number range 0.4 to 0.9, total pressure recovery is virtually constant
at about 0.88 for open ducts without models and that the diffuser divergence angle should
be less than 70. Data on subsonic diffuser design is available from Refs 14 and 16.
There are two stages of subsonic diffusion separated by the corner cascade (Fig. 6). The first
stage of subsonic diffusion is separated by the corner cascade (Fig. 6). The first stage has an
area ratio of 5.6 and divergence angle of 60. Maximum Mach number at the subsonic diffus
er exit is approximately 0.13. The diffuser is constructed from 3/16 inch steel plate reinforced
at 6 inch x 3 inch centres with 1 x 0.25 inch flat bars on edge.
The second stage subsonic diffuser has a 60 divergence angle and 3:1 area ratio. Maximum
Mach number at exist to this diffuser is approximately 0.04. The diffuser is manufactured
from plywood and incorporates part of the tunnel silencing system. The corner cascade uti
lises sheet metal circular arc turning vanes.
2.1.5. Silencer
Preliminary investigations on an existing M3.5, 4 inch diameter conical nozzle indicated that
the noise level for an unsilenced tunnel would be unacceptably high at about 120 db in the
frequency band of 100 to 2000 Hz. Accordingly, a silencer was designed for the supersonic
tunnel to the following requirements:
Noise reduction to about 80 dB in the 100 to 2000 Hz band
Low pressure loss
Ease of construction and low cost
After investigation, an attenuating duct design was chosen as best fulfilling these require
ments. This type of silencer requires an absorbent material as dense as possible with a thick
ness of 2 inch to 12 inches to absorb the low frequency noise below 500 Hz. Attenuation at
the lower frequencies is increased considerably by the use of a perforated duct facing mate
rial having about 3 to 10% open area perforations. Low frequency attenuation is further as
sisted by providing airspace behind the absorbent material and increasing the amount of
absorbent around the duct periphery. When compared with splitter type duct attenuators,
low frequency attenuation can be improved by arranging a given amount of attenuation ma
terial such that it forms thick layers. This latter arrangement gives a lower peak but better
average attenuation over the 100 to 1000 Hz frequency band. Design information can be
found in the literature [23-29].
The silencer for the University of New South Wales tunnel is constructed in two sections:
the first of which is built around the second stage subsonic diffuser. The first section com
prises 6 to 12 inch thickness of polythene wrapped rockwool batts and loose rockwool fill
around around all four sides of the diffuser. The rockwool density varies from 4 to 6 lb/cubic
87
88
feet for the loose fill. The duct interline is surfaced with 3/16 inch thick perforated plywood
and the outside of the silencer is sealed with 1 inch thick, exterior quality waterproof ply
wood. Both internal and external surfacing materials are heavily glued, screwed and nailed
to substantial connecting framing. The second section of the silencer, which is 16 ft long is a
rectangular duct lined on two sides with 6 inch thickness of rockwool batts backed by a 3
inch airspace. The remaining two sides of this duct are 1 inch thick exterior plywood. Other
constructional details are similar to those of the first section silencer. The second diffuser
section is run in the laboratory ceiling space and is supported from the roof structure on Si
lentbloc vibration isolators.
Initial tests on completion of the tunnel indicated a large direct sound transmission through
the walls of the first stage subsonic diffuser. This was found to be caused by high frequency
resonance of the 3/16 inch thick flat steel plate walls. The vibration was almost completely
eliminated and the noise level reduced by decreasing the spacing of the existing 1 inch x 0.25
inch stiffening bars from approximately 12 inch x 6 inch to 6 inch x 3 inch centres as descri
bed in section 4.4.
In the final form, the silencer has reduced the noise level in the vicinity of the tunnel to
about 75 to 90 dB, for the 100 to 2000 Hz band, depending to some extent upon the operating
stagnation pressure. It is estimated that the duct silencer provides an attenuation of about 2
to 3 dB per foot of length in the frequency range 100 to 1000 Hz.
2.1.6. Instrumentation
The tunnel stop-start system has been briefly described in section 2.1.4.
Tunnel stagnation pressure is read on 0.15% accuracy, temperature compensated, abso
lute pressure Heise test gauge and recorded by a pressure transducer having 0.1% com
bined non-linearity and hysteresis. The transducer output can be displayed directly in
psia on an 11 inch Honewell strip chart recorder. The control panel is provided with an
electrically actuated pneumatic calibration circuit which connects the stagnation pressure
transducer and test gauge in a closed system. This circuit has an electrical override if the
tunnel is started.
Stagnation temperature instrumentation consists of an exposed-junction BLH micro-minia
ture thermocouple connected to an 11 inch strip chart recorder and reading directly in 0F.
Bothe stagnation temperature and pressure recorders contain electrically operated chart
speed-up facilities which automatically increase the chart speed by a factor of 60:1 when the
tunnel run is started. A typical speed change is from 10 inches per hour to 10 inches per mi
nute. Both chart recorders are provided with event markers which are connected into the
tunnel timing circuit. The circuit operates an electrically actuated second timer which is con
trolled from a timer switch in the remote control box on a wandering lead. The box also con
tains the tunnel stop switch and a pressure clamp switch. The event markers are
automatically actuated at the start and stop of a timing run. The wandering lead control box
enables one man to control the run and monitor Schlieren and instrument read out.
Design and Development of a Gas Dynamics Facility and a Supersonic Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52988
89
90
3. Conclusion
A compressed air plant, providing 1.5 lb/sec of dry air at 100 to 115 psig and having a stor
age capacity of 1000 cubic feet, has been engineered and built. The system has been operat
ing satisfactorily apart from an oil mist problem for which corrective measures are being
investigated.
A supersonic blowdown wind tunnel, using air from the compressed air plant and exhaust
ing to atmosphere, has also been built to simple, conventional design principles. Nozzle
blocks for Mach 3 and parallel duct supersonic diffuser has been installed. Although stagna
tion pressure control is manual, the tunnel is designed for operation by only one man. Run
time varies from 20 to 60 seconds and test section Reynolds numbers of about 106 per inch
may be obtained.
These facilities along with subsonic wind tunnel facilities form the basis of aerodynamic, re
search and development works at the University of New South Wales [31-89]
Acknowledgements
The Author wishes to gratefully acknowledge the hard works and dedication of Barry Mot
son and the late Associate Professor Archer in the Design of the Gas Dynamics facility and
the Supersonic Wind Tunnel.
Author details
N. A. Ahmed*
Aerospace Engineering, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University
of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
References
[1] Pugh, P. G., & Ward, L. C. (1966). Notes on the Automatic Control of a Blowdown
Wind Tunnel. NPL Aero Report, 1215.
[2] Conolan, K. G. (1964). Control equipment for the ARL Hypersonic Wind Tunnel,.
ARL TM, 196.
[3] Pope, A., & Goin, K. L. (1984). High speed wind tunnel testing,. Wiley, NY.
[4] Gibbings, J. C. (1965). A Note on the Combination of a Contraction with a Supersonic
Nozzle for Wind Tunnel,. RAE TR, 65066.
Design and Development of a Gas Dynamics Facility and a Supersonic Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52988
[5] Mc Cabe, A. (1964). Design of Supersonic Nozzle,. ARC Fluid Motion Sub-Commit
tee, ARC 25716, FM 3433, March.
[6] Sibulkin, M. (1956). Heat Transfer to an Incompressible Turbulent Boundary Layer
and Estimation of Heat Transfer Coeffcients at Supersonic Nozzle Throats,. JAS,,
23(2), 162.
[7] Rogers, E. W. E., & Davis, B. M. (1956). A note on Turbulent Boundary Layer Allow
ances in Supersonic Nozzle Design. ARC CP, 333.
[8] Dodd, K. N., et al. (1964). Calculations for the Design of Nozzles. RAE TR, 64021.
[9] Tucker, M. (1951). Approximate Calculation of Turbulent Boundary Layer Develop
ment in Compressible Flow. NACA TN, 2337.
[10] Beckwith, J. E., & Moore, J. A. (1955). An Accurate and Rapid Method for the Design
of Supersonic Nozzles. NACA TN, 3322.
[11] Faro, D. V., & (ed, . (1964). Handbook of Supersonic Aerodynamics, NAVWEPS Rep
1488, 6 sec 17, Ducts,. Nozzles and Diffusers,.
[12] Pierce, D. (1965). A Simple Flexible Supersonic Wind Tunnel Nozzle for the Rapid
and Accurate Variation of Flow Mach Number. RAE TR, 65280.
[13] Liepman, H. P. (1955). Analytic Method for the Design of 2D Asymmeric Nozzles,. J
of Aero Sc.,, 701-709.
[14] Culley, M. (1966). The ARL Supersonic Propulsion Wind Tunnel: Redesign of the
Nozzle Profile and preliminary Calibration,. ARL ME [282].
[15] Daniels, W. (1956). Design and development of the North American Aviation Tran
sonic Wind Tunnel,. AGARD [67].
[16] Lukasiewicz, J. (1953). Diffusers for Supersonic Wind Tunnels,. J of Aero Sci,, 20(9),
617-626.
[17] De Leo, R., & Huerta, J. (1956). The Influence of Adjustable Diffuser Configurations
on Minimum Required Starting and Operating Pressure Ratios for a Supersonic
Wind Tunnel,. Proc of 5th Biennial Tech Conf. Uni of Minnesota, Research Report [137].
[18] Tucker, N. B. (1956). Data on Temperature Stabilisation and Diffuser Performance of
the 5 inch x 5 inch Pilot Blowdown Wind Tunnel,. AGARD [92].
[19] Lucasiewicz, J. (1964). Pressure Measurement in Wind Tunnel S3,. WRE TN HSA,
132.
[20] Ferri, , & Bogdonoff, S. F. (1956). Design and Optimisation of Intermittent Supersonic
Boundary layer and Estimation of Heat Transfer Coefficients at Supersonic Nozzle
Throats,. JAS, 23(23), 62.
[21] Leavy, L. E. (1956). A supersonic Wind Tunnel for Mach Numbers up to 3. AGARD
[70].
91
92
Design and Development of a Gas Dynamics Facility and a Supersonic Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52988
[37] Ahmed, N. A., Elder, R. L., Foster, C. P., & Jones, J. D. C. (1991). Laser Anemometry
in Turbomachines. IMechE Proc, Part G, J of Aerospace Engineering,, 205, 1-12.
[38] Ahmed, N. A., Hamid, S., Elder, R. L., Foster, C. P., Jones, J. D. C., & Tatum, R.
(1992). Fibre Optic Laser Anemometry for Turbo machinery Applications,. Optics
and Lasers in Engineering,, 15(2-3), 193-205.
[39] Ahmed, N. A., & Elder, R. L. (2000). Flow Behaviour in a High Speed Centrifugal Im
peller Passage under Design and Off-design Operating Conditions,. Fluids and Ther
mal Engineering, JSME International, 43(1), 22-28.
[40] Simpson, R. G., Ahmed, N. A., & Archer, R. D. (2000). Improvement of a Wing Per
formance using Coanda Tip Jets,. AIAA Journal of Aircraft,, 37(1), 183-184.
[41] Gatto, A., Ahmed, N. A., & Archer, R. D. (2000). Investigation of the Upstream End
Effect of the Flow Characteristics of a Yawed Circular Cylinder,. The RAeS Aeronauti
cal Journal,, 104(1033), 253-256, pp125-128.
[42] Gatto, A., Ahmed, N. A., & Archer, R. D. (2000). Surface Roughness and Free stream
Turbulence Effects on the Surface Pressure over a Yawed Circular Cylinder,. AIAA
Journal of Aircraft,, 38(9), 1765-1767.
[43] Ahmed, N. A., & Archer, R. D. (2001). Performance Improvement of a Bi-plane with
Endplates,. AIAA Journal of Aircraft,, 38(2), 398-400.
[44] Gatto, A., Byrne, K. P., Ahmed, N. A., & Archer, R. D. (2001). Pressure Measurements
over a Cylinder in Crossflow using Plastic Tubing,. Experiments in Fluids,, 30(1),
43-46.
[45] Ahmed, N. A., & Archer, R. D. (2001). Post-Stall Behaviour of A Wing under Exter
nally Imposed Sound,. AIAA Journal of Aircraft,, 38(5), 961-963.
[46] Ahmed, N. A., & Archer, R. D. (2002). Testing of a Highly Loaded Horizonatal Axis
Wind Turbines designed for Optimum Performance,. International Journal of Renewa
ble Energy,, 25(4), 613-618.
[47] Simpson, R. G., Ahmed, N. A., & Archer, R. D. (2002). Near Field Study of Vortex At
tenuation using Wing Tip Blowing,. The Aeronautical Journal, 102.
[48] Ahmed, N. A., & Goonaratne, J. (2002). Lift augmentation of a low aspect ratio thick
wing at a very low angle of incidence operating in ground effect,. AIAA Journal of
Aircraft,, 39(2).
[49] Ahmed, N. A. (2002). Implementation of a momentum integral technique for total
drag measurement,. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Education,,
30(4).
[50] Pissasale, A., & Ahmed, N. A. (2002). Theoretical calibration of a five hole probe for
highly three dimensional flow,. International Journal of Measurement Science and Tech
nology,, 13, 1100-1107.
93
94
[51] Pissasale, A., & Ahmed, N. A. (2002). A novel method of extending the calibration
range of five hole probe for highly three dimensional flows,. Journal of Flow Measure
ment and Instrumentation,, 13(1-2), 23-30.
[52] Ahmed, N. A., & Wagner, D. J. (2003). Vortex shedding and transition frequencies as
sociated with flow around a circular cylinder,. AIAA Journal, 41(3), 542-544.
[53] Rashid, D. H., Ahmed, N. A., & Archer, R. D. (2003). Study of aerodynamic forces on
rotating wind driven ventilator,. Wind Engineering, 27(1), 63-72.
[54] Ahmed, N. A. (2003). An acoustic energy concept for the design of a flow meter,.
International Journal of Vibration and Acoustics,, 8(1), 52-58.
[55] Pissasale, A., & Ahmed, N. A. (2003). Examining the effect of flow reversal on sevenhole probe measurements,. AIAA Journal,, 41(12), 2460-2467.
[56] Pissasale, A., & Ahmed, N. A. (2004). Development of a functional relationship be
tween port pressures and flow properties for the calibration and application of multihole probes to highly three-dimensional flows,. Experiments in Fluids,, 36(3), 422-436.
[57] Ahmed, N. A. (2004). Demonstration of the significance and limitations of thin airfoil
theory in the study of aerodynamic characteristics of an airfoil,. IJMEE,, 34(2),
271-282.
[58] Ahmed, N. A. (2006). Investigation of dominant frequencies in the transition Rey
nolds number range of flow around a circular cylinder Part I: Experimental study of
the relation between vortex shedding and transition frequencies,. Journal of CSME,,
19(2), 159-167.
[59] Ahmed, N. A. (2006). Investigation of dominant frequencies in the transition Rey
nolds number range of flow around a circular cylinder Part II: Theoretical determina
tion of the relationship between vortex shedding and transition frequencies at
different Reynolds numbers,. Journal of CSME,, 19(3), 317-326.
[60] Shun, S., & Ahmed, N. A. (2008). Utilizing wind and solar energy as power sources
for a hybrid building ventilation device. Renewable Energy June , 33(6), 1392-1397.
[61] Findanis, N., & Ahmed, N. A. (2008). The interaction of an asymmetrical localised
synthetic jet on a side supported sphere. Journal of Fluids and Structures, 24(7),
1006-1020.
[62] Longmuir, M., & Ahmed, N. A. (2009). Commercial Aircraft Exterior Cleaning Opti
mization. AIAA, Journal of Aircraft, 46(1), 284-290.
[63] Lien, S. J., & Ahmed, N. A. (2010). Numerical simulation of rooftop ventilator flow.
Building and Environment, 45, 1808-1815.
[64] Lien, S. J., & Ahmed, N. A. (2011). Effect of inclined roof on the airflow associated
with a wind driven turbine ventilator. Energy and Buildings, 43, 358-365.
Design and Development of a Gas Dynamics Facility and a Supersonic Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52988
[65] Lien, J., & Ahmed, N. A. (2011). An examination of the suitability of multi-hole pres
sure probe technique for skin friction measurement in turbulentflow,. in press,, Jour
nal of Flow Measurement and Instrumentation, 22, 153-164.
[66] Wu, C., & Ahmed, N. A. (2011). Numerical Study of Transient Aircraft Cabin Flow
field with Unsteady Air Supply. AIAA Journal of Aircraft, 48(6), 1994-2002.
[67] Findanis, N., & Ahmed, N. A. (2011). Three-dimensional flow reversal and wake
characterisation of a sphere modified with active flow control using synthetic jet. Ad
vances and Applications in Fluid Mech,, 9(1), 17-76.
[68] Behfarshad, G., & Ahmed, N. A. (2011). Vortex flow asymmetry of slender Delta
Wings,. International Review of Aerospace Engineering,, 4(3), 184-188.
[69] Behfarshad, G., & Ahmed, N. A. (2011). Reynolds Stress Measurement Over Four
Slender Delta Wings,. International Review of Aerospace Engineering,, 4(4), 251-257.
[70] Ahmed, N. A. (2011). Detection of Separation bubble using spectral analysis of fluc
tuating surface pressure,. International Review of Aerospace Engineering,, 4(4).
[71] Behfarshad, G., & Ahmed, N. A. (2011). Effect of unsteady and sinusoidally varying
free stream on turbulent boundary layer separation. Advances and Applications in Fluid
Mechanics, 10(2), 79-98.
[72] Behfarshad, G., & Ahmed, N. A. (2011). Experimental Investigations of Sideslip Ef
fect on Four Slender Delta Wings,. International Review of Aerospace Engineering,, 4(4),
189-197.
[73] Ahmed, N. A., & Page, J. R. (2011). Real-time Simulation as a new tool in Future Ad
vanced Aerospace Project Design and Manufacturing Processes. Advanced Materials
Research, 317-319, 2515-2519.
[74] Ahmed, N. A., & Page, J. R. (2011). Developing and integrated approach to advanced
aerospace project design in tertiary education. Advanced Materials Research, 317-319,
2520-2529.
[75] Riazi, H., & Ahmed, N. A. (2011). Numerical investigation of four orifice synthetic jet
actuators,. International Review of Aerospace Engineering,, 4(5), 272-276.
[76] Shun, S., & Ahmed, N. A. (2011). Airfoil Separation Control using Multiple Orifice
Air Jet Vortex Generators. AIAA Journal of Aircraft, 48(6), 1994-2002.
[77] Ahmed, N. A. (2012). Engineering solutions towards cost effective sustainable envi
ronment and living. Journal of Energy and Power Engineering,, 6(2), 155-167.
[78] S. Shun and N.A. Ahmed (2012), Rapid Prototyping of Aerodynamics Research
Models, Applied Mechanics and Materials vols. 217-219, pp 2016-2025,Trans Tech
Publications, Switzerland
95
96
[79] Behfarshad, G., & Ahmed, N. A. (2012). Investigation of Newtonian liquid jets im
pacting on a moving smooth solid surface. Advances and Applications in Fluid Mechan
ics, 12(1).
[80] S. Shun and N.A. Ahmed (2012), Design of a Dynamic Stall Test Rig, Applied Me
chanics and Materials Vols. 215-216, pp 785-795, Trans Tech Publications, Switzer
land
[81] Ahmed, N. A. (2012). Novel developments towards efficient and cost effective wind
energy generation and utilization for sustainable environment,. Renewable and
Power Quality Journal, 0217-2038X, (10), PL4.
[82] Y.Y.Zheng, N.A.Ahmed and W.Zhang (2012), Feasibility Study of Heat Transfer
with Fluidic Spike, International Review of Aerospace Engineering, vol. 5, no.2, pp
40-45.
[83] Y.Y.Zheng, N.A.Ahmed and W.Zhang (2012), Impact Analysis of Varying Strength
Counter-flow Jet Ejection on a Blunt Shaped Body in A Supersonic Flow, Advances
and Applications in Fluid Mechanics, vol 12, no.2, pp 119-129.
[84] Yen, J., & Ahmed, N. A. (2012). Enhancing Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Safety and
Performance Using Synthetic Jets,. (in Press),, Journal of Wind and Industrial Engineer
ing,.
[85] G. Matsoukas, N. A. Ahmed (2012), Investigation of Ionic Wind as a Means of Gen
erating Propulsive Force, International Review of Aerospace Engineering, vol. 5, no.
2, pp 35-39.
[86] Yen, J., & Ahmed, N. A. (2012). Synthetic Jets as a Boundary Vorticity Flux Control
Tool, (in press). AIAA Journal,.
[87] C.Wu and N.A.Ahmed (2012), A Novel Mode of Air Supply for Aircraft Cabin Ven
tilation, Building and Environment, Vol. 56, pp. 47-56
[88] Flynn, T. G., & Ahmed, N. A. (2005). Investigation of Rotating Ventilator using
Smoke Flow Visualisation and Hot-wire anemometer,. Proc. of 5th Pacific Symposium
on Flow Visualisation and Image Processing, [PSFVIP-5], 27-29, September, Whitsun
days, Australia, Paper.
[89] Yen, J., & Ahmed, N. A. (2012). Parametric Study of Dynamic Stall Flow Field with
Synthetic Jet Actuation. ASME Journal of Fluids Engineering, 134, 071106-071101.
Chapter 5
1. Introduction
1.1. Flows driven by a constant pressure gradient through a pipe of circular cross section
When the flow of a Newtonian fluid in a pipe of circular cross section is driven solely by a
constant pressure gradient, the resulting velocity distribution is a quadratic function of the
radial distance from the axis of the pipe. The velocity profile of such a flow has, therefore, a
parabolic distribution in which the maximum velocity occurs on the axis of the pipe. A
graphical representation of this type of velocity is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The parabolic velocity profile for flow driven by a constant pressure gradient in a circular pipe
1.2. Flows driven by a sinusoidal pressure gradient through a pipe of circular cross section
Things become more complicated if the pressure gradient varies with time. When, for exam
ple, the pressure gradient fluctuates with time in such a way that that gradient can be ex
2013 Libii; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
98
pressed as a simple sinusoidal function, the velocity profile remains parabolic only at very
low frequencies of fluctuation. At very high frequencies, the location of the maximum veloc
ity moves away from the axis of the pipe and towards the wall. The higher the frequency of
oscillations of the pressure gradient, the farther away the point of maximum velocity moves
from the axis of the pipe. Sample plots of velocity profiles that were generated at high fre
quencies of fluctuations are shown in the literature by Uchida (1956). Here, Figure 2 is one
such example, where five snapshots of velocity profiles at different times are displayed,
from left to right, within one complete cycle: at the beginning, one-quarter, half-way, threequarters of the way, and at the very end of the cycle. The values of the parameters that were
used to generate these plots are summarized below:
-
1 p
K x
= cos (nt ); k =
n
v
R = 5; c =
Kk 2
8n
= 3.125
K
n
Where n is the circular frequency, p the pressure, the mass density of the fluid, t the time, x
the axial coordinate, R the inside radius of the pipe, u the axial speed of the fluid, v the coeffi
cient of kinematic viscosity, k a dimensionless ratio used by Schlichting to denote the magni
tude of the frequency of oscillation, and K is a constant that indicates the size of the pressure
gradient.
Figure 2. Sample velocity profiles for flow driven by a sinusoidal pressure gradient in a circular pipe [Uchida]
A Method of Evaluating the Presence of Fan-Blade-Rotation Induced Unsteadiness in Wind Tunnel Experiments
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54144
u 2(r) =
2n 2
{1 2
R
r exp
n
2v
n
2v
(R r ) cos
(R r ) +
R
r exp
n
2v
(R r )
(1)
Where r is the radial distance from the axis of the pipe; and letting y = (R - r ) be a new varia
ble that represents the distance from the wall of that pipe, a dimensionless distance from
that wall can be defined as = y
n
2v
( ) = 12
K 2
R
r exp
n
2v
n
2v
(R r ) cos
(R r ) +
R
r exp
n
2v
(R r )
(2)
2n 2
When one is very close to the wall of the pipe, r and R are very close in magnitude and
R
r
(3)
When the variation of the expression of the mean velocity squared in Eq. (3) is plotted
against the dimensionless distance , as shown in Figure 3, one can see that the location of
the maximum velocity is not on the axis of the pipe as is the case in steady flow and at very
low oscillations of the pressure gradient. Instead, it occurs near the wall of the pipe at a di
mensionless distance = y
n
2v
Figure 3. Variation of the mean with respect to time of the velocity squared for periodic pipe flows that are very fast
In this Figure 3, y is the distance from the wall of the pipe and u2 =
2n 2
with respect to time of the velocity squared at a large distance from the wall.
99
100
, where represents a
length scale introduced by Stokes; that length, called the depth of penetration of the wave
into the fluid, is given by =
the penetration depth, . The value of the constant of proportionality varies with the point
A Method of Evaluating the Presence of Fan-Blade-Rotation Induced Unsteadiness in Wind Tunnel Experiments
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54144
that one designates to be the edge of the boundary layer. Thus, For example, if one defines
the edge of the boundary layer to be the point in the flow where the speed inside the boun
dary layer become equal to 99% of the speed of flow outside the boundary layer, the con
stant of proportionality is 4.6. Then, the thickness of the boundary layer at that point is equal
to 4.6 .
=-
1 p
x
2 u
r2
1 u
r r
(4)
u (r = a, t ) = 0 ; and u ( r = 0, t ) = finite
-
1 p
x
(5)
= a function of time
p
x
dient in the axial direction, t is the time, v is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid, r is the radi
al distance measured from the axis of the pipe, and a is the inside radius of the pipe. For a
given pressure gradient, one seeks solutions that are finite at r = 0 and satisfy the no-slip
condition u = 0 on the wall of the pipe at all times. We present two cases: First, the case of a
sinusoidal pressure gradient that was first solved by Sexl (1930) and then that of a general
periodic pressure gradient that was first solved by Uchida (1956).
4.2. Case of a sinusoidal pressure gradient: Sexls method (1930)
If the pressure gradient is sinusoidal and given the form
p
x
= Ccos (t ),
(6)
101
102
u (r, t ) = - i
1-
J o (-ix )
1
r
2
J o (-ix )
1
2
e it
(7)
Where Jo is the Bessel function of the first kind and of zero order (Watson,1944) and, here, x
is defined as shown below:
x=
a 2
v .
(8)
For small values of the parameter x, the real part of the velocity u can be written as
C
4v
u (r, t ) =
(a 2 - r 2) cos (t )
(9)
(10)
where
=
( x2 )1/2(1 - ra ).
(11)
Furthermore, the mean velocity squared computed with respect to time is found to be
u 2(r) =
C2
2
{1 2( )
a
r
1
2
exp( )cos( ) +
( ra )exp( 2)}.
(12)
These well-known results indicate that the representation of the velocity changes radically
as one varies the parameter x from very small to very large values. For example, the maxi
mum velocity reaches its maximum amplitude on the axis of the pipe when x is very small.
However, when the frequency of fluctuations becomes large, the location of the maximum
velocity shifts away from the axis of the pipe and moves closer and closer to the wall of the
pipe as the parameter increases, Fig. 4. Indeed, in the latter case, the expression for the loca
tion of maximum velocity is given by
r = a(1 - 3.22x -1/2).
(13)
A Method of Evaluating the Presence of Fan-Blade-Rotation Induced Unsteadiness in Wind Tunnel Experiments
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54144
1 p
x
n=1
n=1
= 0 + cn cosnt + sn sinnt ,
(14)
u=
0
4v
(a 2 - r 2) -
n=1
i n
1-
( )
(kai )
J o kr i
Jo
3
2
3
2
e int
(15)
Where
k=
The total mean velocity U is defined as U =
G=
n
v
G
a 2
(16)
1 2 a
2 dt2urdr
0
a 40
8v
(17)
When this expression has been rearranged in order to introduce the mean pressure gradient,
one gets
dt 2urdr =
G=
1
2
a 40
8
p
(
x ),
(18)
p
Where x = 0, is the mean pressure gradient taken over time. Therefore,
U=
a2
8
p
(
x ).
(19)
If one uses U as a velocity scale, the nondimensional expression of the velocity is given by
103
104
u
U
us
u'
U
(20)
with
us
=2 1 -
r2
a2
(21)
And
u'
U
n=1
cn
0
8B
(ka)2 cosnt
8(1 A)
(ka)2 sinnt
}+
n=1
sn
0
8B
8(1 A)
(ka)2 sinnt (ka)2 cosnt
},
where
A=
And
J o kri
3
2
, B=
(a)
In which ber and bei are Kelvin functions defined using infinite series as shown below:
ber (z ) =
k=0
( z )4k
( 1)k 2
((2k ) !)2
(22)
(c)
and
bei (z ) =
k=0
( z )4k +2
( 1)k 2
((2k + 1) !)2
. (d)
n
v
a 1 , pulsations of the
pressure gradients are very slow. Then, under these conditions and from the behavior of
Kelvin functions, it is reasonable to expect that
berka 1 and beika 0.
Then, the velocity takes the form
u
U
=2 1 -
r2
a2
1
0
1 p
x
1
4
(a 2 - r 2) -
1 p
x
(23)
In this case, the velocity distribution is a quadratic function of the radial distance from the
axis of the pipe ; and the corresponding velocity profile is parabolic. This result is similar to
A Method of Evaluating the Presence of Fan-Blade-Rotation Induced Unsteadiness in Wind Tunnel Experiments
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54144
what is obtained in steady flow. However, the magnitude of the velocity is a periodic func
tion of time and is always in phase with the driving pressure gradient.
n
v
a , pulsations of the
pressure gradients are very fast. Then, Uchida used asymptotic expansions of ber(ka) and
bei(ka). In this extreme, the expression for the velocity near the center of the pipe is different
from that near the wall of the pipe. So, they are discussed separately.
Near the center of the pipe, ka and kr 0 , one gets
u
U
4v
(a2 - r2) +
n=1
cn
n
cos nt -
)+
sn
n=1
sin nt -
).
(24)
Comparing this to Eq. (14), one sees that when the pulsations are very rapid, fluid near the
axis of the pipe moves with a phase lag of 90o relative the driving pressure gradient and its
amplitude decreases as the frequency of pulsation increases.
Near the wall of the pipe, kr ka , and one uses asymptotic expansions of Bessel func
tions to get
u
U
=2 1
n=1
sn
r2
a2
)+
n=1
0 (ka)2
cn
8
0 (ka)2
{ cos(nt) +
{sin(nt)
(
a
r exp
a
r exp
k(a r)
2
k(a r)
2
) cos nt
) sin nt
k(a r)
2
k(a r)
2
}.
(25)
105
INLINE FORMULA
Uchidas (1956) plots are reproduced in enlarged formats in Figures 5(a), 5(b), 6(a), and 6(b)
106
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Nondimensional
radius r R
0.8
1.0
Figure 4. As the frequency of pressure pulsations increases, the point of maximum velocity shifts progressively away
from the axis of the pipe and moves towards its wall (plots of Eq. (2), for increasing values of n).
ka
Total maximums
12
Maximums on the axis of the pipe Maximums away from the axis of the pipe
12
12
10
12
10
12
12
Table 1. Data extracted from Uchidas papers ( his Figures 1, 2, 3, and 4 are shown below).
low and high frequency regimes ( 1 h 20 ) in rectangular ducts using two different as
A Method of Evaluating the Presence of Fan-Blade-Rotation Induced Unsteadiness in Wind Tunnel Experiments
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54144
pect ratios (a/h =1 and a/h = 10). They presented results for low frequencies ( h = 1 ) and
moderate frequencies ( h = 8 ). They indicated that results for frequencies higher, h 10,
were very similar to those for moderate frequencies. The other conclusions that they came
107
108
A Method of Evaluating the Presence of Fan-Blade-Rotation Induced Unsteadiness in Wind Tunnel Experiments
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54144
Figure 5. (a). Where maximums of velocity distributions occur when the parameter ka = 1. The angle nt is the parame
ter; in these plots, nt = 00, 300, 600, 900, 1200, 1500, 1800, 2100, 2400, 2700, 3000, 3300. (b). Where maximums
of velocity distributions occur when the parameter ka = 3. The angle nt is the parameter;
in these plots, nt = 00, 300, 600, 900, 1200, 1500, 1800, 2100, 2400, 2700, 3000, 3300.
109
110
A Method of Evaluating the Presence of Fan-Blade-Rotation Induced Unsteadiness in Wind Tunnel Experiments
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54144
Figure 6. (a) Where maximums of velocity distributions occur when the parameter ka = 5. The angle nt is the parame
ter; intheseplots, nt = 00, 300, 600, 900, 1200, 1500, 1800, 2100, 2400, 2700, 3000, 3300. (b). Where maximums of
velocity distributions occur when the parameter ka = 10. The angle nt is the parameter;
in these plots, nt = 00, 300, 600, 900, 1200, 1500, 1800, 2100, 2400, 2700, 3000, 3300.
111
112
Figure 7. Sketch of the rectangular duct used by Yakhot, Arad and Ben-dor (1999) in their numerical studies.
For low pulsating frequencies, h = 1 , flow in a duct of square cross-sectional area, the ve
locity distribution is in phase, that is in lock step, with the driving pressure gradient.
This was true at low and at high aspect ratios. This result is the same as what happens
in the case of flow between parallel plates. When one compares the amplitudes of the in
duced velocity, one finds that the amplitude of flow between flat plates is larger than
that in a square duct. This is due to the fact that, in a duct the fluid experiences friction
of four sides, whereas in the case of flow between parallel plates, it experiences flow on
ly from two sides. When the aspect ratio is increased to a/h = 10, the velocity in the duct
differs only with the velocity between parallel plates near the side walls. This is clearly
due to the effects of viscosity.
For moderately pulsating frequencies, h = 8 , the velocity distribution of the flow in a duct
of square cross- sectional area differs considerably from that obtained at low frequencies.
The shapes of the velocity profiles are different; results indicate that, at certain instants of
time during a complete cycle, the profiles reach maximum values near the wall of the pipe
rather than on its axis of symmetry. This is Richardsons annular effect. The induced ve
locity is no longer in phase, that is in lock step, with the driving pressure gradient. Rather,
the velocity is shifted with respect to the driving pressure and the magnitude of the shift de
pends on how far away points in the flow space are from the wall. Near the wall, the in
duced velocity on the axis of the duct lags behind that in the regions that are near the walls
of the duct. On the axis, the phase shift is 90o. This was true at low and at high aspect ratios.
This result is the same as what happens in the case of flow between parallel plates. When
one compares the amplitudes of the induced velocity, one finds that the amplitude of flow
between flat plates is larger than that in a square duct. This is due to the fact that, in a duct
the fluid experiences friction of four sides, whereas in the case of flow between parallel
plates, it experiences flow only from two sides. When the aspect ratio is increased to a/h =
10, the velocity in the duct differs only with the velocity between parallel plates near the
side walls. This is clearly due to the effects of viscosity.
A Method of Evaluating the Presence of Fan-Blade-Rotation Induced Unsteadiness in Wind Tunnel Experiments
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54144
5.2. Graphical illustration of the results of analysis by Yakhot, Arad and Ben-dor (1999)
The velocity profiles in pulsating flow at selected instants within one complete period are
shown below. Flow in a duct is compared to flow between parallel plates for different aspect
ratios and frequencies.
Figure 8. Velocity profiles in pulsating flow at different instants of one period. (a) Pressure gradient variation with
time. (b) Duct flow, a/h =1, h =1: solid line, x/a = 0.5; dashed, x/a = 0.25; dot-dashed, x/a = 0.1. (c) Flow between
two parallel plates.
113
114
Figure 9. Velocity profiles in pulsating flow at different instants of one period. (a) Pressure gradient variation with
time. (b) Duct flow, a/h =10, h=1: solid line, x/a = 0.5; dot, x/a = 0.1; dashed, x/a = 0.025; dot-dashed, x/a = 0.01. (c)
Flow between two parallel plates.
Figure 10. Velocity profiles in pulsating flow at different instants of one period. (a) Pressure gradient variation with
time. (b) Duct flow, a/h =1, h=8: solid line, x/a = 0.5; dashed, x/a = 0.25; dot-dashed, x/a = 0.1. (c) Flow between two
parallel plates.
A Method of Evaluating the Presence of Fan-Blade-Rotation Induced Unsteadiness in Wind Tunnel Experiments
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54144
Figure 11. Velocity profiles in pulsating flow at different instants of one period. (a) Pressure gradient variation with
time. (b) Duct flow, a/h =10, h=8: solid line, x/a = 0.5; dashed, x/a = 0.025; dot-dashed, x/a = 0.01. (c) Flow between
two parallel plates.
= W r, a, k
n=1
){
cn
0
cos (nt - ) +
u'
U
sn
0
sin (nt - )
(26)
1/2
(27)
Where
W (r, a, k ) =
And tan ( (r, a, k )) =
8B
(ka)2
B 2 + (1 - A)2
1-A
B
After a considerable amount of algebra using series expansions for the ber and bei functions,
it can be shown that
115
116
W (r, a, k ) = 2 1 -
r2
a2
)D(r, a, k )
(28)
F m( x, y )
n'=0
D (r, a, k ) = (ber 2ka + bei 2ka)
r
a
1/2
(29)
4
(4 !)2
( x2 )4(1 + 10y 2 + y 4)
F8 =
22
(6 !)2
4 14 6
8)
( x2 )8(1 - 1411 y 2 + 186
11 y - 11 y + y
4
948 6 277 8
66 10
12)
( x2 )12(1 + 6617 y 2 - 277
17 y + 17 y - 17 y + 17 y + y
F 12 =
68
(8 !)2
F 16 =
254
(10 !)2
F 20 =
922
(12 !)2
2206 4 10142 6
21610 8 10142 10 2206 12
154 14
2
16)
( x2 )16(1 + 154
127 y + 127 y - 127 y + 127 y - 127 y + 127 y + 127 y + y
41964 6 158412 8
268476 10 158412 12
41964 14 2685 16
1066
2 2685 4
( x2 )20(1 + 1066
+ 461 y 18 + y 20)
461 y - 461 y + 461 y - 461 y + 461 y - 461 y + 461 y - 461 y
( )
3434 x
F 24 =
(14 !)2 2
F 28 =
(30)
12868
(16 !)2
( x2 )28
24
1717
1717
1717
1717
1717
1+
1+
25992
12868
y2+
34632404
12868
24716
12868
y 16 +
y4+
13416312
12868
337040
12868
y 18
y 6
2663036
12868
2663036
12868
y 20 +
y8+
13416312
12868
337040
12868
y 22 +
y 10
24716
12868
34632404
12868
y 24 +
y 12 +
25992
12868
48192480
12868
y 26 + y 28
y 14
Note, from the definition of w(r, a, k), Eq. (28), that each of these polynomials will be multi
plied by the steady velocity. Clearly, this shows that all components that are added to the
velocity due to unsteadiness are essentially various forms of the same steady velocity after it
has been modified by the introduction of time variations. The series of equations shown be
low demonstrates this observation:
u
U
us
us
=2 1 -
u'
U
r2
a2
(31)
),
(32)
A Method of Evaluating the Presence of Fan-Blade-Rotation Induced Unsteadiness in Wind Tunnel Experiments
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54144
u
U
= 2 1-
r2
a2
) + W (r, a, k ){
n=1
cn
sn
cos (nt - ) +
sin (nt - ) ,
(33)
Using the expression for W (r, a, k ) that is shown in Eq. (28), one gets
cn
sn
u
r2
r2
U
= 2 1
a2
) + 2(1 - ) D(r, a, k ){
a 2 n=1
cos (nt - ) +
sin (nt - ) ,
(34)
, ,
,
a minor
rearrangement of terms,
After
Eq. (34) becomes
) + 2(1 - )
2
is shown
Using the expression
for
u
r 2, , rthat
D (r , a, in
k ) Eq. (28), one gets
= 2 1-
a2
a 2 n=1
(35)
, ,
,
Since
in Eq. (35),
D(r, a, k),
consists of the
functions F m( x, y ), one concludes that the family
change in the shape of the velocity profile as the frequency of oscillation increases. There
fore,
that
polynomials
,cause
, the location of the maximum velocity to move away
it is those
of the
from
bear
the essence
physical
interaction between
the axis
of the pipe,
and hence,
viscous forces and pressure forces during pulsating motions. This conclusion will be illus
Since D(r,
a, k), in Eq.below.
(35), consists of the functions , , one concludes that the family of
trated
graphically
polynomials , that is shown in Eq.(30) is what is primarily responsible for the change in the shape of the
velocity profile as the frequency of oscillation increases. Therefore, it is those polynomials that cause the location of
polynomials
6.2.
Graphical
illustrations
of the
F m( x,andy )hence,
the maximum
velocity
to move away
fromshape
the axisofofthe
the pipe,
bear the essence of the physical
interaction between viscous forces and pressure forces during pulsating motions. This conclusion will be illustrated
graphically in
below.
Variation
the shapes of the functions F m( x, y ) is illustrated graphically below. It will be
n
from
the in
axis
the pipe;
and that , is illustrated graphically below. It will be remembered that, in
Variation
the of
shapes
of the functions
follows, , y = , the dimensionless radial distance from the axis of the( pipe;) and that
In Figures 12 and 13, twelve functions F
mwhat
= 4n,
with n = 1, 2,3, 4, 5,
m x, y are plotted
m = 4n, with n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, In Figures 12 and 13, twelve functions , are plotted against the radial
against
the radial distance y for various values of the dimensionless parameter x.
distance y for various values of the dimensionless parameter x.
2.0
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
1.0
0.5
a) x = 0.01
0.5
0.5
1.0 1.0
0.5
b) x = 0.1
0.5
1.0
Figure 12. Each coordinate frame shows plots of three functions , vs y: , , , , and , ; x is
( x, y ) vs y: F 4(x, y ), F 12
( x, y ), and F 28
( x, y ); x is
Figure 12. Each coordinate frame shows plots of three functions F
used as the parameter. Note that larger values of x indicate highermrates of pulsations
by the pressure gradient.
used as the parameter. Note that larger values of x indicate higher rates of pulsations by the pressure gradient.
117
118
50
10
40
1.0
30
20
10
0.5
0.5
a) x = 1
1.0 1.0
0.5
b) x= 5
0.5
1.0
Fig. 13. Each coordinate frame shows plots of three functions , vs. y: , , , , and , ; x is
(
(
)
)
Figure 13. Each coordinate frame shows plots of three functionsF m( x, y ) vs. y: F 4( x, y ), F
12 x, y , and F 28 x, y ; x is
the parameter. Note that larger values of x indicate higher rates of pulsations by the pressure
gradient.
the parameter. Note that larger values of x indicate higher rates of pulsations by the pressure gradient.
reciprocating
motion ofexperiment
a piston. Uchida
the in
caseresonators,
of periodic motions
that were
superposed
upon a
While
conducting
on (1956)
soundstudied
waves
Richardson
(1928)
measured
steady Poiseuille flow. An exact solution for the pulsating laminar flow that is superposed on the steady motion in a
velocities
an orifice
of circular
cross-section
andthatfound
that
maximum
circular pipeacross
was presented
by Uchida
(1956) under
the assumption
that flow
wasthe
parallel
to the axisvelocity
of the pipe.
could occur away from the axis of symmetry and toward the wall. Sexl (1930) proved analyt
The total
mean
mass
of flow in pulsating
motion
was found
to be Richardson
identical to thatand
given
by Hagen-Poiseuilles
law
ically
that
what
Richardson
observed
could
happen.
Tyler
(1929-1930) con
when the steady pressure gradient used in the Hagen-Poiseuilles law was equal to the mean pressure gradient to
firmed
these
findings
with
more
experiments
with
a
pure
periodic
flow
generated
by
the
which the pulsating flow was subjected.
reciprocating motion of a piston. Uchida (1956) studied the case of periodic motions that
The phase
lag of the velocity
that of the
pressure
increases for
fromthe
zeropulsating
in the steady
flow to
were
superposed
upon avariation
steady from
Poiseuille
flow.
An gradient
exact solution
laminar
90o in the pulsation of infinite frequency.
flow that is superposed on the steady motion in a circular pipe was presented by Uchida
(1956)
under
thework
assumption
that thatthe
flow
was
parallel
to over
the axis
of thecycle
pipe.
Integration
of the
needed for changing
kinetic
energy
of fluid
a complete
yields zero, however, a
similar integration of the dissipation of energy by internal friction remains finite and an excess amount caused by the
The
total mean
massmotion
of flow
in pulsating
motion was
to bealone.
identical to that given by
components
of periodic
is added
to what is generated
by thefound
steady flow
Hagen-Poiseuilles law when the steady pressure gradient used in the Hagen-Poiseuilles
It follows
that a given
rate
of mass
flow cangradient
be attainedto
in which
pulsatingthe
motion
by giving
the same
of average
law
was equal
to the
mean
pressure
pulsating
flow
was amount
subjected.
gradient of pressure as in steady flow. However, in order to maintain this motion in pulsating flow, extra work is
necessary
what is required
when
the flow
steady.
The
phaseover
lagand
of above
the velocity
variation
from
thatisof
the pressure gradient increases from zero
o
inRecently,
the steady
flow
to
90
in
the
pulsation
of
infinite
frequency.
Camacho, Martinez, and Rendon (2012) showed that the location of the characteristic overshoot of the
Richardson's annular
effect changes
with
kinematic the
Reynolds
number
in theofrange
of frequencies
within thecy
Integration
of the work
needed
forthechanging
kinetic
energy
fluid
over a complete
laminar regime. They identified the existence of transverse damped waves that are similar to those observed in
cle
yields
zero,
however, a similar integration of the dissipation of energy by internal fric
Stokes
second
problem.
tion remains finite and an excess amount caused by the components of periodic motion is
All these
obtained inby
flows
of alone.
circular cross-sections and rectangular ducts. It is
added
toresults
whatwere
is generated
thethrough
steadypipes
flow
reasonable to expect that they would hold in the flow of air in a wind tunnel. Experimental results indicate that the
annular
effect rate
does occur
in theflow
test section
a subsonic in
wind
tunnel. That
behavior
appears
ItRichardsons
follows that
a given
of mass
can beof attained
pulsating
motion
byfirst
giving
the
unusual and, indeed, odd. However, as shown in this chapter, there is considerable experimental and analytical
same
amount
of
average
gradient
of
pressure
as
in
steady
flow.
However,
in
order
to
main
evidence in the literature that indicates that this behavior is due to high-frequency pulsations of the pressure
tain
this motion
in pulsating
flow,
extrawind
work
is necessary
over
is required
gradient.
Accordingly,
in the case of
a subsonic
tunnel,
it is probably
dueand
to theabove
fast ratewhat
of rotation
of fan
blades.the
Indeed,
wind tunnel, results from analysis and those from experiments differed only by about 5.7%.
when
flowinisour
steady.
A Method of Evaluating the Presence of Fan-Blade-Rotation Induced Unsteadiness in Wind Tunnel Experiments
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54144
Recently, Camacho, Martinez, and Rendon (2012) showed that the location of the character
istic overshoot of the Richardson's annular effect changes with the kinematic Reynolds num
ber in the range of frequencies within the laminar regime. They identified the existence of
transverse damped waves that are similar to those observed in Stokes second problem.
All these results were obtained in flows through pipes of circular cross-sections and rectan
gular ducts. It is reasonable to expect that they would hold in the flow of air in a wind tun
nel. Experimental results indicate that the Richardsons annular effect does occur in the test
section of a subsonic wind tunnel. That behavior first appears unusual and, indeed, odd.
However, as shown in this chapter, there is considerable experimental and analytical evi
dence in the literature that indicates that this behavior is due to high-frequency pulsations of
the pressure gradient. Accordingly, in the case of a subsonic wind tunnel, it is probably due
to the fast rate of rotation of fan blades. Indeed, in our wind tunnel, results from analysis
and those from experiments differed only by about 5.7%.
119
120
r: the radial distance measured from the axis of the pipe (m)
R: the inside radius of a pipe of circular cross section (m)
t: time elapsed (s)
u: the axial velocity of the flow (m/s)
us: the steady part of the velocity u (m/s)
u ' : the unsteady part of the velocity u (m/s
U : the mean speed (m/s) of the velocity u (m/s)
x: a dimensionless ratio that measures the rate of pulsations of the pressure gradient
y: a dimensional distance from the wall of the pipe (m)
Author details
Josu Njock Libii
Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, Indiana, USA
References
[1] Richardson, E.G. and Tyler, E. (1929). The transverse velocity gradients near the
mouths of pipes in which an alternating or continuous flow of air is established. The
Proceedings of the Physical Society, Vol. 42, part I, No. 231, pp. 1-15. ISSN 0370-1328.
[2] Ury, Josef F. (1964), A graphical method for a closer study of Richardsons annular
effect, Zeitschrift fur angewandteMathematik und Physik (ZAMP) 15, number 3, pp.
306-311. ISBN/ISSN: 1420-9039 OCLC:43807374.
[3] Camacho, F.J.; Martinez, R.; Rendon, L. (2012) The Richardson's Annular effect and a
transient solution of oscillating pressure-driven flow in circular pipes, eprint arXiv:
1207.1495.
[4] Sexl, T. (1930). Uber die von E. G. Richardson entdecktenAnnuraleffekt.Zeitschrift
fur Physik, 61, 349-62. ISBN 0691114390.
[5] Uchida, S. (1956). The Pulsating viscous flow superposed on the steady laminar mo
tion of incompressible fluid in a circular pipe. Zeitschrift fur angewandteMathematik
und Physik 7, 403-422. ISBN/ISSN: 1420-9039 OCLC:43807374.
A Method of Evaluating the Presence of Fan-Blade-Rotation Induced Unsteadiness in Wind Tunnel Experiments
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54144
[6] Yakhot, A. Arad, M., and Ben-dor, G.(1999), Numerical investigation of a laminar
pulsating flow in a rectangular duct, International Journal for Numerical Methods in
Fluids, Vol. 29, Issue 8, pp 899-996, 30 April 1999. ISSN 0271-2091.
[7] NjockLibii, J. (2010) Laboratory exercises to study viscous boundary layers in the
testsection of an open-circuit wind tunnel, World Transactions on Engineering and Tech
nology Education(WTE&TE), Vol. 8, No. 1, (March 2010), pp. (91-97), ISSN 1446-2257.
[8] JosuNjockLibii (2011), Wind Tunnels in Engineering Education, in Wind Tunnels
and Experimental Fluid Dynamics Research, Jorge Colman Lerner, UlfilasBoldes, ed
itors, Chapter 11, InTech Publishers, 2011. ISBN 978-953-307-623-2.
[9] Yakhot, A., M. Arad, M., & Ben-Dor, G. (1998).Richardson's Annular Effect in Oscil
lating Laminar Duct Flows.Journal of Fluids Engineering, Vol. 120, 1, (March 1998) pp.
(209-301), ISSN 0098-2202.
[10] Watson, G.N., (1944), A treatise on the theory of Bessel functions, Cambridge Univer
sity Press, Cambridge, England, ISBN-10: 0521483913 | ISBN-13: 978-0521483919.
121
Section 2
Chapter 6
1. Introduction
In this paper, the authors describe about a wind tunnel test for a membrane roof on a civil
engineering. Especially, the authors focused on the horn-shaped membrane roof (shown in
fig.1). Wind loading is the most dominant load for light-weight structures such as membrane
roofs. A wind-force coefficient of typical building type such as box-type is defined in the
guideline and the cord, but a wind-force coefficient of complicated shapes such as the hornshaped membrane roof has not been sufficiently reported yet.
In general, there are two types of wind-tunnel test on the membrane roof, namely a test using
a rigid model and a test using an elastic model. The test of the rigid model is used to measure
the wind pressure around the building. On the other hand, the test of the elastic model can
measure the deflection of the membrane surface directly and grasp the behavior of the
membrane. This paper describes about the test using the rigid model for the horn-shaped
membrane roof structure to measure a wind-force coefficient and fluctuating wind pressure
coefficient around membrane under the turbulent boundary layer flow.
1.1. Past research about the wind tunnel on the horn-shaped membrane structures
Wind pressure coefficients of typical building type such as box-type are defined in guidelines
and standards in each country, but wind pressure coefficients of complicated shapes such as
the horn-shaped membrane roof have not been sufficiently reported yet.
The basic studies, which were about the theory and the analysis method, on the horn-shaped
membrane roof were reported by F. Otto, M. Saitoh et al and also were shown the windpressure coefficients of the horn-shaped membrane roof under regulated conditions in several
2013 Nagai et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
126
Stand-alone Model
Multi-bay Model
reports and books (Otto, 1969; Saitoh & Kuroki, 1989; Nerdinger, 2005). In the recent years,
studies on the numerical simulation against the horn-shaped membrane roof were reported
by J. Ma, C. Wang et al (Ma et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2007). Furthermore, dissertation by U.
Kaiser indicated wind effects on weak pre-stressed membrane structure which is 30m horn
shaped membrane by aero-elastic models (Kaiser, 2004).
In this way, there are many other references on this field. However, the basic date for the windforce coefficient of the horn-shaped membrane roof has not been sufficiently reported yet.
Based on this background, the authors have carried on the wind tunnel test, and report these
results.
1.2. The composition of this paper
In this chapter, the authors describe about a composition of this paper and explain three types
of wind tunnel test (see fig. 2).
Chapter 2 shows a form of the horn-shaped membrane roof and example of a basic technique
to form finding method of the membrane structure before the wind tunnel tests. Chapter 3
shows definitions of symbols and calculation formulas on this paper. Chapter 4 shows outline
of wind tunnel device and method of measuring. Chapter 5 shows a flow condition of the test
which is the turbulent boundary layer flow, and test conditions. Chapter 6 and 7 show the
wind tunnel tests and the results; the test of stand-alone type model in chapter 6 and the test
of multi-bay models on chapter 7. These tests indicate mean wind pressures coefficient,
fluctuating wind pressure coefficient and peak wind pressure coefficient around the hornshaped membrane structures under the turbulent boundary layer flow.
Wind Tunnel Tests on Horn-Shaped Membrane Roof Under the Turbulent Boundary Layer
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54180
127
128
Cpij =
Pij - Ps
qz
qz =
, Cpoj =
2
1
r vz
2
(1)
Poj - Ps
qz
(2)
(3)
Wind Tunnel Tests on Horn-Shaped Membrane Roof Under the Turbulent Boundary Layer
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54180
in which C pj is the wind pressure coefficient at measurement pressure tap j, C poj is the external
wind pressure coefficient at measurement tap j, C pij is the internal wind pressure coefficient
at measurement tap j, P ij is the internal pressure at measurement tap j, Po is the external
pressure at measurement tap j, P s is the static, or the barometric, pressure at a reference
location, q z is the mean value of dynamic pressure at the reference location z, is the density
of the air, and v z is the mean value of wind velocity at the reference location z. In this paper,
the reference location z with the uniform flow means the position of the pitot tube. On the
other hand, the reference location z with the turbulent boundary layer flow was obtained from
the following equations;
z=h+
H
2
(4)
in which h is the eave height of the roof, and H is the rise of the horn-shaped roof.
Particularly, the mean value of wind pressure coefficient C p_mean and the peak value of wind
pressure coefficient C p_peak are expressed respectively as follows;
C
=
p _ mean Cpo _ mean - Cpi _ mean
(5)
(6)
in which C po_mean and C pi_mean are the mean value of external and internal wind pressure
coefficient, C po_peak and C pi_peak are the tip value of external and internal wind pressure coefficient.
Additionally, C pi_mean, C po_mean, C po_peak and C pi_peak are given by the following equations;
Cpi _ peak =
Cpi _ mean =
Pi _ mean
qz
Pi _ mean
qz
, Cpo _ peak =
, Cpo _ mean =
Po _ mean
qz
Po _ mean
qz
(7)
(8)
in which P i_mean and P o_mean are the mean value of internal and external wind pressure on the
pressure measurement tap respectively, and P i_peak and P o_peak are the tip value of internal and
external wind pressure on the tap. In case of the enclosed type which is constructed with side
walls, P i is neglected on these calculations.
129
130
Wind tunnel
Blower
31000mm
Section size
2200180017300mm (widthheightlength)
Contraction ratio
1:3
Velocity range
0.0~25.0
Form
Wing shape
=2500mm
Volume
About 100
Wind Tunnel Tests on Horn-Shaped Membrane Roof Under the Turbulent Boundary Layer
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54180
Figure 7. The wind pressure acting at the particular pressure tap location j
131
132
speed and the scale of turbulence for this test, are shown in figure 9. The velocity gradient
was 0.2 and the turbulent intensity around the roof was about 0.3. This wind was simulated
natural wind in the urban area, namely terrain 3 in the Building Standard Low of Japan.
(Urban Area;
Terrain 3 in The Building Standard Law of Japan)
Wind velocity
Velocity gradient
=0.2
Model Type
Sampling speed
500Hz
Sampling time
30sec
Model scale
Wall
Wind direction
Five times
Wind Tunnel Tests on Horn-Shaped Membrane Roof Under the Turbulent Boundary Layer
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54180
(a)
(b)
(c)
6. The wind tunnel test on the stand-alone model under the turbulent
boundary layer flow
This chapter focuses on the stand-alone model of horn-shaped membrane roof and indicates
wind pressure
andtest
fluctuating
pressure
around modelsmodel
under theunder
boundarythe
turbulent
layer
6. The wind
tunnel
on the
stand-alone
turbulent
flow which was shown in the preceding section.
boundary layer flow
6.1 Outline of tests
The focuses
100mm xon
100mm
square based model
used in this test.membrane
Major parameters
wereindicates
This chapter
the stand-alone
modelwas
of horn-shaped
roof and
three types of rise-span ratio (h/L), namely h/L=0.1, 0.2 and 0.3, and the presence of walls.
wind pressure
and fluctuating pressure around models under the boundary turbulent layer
Six types of model were prepared for this wind tunnel test. The outline of models and
flow which
was shown
the in
preceding
section.
measurement
tapsinshow
figure 10 and
figure 11.
These models were made from acrylic plastic. As for the open type model, the roof depth
was about 5mm in order to measure both sides of the roof at the same time (show in figure
6.1. Outline
of tests
12). Additionally, wind directions were only four types which were 0-deg., 15-deg., 30-deg.
and 45-deg., because of symmetry form of roof.
The 100mm x 100mm square based model was used in this test. Major parameters were three
types of rise-span ratio (h/L), namely h/L=0.1, 0.2 and 0.3, and the presence of walls. Six types
of model were prepared for this wind tunnel test. The outline of models and measurement
taps show in figure 10 and figure 11.
These models were made from acrylic plastic. As for the open type model, the roof depth was
about 5mm in order to measure both sides of the roof at the same time (show in figure 12).
Additionally, wind directions were only four types which were 0-deg., 15-deg., 30-deg. and
45-deg., because of symmetry form of roof.
133
134
Figure 10. Experimental models and measuring points on the stand-alone models; two types model was prepared,
namely Open type and Enclosed type
h/L=0.3
h/L=0.2
Enclosed type
h/L=0.1
Open type
Figure 11. The photo of models; three types of h/L models which was made from acrylic plastic. The depth of open
types roof is about 5mm thick.
Wind Tunnel Tests on Horn-Shaped Membrane Roof Under the Turbulent Boundary Layer
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54180
In the open type, the negative pressure concentrated at the windward side on the model. On
the other hand, the negative pressure observed at the top of the roof on the enclosed model.
Moreover, the negative pressure around the top of roof was increase with increasing of a risespan ratio.
Figure 13. Mean wind pressure coefficient which was obtained from wind tunnel tests on enclosed type of the standalone mode
Figure 14. Mean wind pressure coefficient which was obtained from wind tunnel tests on open type of the standalone mode
135
136
Cf ' =
sp
qz
(9)
in which p is fluctuating wind pressure at pressure tap p on the model and q z is the mean value
of dynamic velocity pressure at the reference location. The maximum value of the fluctuating
wind pressure is 1.0 and the minimum value of the fluctuating wind pressure is 0.
The test result showed that the Cf of the enclosed types were different distribution from the open
types. Furthermore the Cf of the enclosed type was larger than that of the open type. Especial
ly, the model type h/L=0.2 of the enclosed model showed 0.75 around the center of the roof. These
results may cause some effects on the response of membrane, since the membrane structure is
generally sensitive structure for the external force such as wind load with turbulence.
Figure 15. Fluctuating wind pressure coefficient which was obtained from wind tunnel tests on enclosed type of the
stand-alone mode
Wind Tunnel Tests on Horn-Shaped Membrane Roof Under the Turbulent Boundary Layer
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54180
Figure 16. Fluctuating wind pressure coefficient which was obtained from wind tunnel tests on open type of the
stand-alone mode
of the internal area. However, this test showed that peak wind pressure coefficients around
the middle of roof (i.e. the top of roof) were the maximum negative value. In addition, the peak
wind pressure coefficient of the enclosed model was larger than that of the open type. For
example, focusing on the enclosed model, the model of h/L=0.2 and 0.3 show more than -4.0.
Furthermore, the distribution varied according to the parameter of wind direction and risespan ratio.
Figure 17. Peak wind pressure coefficient which was obtained from wind tunnel tests on enclosed type of the standalone mode
137
138
Figure 18. Peak wind pressure coefficient which was obtained from wind tunnel tests on open type of the standalone mode
7. The wind tunnel test on the multi-bay model under the turbulent
boundary layer flow
In most cases, the horn shaped membrane structure is used as the multi-bay type. The number
of horn unit depends on the scale of the building and the building uses. Therefore, this chapter
focuses on the multi-bay model of 33. This test was carried out to clarify about the basic
characteristics of the wind pressure coefficient of the multi-bay horn-shaped membrane roof.
7.1. Outline of tests
This test used the same facilities and the same turbulent flow as the stand-alone model shown
in chapter 5. A model scale of a horn unit was 30cm x 30cm and the number of unit was 3 wide,
3 bays, and the models ware made from acrylic (see figure 19 and 20). This experimental model
was only one type of rise-span ratio, namely h/L=0.2.
Wind Tunnel Tests on Horn-Shaped Membrane Roof Under the Turbulent Boundary Layer
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54180
Figure 19. Experimental models and measuring points on the multi-bay models
Figure 20. The photo of models on the multi-bay model; one type of h/L model which was made from acrylic plastic.
139
140
Figure 21. Mean wind pressure coefficient which were obtained from wind tunnel tests on enclosed type of the multibay mode
Figure 22. Mean wind pressure coefficient which were obtained from wind tunnel tests on open type of the multi-bay
mode
Wind Tunnel Tests on Horn-Shaped Membrane Roof Under the Turbulent Boundary Layer
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54180
same as that on stand-alone model. The enclosed model showed value of 0.6 or more over the
whole area of the roof. But the open type showed comparatively large value of approximately
0.8 on the only windward side.
Figure 23. Fluctuating wind pressure coefficient which were obtained from wind tunnel tests on enclosed type of the
multi-bay mode
Figure 24. Fluctuating wind pressure coefficient which were obtained from wind tunnel tests on open type of the
multi-bay mode
141
142
(a)Enclosed Type
(b)Open Type
Figure 25. Maximum peak wind pressure coefficient which were obtained from wind tunnel tests on the multi-bay
model
(a)Enclosed Type
(b)Open Type
Figure 26. Minimum peak wind pressure coefficient which were obtained from wind tunnel tests on the multi-bay
model
8. Conclusions
In this paper, the characteristics of the wind pressure coefficients on the horn-shaped mem
brane roof were presented using wind tunnel tests with the turbulent boundary layer flow.
Particularly, the followings are clarified that;
Wind Tunnel Tests on Horn-Shaped Membrane Roof Under the Turbulent Boundary Layer
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54180
The wind pressure coefficient varied according to the presence of the wall and the wind
direction.
The negative pressure around the top of roof become larger with the increase of the risespan ratio.
The fluctuating wind pressure coefficient and the peak wind pressure coefficient on the
enclosed type was larger than these of the open type.
As for the mean wind pressure coefficient of the enclosed types, the multi-bay types were
different from the stand-alone models. These results are forecast to cause unstable phe
nomenon of the membrane.
Furthermore, the representative distributions of the wind pressure coefficient were shown on
each parameter.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Grant-in-Aid for JSPS
Fellows, KAKENHI 227895. All of tests were carried out on Research Institute of Science and
Technology, College of Science and Technology, Nihon University. The authors have had the
support of Ayu Matsuda, Japan ERI Co.,Ltd., and Tomoaki Kaseya Graduate School of Science
and Technology, Nihon University to carry out the experiments.
Author details
Yuki Nagai1, Akira Okada2, Naoya Miyasato2, Masao Saitoh2 and Ryota Matsumoto2
1 Sasaki Structural Consultants, Japan
2 Nihon University, Japan
References
[1] Architectural Institute of Japan, Recommendations for Load on Buildings. (2004), Archi
tectural Institute of Japan, ISBN 481890556,Japan
[2] The building Center of Japan. (2004). The Building Standard Law of Japan June 2004, The
building Center of Japan. , ISBN 4-88910-128-4, Japan
143
144
[3] Cermak, J.E. & Isyumov, N., with American Society of Civil Engineers Task Commit
tee. (1998), Wind Tunnel Studies of Buildings and Structures (Asce Manual and Reports on
Engineering Practice), American Society of Civil Engineers, ISBN 0784403198
[4] Cook, N.J. (1990), Designers Guide to Wind Loading of Building Structures Part 2: Static
structures, Laxton's, ISBN 0408008717
[5] Forster, B. et al. (2004), European Design Guide Tensile Surface Structures, TensiNet,
ISBN 908086871
[6] Kaiser, U. (2004), Wind Wirkung auf Schwach Vorgespannte membran strukturen am bei
spiel eines 30m-membranschirmes, Der Andere Verlag., ISBN 3899591623, Germany
[7] Ma, J., Zhou, D., LI, H., ZHU, Z. & DONG, S. Numerical simulation and visualization of
wind field and wind load on space structure, Proceedings of IASS 2007, Beijing, 2007
[8] Nerdinger, W. (2005). Frei Otto Complete Works: Lightweight Construction Natural De
sign, Birkhuser Architecture, ISBN 3764372311
[9] Janberg, N. (2011). BC Place stadium, In: Nicolas Janberg's Structurae, March 21, 2011,
Available from: http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?id=s0000708
[10] Janberg, N. (2011). Lords Cricket Ground Mound Stand, In: Nicolas Janberg's Struc
turae, March 21, 2011, Available from: http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/
index.cfm?id=s0000694
[11] Otto, F. (1969). Tensile Structures: Cables, Nets and Membranes v. 2, MIT Presse, ISBN
0262150085, USA
[12] Saitoh, M. (2003). Story of Space and Structure -Structural Designs Future, Shoukoku
sha, ISBN 4395006396, Japan
[13] Saitoh, M. & Kuroki, F. Horn Type Tension Membrane Structures, Proceedings of IASS
1989, Madrid, 1989
[14] Seidel, M. & David, S. (2009). Tensile Surface Structures - A Practical Guide to Cable and
Membrane Construction: Materials, Design, Assembly and Erection, Wiley VCH, ISBN
3433029229, Germany
[15] Shinkenchiku-Sha Co. Ltd. (1992). Hyper Dome E, In: Shinkenchiku March,1992, Shin
kenchiku-Sha Co. Ltd. ISSN 1342-5447, Japan
[16] Shinkenchiku-Sha Co. Ltd. (1988). Tokyo Dome, In: Shinkenchiku May, 1988, Shinken
chiku-Sha Co. Ltd. ISSN 1342-5447, Japan
[17] Shinkenchiku-Sha Co. Ltd. (2007). BDS Kashiwanomori Auctionhouse, In: Shinkenchi
ku October, 2007, Shinkenchiku-Sha Co. Ltd. ISSN 1342-5447, Japan
[18] Wang, C., Zhou, D. & Ma, J. The interacting simulation of wind and membrane structures,
Proceedings of IASS 2007, Beijing, 2007
Wind Tunnel Tests on Horn-Shaped Membrane Roof Under the Turbulent Boundary Layer
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54180
[19] Nagai, Y. Et al. Wind Response on Horn-Shaped Membrane Roof and Proposal of Gust Ef
fect Factor for Membrane Structure, Proceedings of IASS 2012, Seoul, 2012
145
Chapter 7
1. Introduction
The measurement experiment of the fluid-dynamic noise made from the object placed into
the air flow is performed using a low noise wind tunnel, a silent airflow wind tunnel, etc. In
the low noise wind tunnel, the measures against silence are taken so that the noise generated
with a fan or a compressor may not propagate as much as possible to a wind tunnel test sec
tion by an air current. As for the surroundings of the test section of a low noise wind tunnel,
acoustic free space is provided. Generally a wind tunnel is classified by the form of the
channel of a wind tunnel (blow type, suction type and circulating type), the form of the
measurement section (open, half-open and sealed), and the existence of circulation of flow.
And the practical wind tunnels are classified into 13 kinds (Mochizuki & Maruta, 1996). Fig
ure 1 illustrates the circulation environment for the airflow between the blower and the
measurement section, the types of duct in the wind tunnel (blow, suction and circulating)
and the types of measurement section (open, half-open and sealed). The merit of each type
of the wind tunnel and the weak point are summarized as follows. In the merit of the blow
type, the composition is simple and small the installation space. In the liberating measure
ment section of jet-type, the usage of use becomes various. The week point is to need big
power because the pressure loss is large. Flowing quantity will come to receive the fluctua
tion easily in turbulence. The measurement section is that the temperature raises more than
the temperatures of air in the surrounding. The merit of the suction-type should be able to
be composed the rectification part short, and more compactly than the blow-type. The tem
perature of the measurement section is the same as the temperature of the space in the sur
rounding. The weak point is to receive the influence of the fluctuation of the outer air flow
large. The measurement section must become negative pressure from the atmospheric pres
2013 Yokoi; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
148
sure. An enough space for the rectification is needed on the suction side. The merit of the
circulating blow-type is not to receive turbulence. The experiment on all-round is possible in
the open-type measurement section. The weak point is to take time until stabilizing and it be
easy to rise in the temperature. Merits of the circulating suction-type are that turbulence is
not received and the rectification part is short. The weak point is to take time until stabiliz
ing. A very wide space is necessary forward of the suction mouth. Merits of the circulating
type to unnecessary big power and not to receive turbulence. The stability of the flow is also
early. Especially, efficiency is very good and the pressure loss is a little in the sealed-type
measurement section. The weak point is to need noting in the rise's of the air flow tempera
ture becoming remarkable. The object flow must be limited. A wide installation space is
needed. In addition, there are a peculiar merit and a weak point respectively by the meas
urement section shape, and they are summarized as follows. The merit of the open-type
measurement section is that the limitation concerning the size and the shape of the test piece
is a little. The weak point is to receive turbulence by the suck of air. Merits of the half-open
type measurement section are permitted the test piece diversity and are hard of turbulence
to receive. The weak point is that the measurement room becomes negative pressure easily.
The merit of the sealed-type measurement section is to become the most efficient wind tun
nel, and to hardly receive turbulence. The weak point is to receive the limitation to the size
and the shape of the test piece. Among these, it is required that the wind tunnel aiming at
measurement of a fluid-dynamic noise secures the acoustic free space of silence and a test
section. Moreover, it is also required that the spatial relationship of a test model and a mi
crophone can be set up freely. Therefore, many blow-type wind tunnels with the measure
ment room and half-open type test section by which sound insulation processing was
carried out with the sound-absorbing material are used. On the other hand, use of a micro
phone is difficult in an air flow, and the measurement technique of a fluid-dynamic noise
has not been established. Therefore, the wind tunnel with a sealed type test section can
scarcely be seen. Accordingly, measurement of the fluid-dynamic noise of internal flows,
such as a flow inside a gas turbine or a jet engine, and a pipeline, a flow of the around of the
support in a duct, is not in the state which can be performed immediately. As for the present
condition, there are also few examples of verification of measurement of the fluid-dynamic
noise of an internal flow. So, it is very important to establish the measurement technique of
the fluid-dynamic noise of an internal flow in engineering. In measurement of the fluid-dy
namic noise using a low noise wind tunnel, when an open-type test section is used, it is re
ported that there is a case where it becomes impossible for a back ground noise not to be
amplified by the large turbulence produced with the edge of the jet stream from a nozzle, or
for generating of the sound which is not a measuring object to be observed by interference
of a jet and a model sample, or to maintain the two dimensional characteristic of a flow etc.
Moreover, when a sealed type test section is used, on the usual surface of a wall, sound re
flects, and exact measurement cannot be performed, but if the material which can bear wind
pressure that sound tends to penetrate the surface of a wall is used, it is reported that the
sealed type test section will probably be better (Fujita, 1994, 1996).
The purpose of this study is examination of the measurement technique of the fluid-dynam
ic noise of an internal flow. In this study, it proposes carrying out burial setting of the micro
Experimental Study of Internal Flow Noise Measurement by Use of a Suction Type Low Noise Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53828
phone to the test section equipped with a fibered glass. The suction type low noise wind
tunnel with such a test section for verification was created, and measurement of the fluiddynamic noise made from the circular cylinder placed into the air flow was tried. Compari
son examination of the measurement result obtained by this measurement technique was
fluid-dynamic
noise made fromresult
the circular
cylinder
placed
the wind
air flow
was tried.
carried out
with the measurement
obtained
in the
blowinto
type
tunnel.
As a result,
Comparison examination of the measurement result obtained by this measurement
it was shown
that the same characteristic is obtained about the change in a sound pressure
technique was carried out with the measurement result obtained in the blow type wind
level or tunnel.
peak frequency.
since
target
acoustic
frequency
was
clearly, it
As a result, itMoreover,
was shown that
thethe
same
characteristic
is obtained
about
thecaught
change in
was shown
that
it is convenient
for examination
an the
acoustic
effect.frequency
This measurement
a sound
pressure
level or peak frequency.
Moreover,of
since
target acoustic
was
caught
clearly,
it was that
shown
that it is convenient
forfluid-dynamic
examination of an
acoustic
effect. This of the
technique
showed
clearly
usefulness
is high to
noise
measurement
measurement technique showed clearly that usefulness is high to fluid-dynamic noise
internal measurement
flow.
of the internal flow.
Measurement
section
Duct type
Open-type
Half-open type
Sealed-type
M.S
Blow
M.S
Suction
M.S
M.S
M.S
Circulating
M.S
Non practicality
Circulating blow
Circulating suction
M.S
M.S
Non practicality
M.S
M.S
M.S
M.S
M.S
Figure 1. Wind tunnel classifications (Mochizuki & Maruta, 1996); the circle represents the blower, the arrow shows
direction of the flow, and "M.S" is the measurement section
Fig. 1. Wind tunnel classifications (Mochizuki & Maruta, 1996); the circle represents the
blower, the arrow shows direction of the flow, and "M.S" is the measurement section
(
2. Experimental
apparatusand
and method
2. Experimental
apparatus
method
This chapter describes the used equipment, a tool, and the procedure of an experiment.
This chapter
describes the used equipment, a tool, and the procedure of an experiment.
2.1 Outline of the experimental apparatus
2.1. Outline
of the experimental
apparatus
The experimental
apparatus consists
of a low noise wind tunnel and measuring equipment.
Figure 2 shows the schematic diagram of a low noise wind tunnel. The low noise wind
The experimental apparatus consists of a low noise wind tunnel and measuring equipment.
Figure 2 shows the schematic diagram of a low noise wind tunnel. The low noise wind tun
nel is constituted from the bell mouse, the test section, the silence duct, and the fan by the
inhaled type wind tunnel with a sealed type test section. In order to reduce fan generating
149
150
noise, the inside of a silence duct is divided into four in the shape of a cell, the sound-ab
sorbing material (fibered glass) is stuck on all the surface of a wall, and the fan is installed in
the fan room by which interior was carried out with the sound-absorbing material with a
silence exhaust port with which three splitter walls were set. Regulation of airflow velocity
which passes a test section is performed by carrying out inverter control of the number of
rotations of the fan by remote control. A measuring device is divided roughly into fluid-dy
namic noise measurement equipment and the air flow velocity measurement equipment.
Fluid-dynamic noise measurement equipment consists of directive capacitor microphone
(RION, UC-30, hereafter it is called microphone for convenient), precision noise level meter
(RION, NA-40), and FFT analyzers (Ono Sokki, CF-5220). The air flow velocity measurement
equipment consists of a hot-wire anemometer (DISA, TYPE55) and a digital pressure gauge
(Cosmo Instruments, DM-3100B). As for measurement of the turbulence intensity to the
flow velocity distribution and a main flow, the hot-wire anemometer was used. The pres
sure difference between the surface of a wall (static pressure) of a test section and atmos
pheric pressure was measured with the digital pressure gauge.
Experimental Study of Internal Flow Noise Measurement by Use of a Suction Type Low Noise Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53828
diameter of 100mm was installed from the edge of the measurement section upstream side
to the position at 350mm in the centerline. Upper and lower walls act as the sound absorb
ing walls (fibered glass walls), with 50mm-thick fibered glass placed on a 15mm-thick trans
parent acrylic board. Half free space is made in acoustics by installing this sound absorbing
wall. The microphone and the hot-wire probe are set up from the edge of the measurement
part upstream side to the position at 400mm in the centerline. The surface of microphone
and the surface of fibered glass are set at the same level. The hot-wire probe can be moved
in a vertical direction in the measurement section (y direction) using the traverse device. The
test circular cylinder can be set within a range of 5mm-45mm up from the center of the turn
table. Here, the center-to-center spacing of the microphone and the circular cylinder make
adjustments within a range of 5mm-95mm possible. The test circular cylinder is made from
brass, span length is 160mm and the surface is finished smoothly. The test circular cylinder
is with seven kind, and each diameter is 6mm, 10mm, 15mm, 20mm, 25mm, 30mm, and
40mm.
151
152
all noise level and frequency analyses are done using the precision sound level meter and
the fast Fourier transform analyzer. The flow velocity distribution in the measurement sec
tion and the measurement of the disturbance intensity relative to the main flow is as follows.
The I type probe of the hot-wire anemometer is inserted detaching the microphone, it traver
ses in a vertical direction (y direction) at 5mm intervals (the interval of traverse is 2.5mm
near the wall), and the air flow velocity is measured at the microphone installation position.
The frequency of the oscillating flow due to Karman vortex shedding from the circular cylin
der is measured as follows. The I type probe of the hot-wire anemometer is fixed in a posi
tion such that a clear shape of the waves can be obtained, and the output signal and
frequency are using the fast Fourier transform analyzer. Here, averaging is performed ten
times in the frequency analysis.
Experimental Study of Internal Flow Noise Measurement by Use of a Suction Type Low Noise Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53828
153
section and when the wind tunnel is in operation. The noise levels around the wind tunnel, al
most the same, but differ inside and outside of the fan room, and when flow velocity increases,
the difference increased. The noise levels inside and outside the fan room were 26dB and 32dB,
respectively, when the wind tunnel was not operating. The level of sound intensity is defined
by L=10log10I/I0 (dB) (I0 is an intensity of the sound of the standard: 10-12 W/m2). Here, when the
level of intensity of a sound inside the fan room is defined as LIN, and the level of intensity of a
sound outside the fan room is defined as LOUT, the ratio of the level of sound-intensity LIN/LOUT is
given by LIN/LOUT=10(LIN-LOUT)/10. The air flow velocity range is 5-35m/s, so the ratio of the level of
sound-intensity LIN/LOUT becomes 155 -6760. Therefore, it is clear that the noise in the blower
room is intercepted.
100
100
90
5m/s 10m/s 20m/s 28m/s
5m/s 10m/s 20m/s 28m/s
80 90
80
70
60 70
50 60
40 50
30 40
20 30
10 20
0 10
0
A B C D E F G H I J K L1 L2
A B C D E F G H I J K L1 L2
Measurement points
Measurement points
SPL (dB)
SPL (dB)
Figure
4. Sound measurement points around a wind tunnel pressure level
Fig. 5. Sound pressure level around a wind tunnel with a flow velocity in the test section
section
ranging from 5m/s to 28m/s
Figure
5. Sound
pressure
level
aroundlevel
a windaround
tunnel withaawind
flow velocity
in thewith
test section
ranging
from 5m/s
28m/s
Fig.
5.
Sound
tunnel
a flow
velocity
in to
the
test
ranging
from
5m/spressure
to 28m/s
15
1.0
0.6
wall,
velocity
Glasswool
Acrylic plate
wall,
velocity
Acrylic plate wall, velocity
Glasswool
Fibered glass
turbulence
wall,wall,
turbulence
10
(u2)0.5/Umax
0.8
U/U max
154
0.4
0.2
0.0 0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Y/B
0.5
Fig. 6. Flow velocity distribution and turbulence intensity in the test (measurement) section
a main distribution
flow velocityand
of U=28m/s
Figure 6. Flowatvelocity
turbulence intensity in the test (measurement) section at a main flow velocity
of U=28m/s
It is known that the fluid-dynamic noise made from the circular cylinder placed into the air
flow is a dipole sound. Since there is single directivity also in a microphone, it is important
It is knowntothat
the fluid-dynamic
noise
made from
the
cylinderof placed
understand
the influence on the
measurement
result by
thecircular
spatial relationship
a sound into the air
source sound.
and its microphone.
Figure
7 shows directivity
the measurement
the sound pressure
flow is a dipole
Since there
is single
alsoresult
in aofmicrophone,
it is important
level when varying the distance x between centers of a circular cylinder and a microphone
to understand
the
influence
on
the
measurement
result
by
the
spatial
relationship
in the range from 5mm to 95mm. Here, the airflow velocity in a test section was U=28m/s of a sound
and the diameter of circular cylinder was 20mm. It is understood that the measured sound
pressure level is almost the same. So, in measurement of acoustic frequency, distance
between centers of circular cylinder and microphone was set to 50mm. Here, it is expected
that the pressure fluctuation of a short-distance field is included in the sound pressure
Experimental Study of Internal Flow Noise Measurement by Use of a Suction Type Low Noise Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53828
155
source and its microphone. Figure 7 shows the measurement result of the sound pressure
level when varying the distance x between centers of a circular cylinder and a microphone
in the range from 5mm to 95mm. Here, the airflow velocity in a test section was U=28m/s
and the diameter of circular cylinder was 20mm. It is understood that the measured sound
level is almost the same. So, in measurement of acoustic frequency, distance be
which will pressure
have been
measured if the measurement position of sound is generally near from
tween centers of circular cylinder and microphone was set to 50mm. Here, it is expected that
a sound source
(circular
cylinder). In this study, the distance between the circular cylinder
the pressure fluctuation of a short-distance field is included in the sound pressure which
and the microphone
was
narrower
theof device
for aan ordinary
will have been
measured
if the compared
measurement with
position
sound isarrangement
generally near from
sound measurement.
the noise
measurement
of the
flowthe
incircular
the fluid
machine such
sound source Because
(circular cylinder).
In this
study, the distance
between
cylinder
and
the
microphone
was
narrower
compared
with
the
device
arrangement
for
an
ordinary
as the gas turbines and jet engines is assumed, and the measurement of the fluid-dynamic
sound
Because the
measurement
the supports
flow in the fluid
suchinstalled in
sound caused
bymeasurement.
the flow around
thenoise
object
such asofthe
and machine
umbones
as the gas turbines and jet engines is assumed, and the measurement of the fluid-dynamic
the pipeline and the duct is assumed, it becomes such arrangement. Therefore, the influence
sound caused by the flow around the object such as the supports and umbones installed in
of the nearthefield
appears to be strong, making a quantitative evaluation of the sound
pipeline and the duct is assumed, it becomes such arrangement. Therefore, the influence
pressure level
more
difficult.
this aisquantitative
a clear challenge
future
studies. The
of the near field
appears toResolving
be strong, making
evaluation of for
the sound
pres
relationshipsure
between
position
rc by
pressure
fluctuation
ofrelation
a short-distance
level morethe
difficult.
Resolving
thiswhich
is a clearthe
challenge
for future
studies. The
which
the pressurefrequency
fluctuation off is
a short-distance
field can c/a) >=10
between the position
rc by the
field can beship
disregarded
now, and
minimum
given in 20log(2fr
dB (a is
be disregarded
now, and
the minimum
frequency fr is between
given in 20log(2fr
c/a) >=10 cylinder
the circular
and the
dB (a is acoustic
velocity)
(Iida,
1996). Distance
c
acoustic velocity) (Iida, 1996). Distance rc between the circular cylinder and the microphone
microphone
becomes
188mm-211mm
because
the
range
of
center-to-center
spacing
x
becomes 188mm-211mm because the range of center-to-center spacing x between the circu
between the
cylinder
and the
microphone
in this experiment
5mm-95mm.
The
lar circular
cylinder and
the microphone
in this
experiment is 5mm-95mm.
The obtained is
lower
criti
obtained lower
critical
frequency
f becomes
When
the center-to-center
cal frequency
f becomes
910Hz-812Hz.
When the 910Hz-812Hz.
center-to-center spacing
is assumed
to be
twodistance
points becomes
194.5mm. The
critical
frequency194.5mm.
f at
distance
spacing is 50mm,
assumed
to rbe
50mm,
rc between
twolower
points
becomes
The
c between
that
time
is
880Hz.
lower critical frequency f at that time is 880Hz.
SPL dB
120
110
100
0
20
40
60
x mm
80
100
Fig. 7. Measurement
result for sound pressure level with a directivity check
Figure 7. Measurement result for sound pressure level with a directivity check
The back ground noise with acoustic half-free space of a test section was measured by
making airflow velocity in a test section into U=28m/s. The circular cylinder of various
156
considered suitable for the measurement of the fluid sound of an internal flow.
120
SPL dB
110
d=20
100
90
80
B.G.N.
70
60 1
10
102
103
PL max
Microphone
104
f Hz
60 1
10
102
103
104
f Hz
Experimental Study of Internal Flow Noise Measurement by Use of a Suction
Type Low Noise Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53828
PL/PL max
1
0.8
Microphone
Hotwire
0.6
101
102
103
104
f Hz
Fig. 9. The relationship between the acoustic frequency and the fluid frequency due to
Figure 9. The relationship between the acoustic frequency and the fluid frequency due to vortex shedding
vortex
shedding
Figure 10 shows the variation of the peak frequency of the sound pressure level at the time
of varying a circular cylinder diameter. The back ground noise is also shown for compari
son. The abscissa is frequency f and the ordinate is a sound pressure level SPL. Increase of a
cylinder diameter can see the tendency for a sound pressure level to increase and for peak
frequency to decrease. The experimental result (Tomita et al., 1982) in the wind tunnel of a
blow type with a half-opening type test section is shown in Fig. 11 for comparison with this
experimental result. Although the variation of a sound pressure level or peak frequency to
the variation of the diameter of the circular cylinder shows the same tendency, in each circu
lar cylinder, one large peak and its harmonics component are seen, and spectrum distribu
tion of the fluid-dynamic noise made when a circular cylinder is installed into an air current
constitutes a larger sound pressure level than a back ground noise by the high frequency
side which passed over the large peak. This suggests containing other sounds potential in
not only the fluid-dynamic sound to be measured but also the flow noise. Therefore, it ap
pears that the use of a blow-type wind tunnel with a half-open measurement section is rath
er inconvenient for measuring a sound effect. On the other hand, the results from a sealedtype measurement section of a suction-type wind tunnel becomes a sound pressure level
that only the section of the frequency of the aimed fluid-dynamic sound is big as shown in
Fig. 10, and the other frequency components are the same degree of the sound pressure level
as the back ground noise. This is convenient for the examination of sound effects. The suc
tion wind tunnel with a sealed-type measurement section can be expected to be a good
measurement technique for examining sound effects.
157
pressure level that only the section of the frequency of the aimed fluid-dynamic sound is big
as shown in Fig. 10, and the other frequency components are the same degree of the sound
pressure level as the back ground noise. This is convenient for the examination of sound
effects. The suction wind tunnel with a sealed-type measurement section can be expected to
158 Wind
Designs
and Their Diverse
Engineering
Applications
beTunnel
a good
measurement
technique
for examining
sound effects.
120
d=40
SPL dB
110
d=30 d=25
d=20
d=15
100
90
80
d=10
d=6
B.G.N.
70
60 1
10
102
103
104
f Hz
Fig.10.
10.The
The
characteristics
of fluid-dynamic
noise,
casetest
of section
present test section
Figure
characteristics
of fluid-dynamic
noise, in the
casein
of the
present
100
SPL dB
d=20
80
d=15
d=10
d=6
60
40
20 1
10
U=35m/s
B.G.N.
102
103
104
f Hz
Fig.11.
11.Characteristics
Characteristics
of fluid-dynamic
in blow-type
wind tunnel
(Tomita
Figure
of fluid-dynamic
noise, in noise,
blow-type
wind tunnel (Tomita
et.al., 1982)
et.al., 1982)
In In
order
to verify
the effect
of theofsound-absorbing
material
(fibered
glass) glass)
in the measure
order
to verify
the effect
the sound-absorbing
material
(fibered
in the
ment
section, the
acoustic
from the from
circular
was measured.
At this At
time,
measurement
section,
thefrequency
acoustic frequency
the cylinder
circular cylinder
was measured.
thethis
microphone
is set up from
to mouse
500mmtoupstream
side by side
equal
time, the microphone
is setthe
upbell
frommouse
the bell
500mm upstream
byheight
equal to
theheight
circular
cylinder
position. position.
The air flow
velocity
of the of
measurement
section
to the
circularinstallation
cylinder installation
The air
flow velocity
the measurement
section
was As
U=28m/s.
result, the measurement
result
differed
to the
was
U=28m/s.
a result, As
the ameasurement
result differed
according
to according
the existence
of the
existence of the material.
sound-absorbing
material.
12 shows the
measurement
results
for
sound-absorbing
Figure 12
shows Figure
the measurement
results
for circular
cylinders
circular
cylinders
20mm,
25mm, in30mm,
and when
40mmupper
in diameter
whensidewalls
upper and
lower
20mm,
25mm,
30mm,
and 40mm
diameter
and lower
made
of an
sidewalls made of an acrylic board are used. Here, the back-ground noise (B.G.N.) is shown
for comparison. The sound pressure levels for the peak frequency of each circular cylinder
are small, and the peak frequency is twice the value of fluid oscillating frequency, based on
the Karman vortex shedding shown in Fig. 10. On the other hand, the measurement result
when sound-absorbing material is installed is shown in Fig. 13, relative to back-ground
noise (B.G.N.) at circular cylinder diameters of 20mm-40mm. Two sound pressure peaks are
seen in each figure. The first peak (1st peak) on the low frequency side is a Karman vortex
shedding frequency, and the second peak (2nd peak) on the high frequency side is twice the
Experimental Study of Internal Flow Noise Measurement by Use of a Suction Type Low Noise Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53828
acrylic board are used. Here, the back-ground noise (B.G.N.) is shown for comparison. The
sound pressure levels for the peak frequency of each circular cylinder are small, and the
peak frequency is twice the value of fluid oscillating frequency, based on the Karman vortex
shedding shown in Fig. 10. On the other hand, the measurement result when sound-absorb
ing material is installed is shown in Fig. 13, relative to back-ground noise (B.G.N.) at circular
cylinder diameters of 20mm-40mm. Two sound pressure peaks are seen in each figure. The
first peak (1st peak) on the low frequency side is a Karman vortex shedding frequency, and
the second peak (2nd peak) on the high frequency side is twice the Karman vortex shedding
frequency. Moreover, the magnitude correlation of the two peaks is different in each circular
cylinder. In the case of circular cylinders with diameters of 10mm, 15mm, and 30mm, the
first peak (1st peak) on the low frequency side is larger. In the case circular cylinder diame
ters of 20mm, 25mm, and 40mm, the second peak (2nd peak) on the high frequency side is
larger. It is shown that there is a change in the interference pattern of the sound wave in a
vertical direction in the flow in the measurement section. The two peaks can also be ob
served in a blow-type wind tunnel with a half-open measurement section as shown in Fig.
11. In this case, however, the microphone is set up at and angle of 45 degrees and positioned
500mm behind the circular cylinder, aiming at the sound around the circular cylinder. The
first peak (1st peak) on the low frequency side is always larger than the second peak (2nd
peak) on the high frequency side in the magnitude correlation of the peak because of the po
sition of the microphone and the directivity of the microphone. A comparison of the results
between a suction-type and a blow-type wind tunnel with sound-absorbing material instal
led shows that the acoustical free space of an internal flow can become an acoustical free
space similar to the case of an external flow. The sound is fluctuation of the pressure which
transmits the inside of fluid, the size of the amplitude is the size of sound, and the height of
oscillation frequency is the height of sound. The fluid force acts on the circular cylinder by
the fluid fluctuation according to the vortex shedding from the circular cylinder. The oscilla
tion of the fluid force can be divided into a lift component and a drag component, at a ratio
of 1:2. The circular cylinder placed on the air flow is a source of two kinds of sound waves
as two peaks are apparent in the fluid sound. When acrylic upper and lower sidewalls are
used, the acoustical free space becomes the only flow direction. The sound by the oscillation
in the direction of the lift is canceled by acoustical interference. Therefore, the peak frequen
cies of each circular cylinder shown in Fig. 12 are considered to be the oscillation a sound
from the drag direction. On the other hand, when the sound-absorbing material is installed
on the upper and lower sidewalls, the acoustical free space is two directional (a parallel di
rection and a vertical direction) for the flow. It is an acoustical free space similar to the blowtype wind tunnel with a half-open measurement section. Therefore, the sounds of the lift
and drag oscillations are measured as shown in Fig. 13.
In general, because the oscillation amplitude of the lift is far larger than that of the drag, it is
expected that the sound pressure level in the direction of the lift is far larger than the sound
pressure of the drag direction. However, the sound from the oscillation of the drag direction
is easily detected because the directivity microphone is located on the upstream side of the
circular cylinder in this measurement, and the fluid-dynamic sound by the oscillation in the
direction of the lift is not detected easily. In addition, because the interference pattern of the
159
sound wave in the direction of the lift is different in each circular cylinder, the sound pres
sure level in the direction of the lift is small. The sound pressure level of the drag direction
has a large value, as shown in Figs. 12(c) (d) and (f). Moreover, when the microphone is set
up in the measurement section, only the fluid-dynamic sound in the direction of the lift is
measured as shown in Fig. 8. Such a phenomenon suggests that the directivity of the sound
source and the directivity of the microphone are at issue, and this is the subject of future in
vestigation.
100
SPL dB
160
d=30
d=40
80
d=25
d=20
60
40
20 1
10
U=28m/s
B.G.N.
102
103
104
f Hz
Fig. 12. Characteristics of fluid-dynamic noise at the measurement point from the upstream side of the test section, in the case of solid wall
degrees and positioned 500mm behind the circular cylinder, aiming at the sound around the
circular cylinder. The first peak (1st peak) on the low frequency side is always larger than
the second peak (2nd peak) on the high frequency side in the magnitude correlation of the
peak because of the position of the microphone and the directivity of the microphone. A
comparison of the results between a suction-type and a blow-type wind tunnel with soundabsorbing
materialofinstalled
shows
themeasurement
acoustical point
free space
ofup-stream
an internal
Figure
12. Characteristics
fluid-dynamic
noisethat
at the
from the
side flow
of the can
test sec
tion,become
in the casean
of solid
wall
acoustical
free space similar to the case of an external flow. The sound is
fluctuation of the pressure which transmits the inside of fluid, the size of the amplitude is
the size of sound, and the height of oscillation frequency is the height of sound. The fluid
force acts on the circular cylinder by the fluid fluctuation according to the vortex shedding
from the circular cylinder. The oscillation of the fluid force can be divided into a lift
component and a drag component, at a ratio of 1:2. The circular cylinder placed on the air
flow is a source of two kinds of sound waves as two peaks are apparent in the fluid sound.
When acrylic upper and lower sidewalls are used, the acoustical free space becomes the only
flow direction. The sound by the oscillation in the direction of the lift is canceled by
Experimental Study of Internal Flow Noise Measurement by Use of a Suction Type Low Noise Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53828
1st peak
2nd peak
SPL dB
110
100
90
120
110
SPL dB
120
80
102
103
(a)
120
90
102
(b)
120
SPL dB
100
60 1
10
(c)
104
f Hz
1st peak
2nd peak
100
90
70
104
f Hz
103
(e)
80
103
102
110
B.G.N.
102
B.G.N.
120
90
70
60 1
10
104
f Hz
1st peak
2nd peak
110
80
90
70
103
104
f Hz
100
80
B.G.N.
SPL dB
60 1
10
103
1st peak
2nd peak
110
80
70
102
120
2nd peak
100
B.G.N.
(d)
1st peak
110
SPL dB
60 1
10
104
f Hz
SPL dB
60 1
10
90
70
B.G.N.
2nd peak
100
80
70
1st peak
60 1
10
B.G.N.
102
103
(f)
104
f Hz
Fig.
13.13.Characteristics
fluid-dynamic
noise
at the measurement
point
from the
Figure
Characteristics ofof
fluid-dynamic
noise at
the measurement
point from the
up-stream
sideup-stream
of the test sec
side
ofthe
thecase
testofsection,
in the
case
fibered
glassdwall;
(a) cylinder
diameter
d is 10mm,
(b) (e)
tion, in
fibered glass
wall;
(a) of
cylinder
diameter
is 10mm,
(b) d=15mm,
(c) d=20mm,
(d) d=25mm,
d=30mm, (f)(c)
d=40mm
d=15mm,
d=20mm, (d) d=25mm, (e) d=30mm, (f) d=40mm
sound pressure of the drag direction. However, the sound from the oscillation of the drag
direction is easily detected because the directivity microphone is located on the upstream
4. Conclusion
side of the circular cylinder in this measurement, and the fluid-dynamic sound by the
oscillation in the direction of the lift is not detected easily. In addition, because the
This study proposed a technique to measure the fluid-dynamic noise of an internal flow in a
wind tunnel, and the fluid-dynamic noise from a circular cylinder placed on the air flow of a
161
162
The acoustic performance and fluid-dynamic performance of a test wind tunnel were
good. The following results were obtained for the performance of the test wind tunnel.
The noise in the blower room is effectively intercepted. The position of the sound
source and the microphone are not influenced by directivity. The uniformity of the flow
of the measurement section narrows when sound-absorbing material is used for the
measurement section of the test wind tunnel.
2.
The following results were obtained from installing sound-absorbing material in the
measurement section. The acoustical free space can be made from the closed space.
When the surface of the microphone was arranged and set up on the surface of the
sound-absorbing material, the measurement of the fluid sound of an internal flow be
came possible without any disarrangement of the flow-field.
3.
The acoustic frequency measured by the microphone was confirmed to have a frequen
cy based on the fluid oscillation caused by the Karman vortex shedding measured with
the hot-wire anemometer.
4.
The following results were obtained when a comparison was made with the results
from a blow-type wind tunnel. The aimed acoustic frequency was measured by the
large sound pressure level. Other frequency elements were the same degrees of the
sound pressure level as the back ground noise. It has been understood that such a result
was convenient when a sound effect was examined.
5.
When an acoustical effect was examined, it was understood that the following consider
ation is necessary. The distance between the sound source and the microphone must be
set in consideration of the influence of the pressure fluctuation of the near-field. The
lower bound frequency must be understood. The microphone must be arranged in con
sideration of the sound directivity with the sound source.
6.
From the results outlined in (2)-(4), this present measurement technique is considered
to be a technique useful for the measurement of the fluid sound of an internal flow.
Nomenclature
a: acoustic velocity, m/s
B: height of test section, m
B.G.N.: back ground noise, dB
d: diameter of circular cylinder, m
f: frequency, Hz
I: intensity of sound, W/m2
Experimental Study of Internal Flow Noise Measurement by Use of a Suction Type Low Noise Wind Tunnel
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53828
Author details
Yoshifumi Yokoi
National Defense Academy of Japan, Japan
References
[1] Fujita, H. (1994). The Present Condition and View for the Basic-study About the Flow
and Sound Controls. Proceedings of the 72nd the JSME Fall Meeting of the Japan Society of
Mechanical Engineers, pp. 360-363, Tokyo, Japan, October, 1994
[2] Fujita, H. (1996). Experimental Study on Aerodynamic Noise Generated from twoDimensional Models (1st Report, Study on Wind Tunnel Wall Effect and Wall Mate
163
164
rials), Transactions of the Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers, Series B, Vol. 62, No. 593,
(January 1996), pp. 187-193
[3] Iida, A., Fujita, H., Kato, C., & Otaguro, Y. (1996). Experimental Investigation of the
Generation Mechanism of Aerodynamic Noise (2nd Report, On Correlation Between
Surface Pressure Fluctuation and Aerodynamic Sound Radiated from a Circular Cyl
inder), Transactions of the Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers, Series B, Vol. 62, No.
604, (December 1996), pp. 4160-4167
[4] Mochizuki, O., & Maruta, Y. (1996). Introduction of Fluid Sound Engineering, Asakurashoten, ISBN 4-254-23088-5, Tokyo, Japan
[5] Tomita, S., Suzuki, S., Inagaki, S., Yokoyama, T., Kobayashi S., & Tsukamoto, G.
(1982). The Study about Fluid Sound from a Cylinder in a Uniform Flow (1st Report,
in the Case of Circular Cylinders), Proceedings of the Thohoku Branchi Meeting of the Ja
pan Society of Mechanical Engineers, Senday, Japan, October, 1984
Chapter 8
1. Introduction
Drying of solids provides a technical challenge due to the presence of complex interactions
between the simultaneous processes of heat and mass transfer, both on the surface and with
in the structure of the materials being dried. Internal moisture flow can occur by a complex
mechanism depending on the structure of the solid body, moisture content, temperature
and pressure in capillaries and pores. External conditions such as temperature, humidity,
pressure, the flow velocity of the drying medium and the area of exposed surface also have
a great effect on the mechanisms of drying.
Theoretical and experimental studies [1-6] reported the forced convection heat and mass
transfer across different shapes. Most of these studies have considered a heated solid surface
with a uniform surface temperature. However, this situation is not the same as in the drying
process, where heat and mass transfer occurs simultaneously and the interfacial tempera
ture and moisture content vary during the drying.
Evaporation from a flat plate surface to a laminar boundary layer was theoretically analyzed
[7]. It was calculated distributions of the interfacial temperature and local Nusselt and Sher
wood numbers for a parallel flow where both Prandtl and Schmidt numbers are unity. A
conclusion stated that the characteristics of heat and mass transfer are highly conjugated
and significantly influenced by the temperature dependency of vapor-liquid equilibrium,
the magnitude of the latent heat of the phase change, and the thermal conductance of the flat
plate. The work needs to be extended for the case of unsteady state conditions and to be re
peated for a drying bed.
The variation in the surface temperature for a flat bed of a capillary porous material was dis
cussed in [8]. The authors presented graphs that show an increase in surface temperature
2013 Almubarak; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
166
from the leading edge of the flat plate during the periods of drying. They also showed
graphs in which the surface temperature decreased. In general, a physical meaning for that
contradiction was needed to be considered.
As in [9], Jomaa et al. presented a simulation of the high-temperature drying of a paste in a
scaled-up wind tunnel. They attempted to study the influence of the local air flow and ther
mal radiation on the drying behaviour of the product. A rapid air velocity (8 m s-1) was used
in the experiment, and an empirical model was derived to predict temperature and solvent
content along the conveyer belt. Comparison of the experimental results with those predict
ed ones by the model showed a satisfactory agreement.
Evaporation of a pure liquid droplet has been widely studied both theoretically and experi
mentally [10-14]. However, in spray dryers and droplet drying applications, the droplets al
ways consisted of multi-component mixtures of liquids and sometimes dissolved solids,
forming a complicated multiphase composition. This makes analyzing heat and mass trans
fer processes more difficult. This effect is attributed to the presence of various components
that vaporize at different rates, giving rise to a gradient in concentration in the liquid and
vapor phase. In addition, a solid crust forms at the outer surface of droplet which acts as a
resistance to heat and mass transfer processes.
Various experimental techniques have been used [15-19] to study the mechanisms of drying
for a single droplet containing dissolved solids. The droplet was suspended freely from the
end of a stable nozzle fixed in a wind tunnel. Air flow was hitting the droplet from one side
causing a significant disturbance to the shape of droplet. Therefore, there was some difficul
ty in recording the weight and temperature of the droplet. The transferred heat conduction
to the droplet by the nozzle was another problem.
Cheong et al. [20] proposed a mathematical model to predict core temperature for drying a
free suspended droplet against time. Reasonable agreement was obtained between the pre
dicted and the experimental results at an air temperature of 20C. However, the predicted
temperature was less accurate at higher temperatures (50C and 70C); the model was not
applicable for cases at high air temperatures.
A mathematical model was modified in [21], taking into account the droplet shrinkage. The
droplet was assumed first to undergo sensible heating with no mass change. The model
showed that temperature distribution within the droplet cannot be ignored even for a small
diameter droplet of 200 m.
Wind tunnel definitely is considered one of the best tools to investigate and to study the role
of boundary layer and the mechanisms of drying process. The most important variables in
any drying process such as air flow, temperature and humidity are usually easy to be con
trolled inside the wind tunnel. In the current study, through an experimental work and
mathematical approach, we attempt to understand the role of the boundary layer on the in
terface behavior and the drying mechanisms for various materials of a flat plate surface and
a single droplet shape.
Figure 1. Experimental apparatus composed of: 1. fan; 2. molecular-sieve air dryer; 3. voltage regulator; 4. air heater;
5. wind tunnel; 6. observation port; 7. joint; 8. thermocouple socket; 9. thermocouple selector.
A glass tray (100 cm x 36 cm x 2.5 cm) attached to a flat metal plate was especially designed
for this study. The top surface of the glass tray was at the same level of the metal plate that
formed the floor of the wind tunnel. The sides and the bottom of the tray are insulated with
neoprene rubber to minimize heat transfer via the glass wall. Figure 2 shows both the wind
tunnel and the glass tray.
Ten thermocouples were inserted from one side of the tray to facilitate measurement of sur
face temperature distribution along the bed. At the same side of the tray, another ten ther
167
168
mocouples were inserted but at lower depth, 2.2 cm from the surface, to measure the bottom
temperature distribution.
Figure 2. Details of (a) Wind tunnel: 1. smoothing grid; 2. observation port; 3.thermocouple socket; 4. joint, (b) Glass
tray (clear) and flat plate (gray): 1. the leading edge; 2. thermocouple socket; 3. thermocouples.
The experiment was initiated by switching on the centrifugal fan and then the electric air
heater. The voltage regulator was adjusted to provide the desired air temperature. The air
temperature was monitored until it reached a steady state. This state was normally required
1 - 2 hours to be achieved.
When the apparatus achieved a constant air temperature, the drying process was com
menced. The metal plate and the glass tray, containing the sample, were placed carefully in
side the tunnel, allowing the hot air to pass over the surface of the bed. The initial readings
of time and temperature were then registered immediately. During the experiment, temper
ature distributions were measured at intervals of approximately 20 minutes. The tempera
ture at each distance was measured by using the thermocouple selector and registered with
an accuracy 0.05C.
Two types of sand were subjected to the drying process. The first type was a fine sand of
average grain size 220 m diameter, with a moisture content of 0.17 kg kg-1, taken from the
desert of Kuwait, Burgan ( N 28o 44 00 E 047o 42 00). The nature of the desert sand is usually
fine and dry. The other type of sand was a beach sand of average grain size 300 m diame
ter and 0.24 kg kg-1 moisture content, taken from the north coast of Kuwait, Bobiyan Island
( N 29o 46 00 E 048o 22 00). The north coast is a place where the Shatt Al-Arab River (Iraq)
falls into the Arabian Gulf. This makes the coast more muddy and less saline than the south
coast. In addition, the beach sand contains a lot of small shells of various shapes. Glass
beads of 400 m diameter and 0.2 kg kg-1 initial moisture content were also selected, for test
as a porous medium for comparison. The bed of glass beads is considered a typical sample
for drying experiments, since the sizes of the beads are almost identical. The two types of
sand and the glass beads beds are good examples for testing drying processes.
2.1. Results
A bed of the desert sand was subjected to forced convective drying at 84 oC. The wet-bulb
temperature of the air was 35.5 oC. The resulting surface temperature vs. time at different
distances from the leading is shown in Figure 3, which demonstrates clearly the stages of the
drying process; i.e. the pre-constant rate period, the constant rate period, and the falling rate
period.
The temperature of the bed rose from ambient temperature 23C to a steady value at time =
70 minute. This initial period, termed the pre-constant rate period, is usually short. The sur
face temperatures remained constant for a period of 140 minutes, indicating the constant
rate period. The surface temperature at the distance x=1cm, from the leading edge was 36 oC.
This temperature was greater than that at x=50 cm and at x= 100 cm by 1 oC and 2 oC respec
tively. The surface temperatures were close to the wet-bulb temperature.
During the constant rate period, the surface of the solid is so wet that a continuous film of
water exists on the drying surface. This water is entirely unbound water and exerts a vapour
pressure equal to that of pure water at the same temperature. The rate of moisture move
ment within the solid is sufficient to maintain a saturated condition at the surface.
169
90
80
70
60
Temprature / oC
170
50
40
30
20
++
10
0
100
200
1 cm
**
50 cm
xx
100 cm
300
400
Time / minutes
500
600
700
Figure 3. Temperature
distribution
profile of the surface for the desert sand bed.
Figure
3
At a specific point, t = 240 minutes, the surface temperature at all positions rose gradually,
indicating the end of the constant-rate period and the beginning of the falling-rate period. In
the falling-rate period, there was insufficient water on the surface to maintain a continuous
film. The entire surface was no longer wetted and dry patches began to form. The surface
temperature continued to rise for a longer time until it approximated to the air temperature.
A thin dried layer appeared on the entire surface.
The temperatures at the surface and the bottom at different distances from the leading edge
are shown in Figure 4. The profiles show that when the surface became dry, the bottom re
mained wet at a constant temperature for a longer time than that for the surface. During the
falling-rate periods a receding evaporation front divided the system into a hotter, dry zone
near the surface and a wet zone towards the bottom of the sample [22]. The evaporation
plane receded from the surface toward the bottom. The temperatures then rose quickly
when the dry zone extended throughout the bed.
Figure 4. Temperatures of surface and bottom for the desert sand bed at distance of 1 cm, 50 cm and 100 cm from
Figure 4 from the top.
the leading edge, respectively,
171
A bed of the beach sand was dried at an air temperature of 83 oC. The wet bulb temperature
was 35 oC. The temperature distribution profile at different distances from the leading edge
is shown in Figure 5. The stages of the drying process can easily be recognized from the tem
perature profile. However, the surface temperature took longer to approach to the air tem
perature.
90
80
70
oC
60
Temprature /
172
50
40
30
20
++
**
xx
10
0
100
200
300
400
Time / minutes
1 cm
50 cm
100 cm
500
600
700
Figure 5. Temperature distribution profile of the surface for the beach sand bed).
Figure 5
Figure 6 shows the surface and the bottom temperatures at distances from the leading edge
of 1 cm, 50 cm 100 cm, respectively. It can be seen that the surface and bottom temperatures
increased rapidly at some times and decreased others. Also, the temperature profile did not
increase gradually like that of the desert sand. This can be attributed to the nature of the
beach sand, which comprises different types of small shells of various shapes, and contain
tiny hollows. The trapped water in these hollows forms small bubbles which can explode
with increasing temperature. Therefore the temperature of the bed changes suddenly at
such times. The temperature at the bottom of the bed indicated it remained wet during the
falling-rate period.
Figure 6. Temperatures
Figure 6of surface and bottom for the beach sand bed at distance of 1 cm, 50 cm and 100 cm from
the leading edge, respectively, from the top.
173
A similar investigation was carried out for a bed of the glass beads at an air temperature of
84 oC. The wet bulb temperature was 37 oC. Figure 7 shows temperature versus time at dif
ferent distances from the leading edge of the bed surface. The temperature distribution pro
file again illustrates clearly the stages of the drying process. The results for the surface and
bottom temperatures for the glass beads were almost similar to those for the desert sand as
shown in Figure 4.
90
80
70
oC
60
Temprature/
174
50
40
30
20
++
1 cm
**
50 cm
xx
100 cm
10
0
100
200
300
Time/
400
minutes
500
600
700
Figure 7
Figure 7. Temperature distribution profile of the surface for the glass-bead bed.
2.2. Discussion
A thin film adjacent to the surface always exists when a forced flow passes over a flat plate
and forms what is called a hydrodynamic boundary layer. The influence of the surface tem
perature reaches deeper into the fluid, thus causing the formation of a thermal boundary
layer. It is well known, the thickness of the thermal boundary layer increases with increas
ing distance from the leading edge. This layer is affected by the geometry of the system,
roughness of the surface and the fluid properties.
For the case in which the heated section is preceded by an unheated straight length, the local
Nusselt number (Nux) is represented in [23-25] as:
Nu x =
(1)
where Rex is Reynolds number with respect to length and x is the length of the flat plate
in (m).
Figure 8 shows a plot of variation in the local heat transfer coefficient versus the distance
from the leading edge. The plot indicates that the values of the coefficient decreased signifi
cantly when x increased from the leading edge, and then it remains virtually constant for
large x values. A plot of variation of the mass transfer coefficient could be expected to be
almost similar to that in Figure 8 because of the similarity in the transport coefficient equa
tions. This result with the concept of the boundary layer thickness demonstrates that resist
ance to heat and mass transfer to, or from, the bed increases with increasing the distance
from the leading edge.
Figure 8. Local heat transfer coefficient vs. distance from the leading edge.
175
176
A model proposed in a previous paper [26] was modified to find a method for prediction of
surface temperature distribution. The equation of energy can be represented as:
cp
D M
T
= (k T) + ( v Pv )hv
RT
t
(2)
At time zero, the whole body has a uniform initial temperature of To, and the initial condi
tions are:
To = T y =0 = T y = h
(3)
At the external surface, i.e. y=0, the boundary conditions can be written on the basis of Fig
ure 9 as:
k
T
= h (Ta T sx ) + m hv
y
(4)
where Tsx is the surface temperature at distance x from the leading edge.
The drying rate, m varies with the time and can be defined as,
=
m
M KG
RT
( Psr - Pv )
(5)
(6)
where k'c is the local mass transfer coefficient (m s-1), z" is the distance from the plate surface
to the receding evaporation front in (m).
The boundary condition at y = h is:
-k
T
0
=
y
(7)
Equation (2), with such boundary conditions, was solved by a finite difference method (a
modified form the so-called explicit method). Therefore, the temperature distribution on the
surface (i.e. y = 0) was calculated by using the model at different local points, x. Table 1
shows the physical properties of the sample materials.
Figure 9. Heat and mass transfer process for the wet material. NA: mass transfer flux and q: heat transfer flux.)
Figure 10 shows the experimental and the predicted surface temperature distributions for
the desert sand along the bed at various times. The predicted temperatures were in good
agreement with the experimental results. From the graph, it can be seen that there is a signif
icant difference in the surface temperature between 0.1 m and 1 m. At time=195 minutes; i.e.
during the constant-rate period, the difference in temperature was 2 oC.
During the falling-rate period, the difference in the surface temperature between 0.1 m and 1
m increased. At 510 minutes, the difference is 11 oC. At the bottom of the sand bed, the dif
ference in temperature along the bed also can be seen clearly (Figure 4).
Figure 10. Experimental and predicted surface temperatures of the desert sand bed; experimental results (symbols);
predicted results (solid lines).
177
178
For the entire time of the experiment, the surface and the bottom temperatures decreased
gradually with increasing distance from the leading edge. This caused by the resistance to
heat transfer process which increased with increasing thickness of thermal boundary layer.
In contrast, near the leading edge, the resistance to heat transfer diminishes, since the thick
ness of the thermal boundary layer in the vicinity of the surface thins. Therefore, the rate of
heat transfer to the body increased, thereby raising the temperature of surface. Afterwards,
heat transfer by conduction across the solid particles raises the temperature of the bed, and
the portion closest to the leading edge dries faster than that at a greater distance.
Figure 11 shows both predicted and experimental results for the bed of beach sand. This Fig
ure shows that the computed temperature distribution was in general agreement with ex
perimental results. However, unsatisfactory results can be seen at times greater than 400
minutes, i.e. during the falling-rate period. This is due to the nature of the beach sand as dis
cussed before. The surface temperature of the beach sand sample decreased gradually with
increasing distance from the leading edge. A significant difference in temperature between
0.1 m and 1 m can be seen clearly for both constant and falling-rate periods. During the con
stant-rate period, the difference in temperature was 2 oC, whereas in the falling-rate period
the difference reached to 8 oC.
Figure 11. Experimental and predicted surface temperatures of the beach sand bed; experimental results (symbols);
predicted results (solid lines).
(Kg/m3)
cpd (kJ/kg K)
k (W/m K )
kd (W/m K)
Deff (m/s)
Dv (m/s)
Desert sand
1760
1.1
0.760
0.246
0.81x10-5
1.75x10-5
Beach sand
1980
1.2
1.12
0.188
1.15x10
2.05x10-5
-5
We have found that the temperature distribution profiles determined for the flat beds of
desert sand, beach sand and glass beads identified clearly the stages of drying. The tempera
ture profiles in general were almost similar. However, the beach sand profile showed irreg
ularity in temperature, due to the nature of the beach sand which contains a lot of shells
with various shapes.
The temperature profiles also showed that when the whole surface of the bed became dry,
the whole bottom of the bed remained wet. During the falling-rate periods, a receding evap
oration front divided the system into a hotter, dry zone near the surface and a wet zone to
wards the bottom of the sample.
The predicted transport coefficients have very large values close to the leading edge, where
the thickness of the boundary layer approaches zero. In contrast, the values of the coeffi
cients decrease progressively with increased distance from the leading edge, where the
boundary layer thickens. Hence the resistance to heat and mass transfer to, or from, the sur
face also increases. These variations in thickness and resistance have a significant effect on
the temperature distribution along the bed and the drying rate.
A mathematical model has been modified to predict temperature distributions along the bed
at various times. The model was compared with the experimental results for various beds
and good agreement was obtained. We found that surface and bottom temperatures de
creased gradually with increasing distance from the leading edge, and the difference in tem
perature became clearer during the falling-rate period. The difference in the surface
temperature was 11 oC for the case of desert sand, and was 8 oC for the case of beach sand.
We concluded that the portion close to the leading edge dried faster than that at larger dis
tance, since the resistance to heat and mass transfer diminishes at that position.
179
180
The experimental apparatus was comprised of a horizontal wind tunnel 2.2 m long. The
wind tunnel supplied a forced drying air into the working section where the droplet was
suspended from a glass nozzle. The apparatus and the flow system are shown in Figure 12.
A gate valve at the inlet to the wind tunnel controlled airflow rate. Air was heated to the
desired temperature, using a 3 KW electric heating element controlled by a rotary voltage
regulator.
Through the wind tunnel, a controlled flow of hot, dry air, with an average velocity of 1 m/s,
was passed across the droplet suspended from the glass nozzle. A forced dry air was ob
tained by using a centrifugal fan and a molecular sieve air dryer containing silica gel and
calcium silicate.
Figure 12. Experimental apparatus: 1-fan 2-molecular sieve 3-voltage regulator 4-air heater 5-Digital balance 6-Tem
perature recorder 7-Glass nozzle 8-Observation port.
The experiment was initiated by switching on the centrifugal fan and then the electric air
heater. The voltage regulator was adjusted to provide the desired air temperature. A ther
mocouple was fixed in the wind tunnel near to the glass nozzle to measure the air tempera
ture with an accuracy of 1o C. The air temperature was monitored until it reached a steady
state. This state requires between 1 to 2 hours to be achieved. When the apparatus achieved
a constant air temperature, the drying process was initiated.
As a part of this study, a droplet suspension device was specially designed to measure the
weight and temperature of the droplet. The droplet suspension device is illustrated in Fig
ure 13. It consisted of a glass nozzle with the dimensions of 180 mm in length and 9 mm
outside diameter. The upper section of the glass nozzle was fixed by a small electric rotator
device able to provide a rotational speed range of 1- 30 rpm. In order to reduce the contact
area between the free end of the glass nozzle and the droplet surface, the lower section of
the nozzle was shaped as a small cone with a free end diameter of 4 mm. The droplet re
ceives a relatively small amount of heat transferred by conduction through the glass nozzle,
which has a thermal conductivity of 0.480 W/m K. The heat transferred by conduction was
taken into account in the proposed model represented by Equations 4&5. The glass nozzle
was rotated at constant low speed of 5 rpm. This rotation speed had no effect on the shape
or stability of the droplet. The upper section of the suspension device was fixed by a metallic
clip installed beneath the analytical balance. The lower section of the suspension device, i.e.
the glass nozzle, was inserted through a hole in the wind tunnel.
Figure 13. Droplet suspension device; glass nozzle and the connected thermocouples.
Two thermocouple sensor types, NiCr-NiAl, were used to measure the core and surface
temperatures of the droplet. One of the thermocouples was placed inside the glass nozzle
and extended to the center of the droplet. The other thermocouple was fixed outside and
along the glass nozzle. The outer thermocouple rotates simultaneously with the rotation of
the glass nozzle. The end tip of the thermocouple was positioned in a manner to touch the
outer surface of the droplet. The rotation process that made both the nozzle and the droplet
rotate together assisted in avoiding any separation between them that might have been
caused by the force of air drying. The core and the surface temperatures of the droplet were
easily recorded by a temperature recorder at 50 sec. intervals. The drying process of the dif
ferent material droplets was investigated under air temperature of 75o C and 140o C.
The procedure for weighing the droplet was carried out quickly and intermittently by caus
ing the suspension device to be freely-suspended. The gate valve was closed to cut off the
airflow to the working section and diverted to an outlet 20 mm valve in order to prevent any
vibration of the glass nozzle during the weighing process. The nozzle rotation was simulta
neously stopped. A metallic clip was opened manually to allow the suspension device to be
freely-suspended from a hook connected beneath the balance. This arrangement made the
weight measurement readings more accurate. The weighing procedure was repeated during
the droplet drying experiment at 100 secintervals. Thus, the weight loss of droplet was re
corded and moisture content was determined versus time. The required time for each
weighing procedure step was about 10 sec. This time was not included in the recorded dry
ing time and had no noticeable effect on the results.
181
182
Three types of liquids were selected for the drying process experiments. The first type was
sodium sulphate decahydrate solution (60 wt % solid). The second type was a concentrated
fruit juice (60 wt % fruit juice powder of apple, peach and blueberry, MTC product). The
third type was an organic paste (20% sodium chloride, 25% dispersal pigment; Goteks prod
uct) used for adhesive and coating applications. Table 2 shows the physical properties of the
sample materials. Droplets ranging from 9 mm to 14 mm diameter were subjected to the
drying process. However, the actual size of the droplets in typical spray drying applications
is much smaller. The droplets with small sizes require developing a more accurate technique
to measure both core and surface temperatures. Therefore, the current research assumes that
the mechanisms of the drying large and small droplets are similar.
d (Kg/m3)
cpd (kJ/kgK)
k (W/mK)
kd (W/mK)
Deff (m/s)
Dv(m/s)
Sodium sulphate
3110
decahydrate solution
1.1
0.180
0.246
1.14x10-5
3.45x10-5
Fruit juice
1650
1.7
0.126
0.188
1.10x10-5
3.40x10-5
Organic paste
3400
2.4
0.251
0.422
1.52x10-5
3.50x10-5
Table 2. Physical properties of sodium sulphate decahydrate solution, fruit juice and organic paste.
T
2T 2 T
= a( 2 +
)
t
r r
r
(8)
Equation 8 was solved with the following boundary conditions using explicit finite differen
ces,
T
-k = 0
r
at
=
r 0
(9)
and
-k
T
= h (Ta - Tsr ) + qnz
r
at r = R
(10)
where, qnz is the transferred heat conduction to the droplet through the glass nozzle. It can
be calculated as:
=
qnz (
4 knz hnz
dnz
(11)
The heat transfer coefficient, hnz, can be correlated from Thomas (1999) as:
hnz = 0.26 + Re 0.6 Pr 0.33 ( kair / dnz )
(12)
During the falling rate period, the formation of a receding evaporation front divides the
droplet into two regions, a dry crust at the outer surface and a wet region inside the core.
Therefore, heat transfer equations are formulated for each region. The physical model and
the coordinate system for analysis are shown in Figure 14.
Figure 14. Physical model and the coordinate system of the droplet cross-section.
Energy balance for the wet core, 0 < r < z, can be represented as follows:
Tw
2Tw 2 Tw
= aw (
+
)
t
r 2 r r
(13)
Heat is transferred through the crust into the wet core where evaporation occurs at the inter
face between the core and the crust. Vapor then diffuses through pores of the crust into the
drying medium. Thus, moisture is transferred mainly by vapor flow. Consequently, vapor
diffusion must be taken into account in formulating the equations for the dry (crust) region.
The energy balance for the crust region, z < r < R, can be represented as follows:
Td
2Td 2 Td
M Pv Dhv
D
= ad (
+
)+ (
)
t
r RT r rdcpd v
r 2 r r
(14)
183
184
Tw
=
0
r
(15)
Td
= h (Ta - Tsr ) + qnz
r
(16)
- kw
At the surface, r = R:
- kd
At the receding evaporation front (r = z), the moving boundary conditions are
kd
Td
Tw
+ kw
= m hv
r
r
(17)
The drying rate, m, was defined in Eqs. (5 & 6). However, in this case, z " , in Eq. (6) repre
sents the distance from the droplet surface (r = R) to the receding evaporation front (r = z).
Heat and mass transfer coefficients, h and kc', can be determined by the correlations found in
[28,29] as follows:
(18)
2 + b Re 0.5Sc 0.33
(19)
and
Sh=
where and are constants ranging from 0.6-0.7 for Re (500 -17000).
Thermal conductivity of the wet region can be evaluated according to [30] as:
kw= kd + kv X
(20)
Dv M dp
Dh
RT dT v
(21)
The non-linear Eqs. (13&14) with the boundary conditions as in Eqs. (15-17) were solved by
a finite difference method. The proposed equations were solved in a program using TurboPascal V.6, and the computational results compared with the experimental results.
3.3. Results
A single droplet of sodium sulphate decahydrate solution was suspended from the free end of
the glass nozzle at an air temperature of 75o C and an air velocity of 1 m/s. The wet-bulb tem
perature was 46o C. The core and surface temperatures of the droplet versus time are plotted in
Figure 15. Initially, the temperatures increased rapidly because of the large difference in tem
perature between the drying medium and the droplet. Basically, the plot exhibited two drying
periods. A short period, from time =100 - 200 s, where the surface temperature approached the
wet-bulb temperature, is described as the constant rate period. The second period, or falling
rate period, extended from t =200 s to the end of the experiment.
Figure 15. Temperature distribution profile for sodium sulphate decahydrate at air temperature of 75o C.
185
186
Figure 15 plots the predicted values of both the core and surface temperature evaluated by
the developed model. Comparison of the experimental and theoretical results showed good
agreement. However, actual surface temperatures were slightly higher than those predicted
by the model. This probably was due to the position of the thermocouple and its reading
during the experiment, as will be discussed later in more detail.
The previous experiment was repeated at an air temperature of 140o C in the same drying
medium. Figure 16 shows experimental and theoretical results of a droplet of the same ma
terial. The experimental results showed that the constant rate period extended from time= 85
- 165 s, shorter than that observed at 75o C. The results showed both surface and core tem
peratures of 130o C at 900 s, at which point the droplet had dried completely. Figure 16
showed agreement between the experimental and predicted results.
Figure 16. Temperature distribution profile for sodium sulphate decahydrate at air temperature of 140o C.
A single droplet of a fruit juice was dried at an air temperature of 75 C and an air velocity of
1 m/s. Wet-bulb temperature was 44.5o C. The experimental results in Figure 17 show a con
stant rate period from time =100 - 200 s. The falling rate period can be observed after the
constant period, when the temperature increased quickly.
During the falling rate period some experimental readings represented approximate values
of the actual droplet surface temperatures. The approximate values can be attributed to the
fact that the droplet diameter constantly decreased with time and that caused the distance
between the tip of thermocouple and the surface of droplet to grow. In other words, during
some time in the experiment, a part of the end tip of the thermocouple was touching the sur
face of the droplet, and the remaining area of the tip was exposed to air flow. Such a behav
ior caused the tip of thermocouple to give an average reading for both the surface and the
air flow temperatures. Good agreement was obtained between the theoretical and experi
mental results of the temperature profile for the fruit juice.
Figure 17. Temperature distribution profile for fruit juice at air temperature of 75o C.
The fruit juice droplet was dried again at an air temperature of 140o C in the same drying
medium. The results (Figure 18) showed that the constant rate period was a little shorter
187
188
than that at 75o C. The results showed also that both surface and core temperatures were
similar and close to the air temperature at time = 1050 s. The mathematical model showed
also good agreement with the experimental readings.
Figure 18. Temperature distribution profile for fruit juice at air temperature of 140o C.
A single droplet of organic paste was dried under similar conditions to that of the fruit juice.
A plot of the core and surface temperatures of the droplet versus time is shown in Figure 19.
A relatively longer period of constant drying rate, compared to those shown for sodium sul
phate and fruit juice, was observed. Figure 19 also showed that surface temperature in
creased rapidly after time = 300 s, indicating the beginning of the falling rate period. Less
agreement was obtained between the models predicted results and the experimental re
sults. Organic paste, which has higher thermal conductivity, forms a thicker solid crust at
the outer surface compared to the other material evaluated. Therefore, a higher resistance to
heat and vapor through the crust would be expected. To improve the predictions, introduc
tion of a correction factor is probably required in the model for those materials which have a
nature similar to that of the organic paste. Figure 20 shows the experimental and theoretical
results of air temperature of 140o C. Again, forming a solid crust at the outer surface led to
less agreement between theoretical and experimental results. The predicted temperature dis
tributions were higher than the actual temperatures.
Figure 19. Temperature distribution profile for organic paste at air temperature of 75o C.
The moisture content of the droplet was determined by measuring the weight loss against
time. There was no experimental technique to measure core and surface moisture content sep
arately; therefore, the measured moisture content of the droplet represented the average val
ue. The experimental results of moisture content distribution for the three samples at an air
temperature of 75o C, are shown in Figure 21. The moisture content profiles clearly show the
two stages of drying, the constant rate period and the falling rate period. The profiles show
that the sodium sulphate decarbohydrate solution had consistently lower moisture content, as
it dried faster than the other materials. The profiles also showed that forming a solid crust in
the falling rate period lowered the moisture content values for all the three samples. In the
case of organic paste, the change in the moisture content was more significant.
189
190
Figure 20. Temperature distribution profile for organic paste at air temperature of 140o C.
Obviously, crust formation, thickness and porosity have a significant effect on the moisture
content and on the drying rate of the droplet. This result was also obtained by Hayder &
Mumford [31] in the drying of custard and starch droplets. They observed that crust forma
tion was more rapid on the custard droplet, because the smaller starch granules absorbed
less and left more free water in the droplet. Therefore, the crust growth and the drying rate
of the starch droplets took a longer time.
Moisture distribution curves for the three samples at 140o C air temperature are plotted in
Figure 22. Similar results were obtained to those observed at an air temperature of 75o C.
Also, the profiles showed that the moisture content dropped to lower values compared to
those at 75o C. In other words, the droplets dried faster at the higher temperature.
3.4. Discussion
As previously observed, moisture and temperature distribution profiles of various materials
exhibited constant and falling drying rate periods. In the constant rate period, the tempera
Figure 21. Moisture content profile for all samples at air temperature of 75o C.
ture of the droplet surface was almost equal to the wet-bulb temperature. During this peri
od, evaporation takes place from the free liquid surface of the droplet. The constant rate
period was relatively short in sodium sulphate and fruit juice samples. However, that peri
od was longer in the case of organic paste.
The falling rate period is characterized by formation of a partial crust on the outer surface of
the droplet. This crust recedes towards the core and the surface temperature starts to in
crease. Vapor diffusion becomes the predominant transport process at this stage. Crust
structure, thickness and porosity have a significant effect on the rate of drying. The crust
thickness increases with time, hence the resistance to heat and moisture diffusion through
the crust increases. Therefore, moisture content and drying rate decrease.
Some experimental readings represented approximate values of the actual droplet surface
temperatures. This was attributed to the end tip of thermocouple that was giving average
readings for both the surface and the air flow temperatures at the same time. It was also as
191
192
Figure 22. Moisture content profile for all samples at air temperature of 140o C.
sumed that the mechanism of the droplet drying is similar for both small and large diame
ters. Therefore, it is recommended that a more accurate technique for measuring droplets
with small sizes and for the taking of surface temperatures be developed.
The new model predicted temperature distribution profiles for single droplets of various ma
terials. The predicted results showed a good agreement with the experimental data for air
temperatures at 75o C and 140o C. However, the model was less accurate in the case of organic
paste due to the higher thermal conductivity of the formed crust. A correction factor should be
developed and taken into account for such materials. The model provides a relatively fast and
efficient way to simulate drying behavior over a range of drying conditions. The model also
represents a useful tool in the design and optimization of spray drying processes.
Moisture content profiles clearly showed the two stages of the drying process. In addition,
the moisture profiles supported the conclusions that the crust forming in the falling rate pe
riod decreased both the moisture content and the drying rate.
Through the results of the experimental work and the theoretical model for a droplet drying, a
significant conclusion was obtained. It has always been wrongly assumed in the literature that
there is no temperature distribution within the droplet. This concept has been corrected by the
current research. All experiments for the three materials used showed a clear difference be
tween the core and the surface temperatures of the droplet during the drying process.
3.5. General conclusion
The characteristics of the boundary layer have a great effect on the local heat and mass
transfer coefficients and temperature distributions throughout a flat bed surface. Droplet
drying is an important subject in drying science, since it provides more details about the
drying mechanisms in order to optimize spray dryer equipment. However, this part of the
drying field is rarely considered in the literature. Further research in this area seems essen
tial to obtain better understanding of drying theory.
Wind tunnel definitely is considered one of the best tools to investigate and to study the
mechanisms of drying process. The most important variables in any drying process such as
air flow, temperature and humidity are usually easy to be controlled inside the wind tunnel.
Through a mathematical approach and an experimental work using a wind tunnel, we high
lighted on the role of the boundary layer on the interface behavior and the drying mecha
nisms for various materials of a flat plate surface and a single droplet shape.
Nomenclature
Thermal diffusivity
m2/hr
Cp
Heat capacity
kJ/kg K
Diameter
Deff
Effective diffusivity
m/s
Dv
Diffusivity of vaporization
m/s
W/m K
hv
kJ/kg
Thermal conductivity
W/m K
kc
m/s
KG
m/s
kg/kgmol
Nu
Nussult number
Partial pressure
kPa
Pr
Prandtel number-
193
194
W/m2
Universal constant
m3kPa/kgmol K
Re
Reynolds number
Time
Temperature
Moisture content
kg/kg
Ta
Air Temperature
Density
kg/m3
Sc
Schmidt number
Subscripts
a
Dry crust
nz
Glass nozzle
sr
Surface
Vapor
Wet core
Author details
Abdulaziz Almubarak*
College of Technological Studies, Department of Chemical Engineering, Kuwait
References
[1] Sparrow E, Lin S. Boundary Layer With Prescribed Heat Flux Application to Simulta
neous Convective and Radiation. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
1965; 8, 437- 448.
[2] Luikov A. Conjugate Convective Heat Transfer Problems. International Journal of
Heat and Mass Transfer 1974; 17, 257-265.
[3] Chyou T. The effect of A Short Unheated Length and A Concentrated Heat Source on
The Heat Transfer Through A Turbulent Boundary Layer. International Journal of
Heat and Mass Transfer 1991; 34, 1917-1928.
[4] Harris S, Ingham D, Pop I. Transient Boundary Layer Heat Transfer From A Flat
Plate Subjected To A Sudden Change in Heat Flux. European Journal of Mechanics
B- Fluid 2001; 20, 187-204.
[5] Deswita L, Nazar R, Ahmad R, Ishak A, Pop I. Similarity Solutions of Free Convec
tion Boundary Layer Flow on a Horizontal Plate with Variable Wall Temperature.
European Journal of Scientific Research 2009; 27(2) 188-198.
[6] Defraeyea T, Houvenaghelc G, Carmelieta J, Derome D. Numerical Analysis of Con
vective Drying of Gypsum Boards. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
2012; 55, 4487-4928.
[7] Mori S, Nakagwa H, Tanimoto A, Sakakibara M. Heat and Mass Transfer With A
Boundary Layer Flow Past A Flat Plate of Finite Thickness. International Journal of
Heat and Mass Transfer 1991; 34, 2899-2909.
[8] Masmoudi W, Prat M. Heat and Mass Transfer Between A Porous Medium and A
Parallel External Flow; Application to Drying of Capillary Porous Material. Interna
tional Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 1991; 34, 1975-1989.
[9] Jomaa W, Bruneau D, Nadeau J. Simulation of The High Temperature Drying of A
Past Product: on The Influence of The Local Air Flow and The Thermal Radiation.
Drying Technology 2004; 22, 1709-1729.
[10] Ranz W, Marshall W. Evaporation From Drops. Chemical Engineering Progress 1952;
48, 141-173.
[11] Trommelen A, Crosby E. Evaporation and Drying of Drops in Superheated Vapors.
AIChE Journal 1970; 16, 857-872.
[12] Sirignano, W.A. Fluid Dynamics and Transport of Droplets and Sprays: Cambridge
University Press, NY, USA 1999.
[13] Masters K. Spray Drying in Practice. Spray Dry Consult International: Denmark:
John Wiley & Sons Inc., NY, USA 2002.
[14] Sloth J, Kiil S, Jensen A, Andersen S, Jrgensen K, Schiffter H, Lee G. Model Based
Analysis of The Drying of A Single Solution Droplet in An ultrasonic Levitator.
Chemical Engineering Science 2006; 61, 2701-2709.
[15] Miura K, Miura T, Ohtani S. Heat and Mass Transfer to and From Droplets. Ameri
can Journal of Chemical Engineers, Symposium series 1977; 73 (163).
[16] Ali H, Mumford C, Jefferys G., Bains G. A study of evaporation from, and drying of,
single droplets. In: Mujumdar AS. (editor) Proceedings of the 6th International Sym
posium in Drying IDS88. Versailles, France.1988.
[17] Minoshima H, Matsushima K, Liang H, Shinohara K. Estimation of Diameter of
Granule Prepared by Spray Drying of Slurry with Fast and Easy Evaporation. Jour
nal of Chemical Engineering of Japan 2002; 35, 880-885.
195
196
Chapter 9
1. Introduction
Many studies on wind engineering require the use of different types of statistical analysis
associated to the phenomenology of boundary layer flows. Reduced Scale Models (RSM) ob
tained in laboratory, for example, attempt to reproduce real atmosphere phenomena like
wind loads on buildings and bridges and the transportation of gases and airborne particu
lates by the mean flow and turbulent mixing. Therefore, the quality of the RSM depends on
the proper selection of statistical parameters and in the similarity between the laboratory
generated flow and the atmospheric flow.
The turbulence spectrum is the main physical parameter used to compare the velocity fluc
tuation characteristics of atmospheric and laboratory flows in Wind Load Modeling (WLM).
This is accomplished by fitting experimental spectra to some functional form, e.g., von Kr
mn, Harris or Batchelor-Kaimal formula, and then creating dimensionless turbulence spec
tra in accordance with a similarity theory [1, 2, 3]. The objective behind the use of a
similarity theory is that the dimensionless spectra of atmospheric and laboratory flows col
lapse, if the dimensionless spectra were constructed by appropriate parameters [4].
This classical spectral comparison is commonly used in WLM [5]. However, some difficulties,
related to the determination of the inertial range extent, choice of characteristic velocity and
length scale parameters and possible effects due to the finiteness of the Reynolds number arise
in wind tunnel studies, specially, when simulations are performed at low velocities [6].
Considering this scenario, a complementary study taking into account the use of local scale
based Reynolds number, inertial and dissipation range characteristic scales, control of sam
pling frequency and post-processing filtering is proposed. Selected data sets obtained under
2013 Wittwer et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
198
distinct configurations of three wind tunnels, a smooth pipe and atmospheric boundary lay
er are used. In addition, a different class of spectral representation proposed by Gagne et al.
[7], which is based on local similarities and compatible with the multifractal formalism, is
compared to traditional approaches.
(1)
Where U is the mean velocity, u* is the friction velocity, z0 is know as the roughness height
and zd is defined as the zero-plane displacement for very rough surface. The depth of a wind
tunnel boundary layer is defined as the height where mean velocity reaches 0.99 of the free
stream velocity. This definition is used to characterize atmospheric flow simulations.
Wind tunnels are designed to obtain different air flows, so that similarity studies can be per
formed, with the confidence that actual operational conditions will be reproduced. Once a
wind tunnel is built, the first step is the evaluation of the flow characteristics and of the pos
sibility of reproducing the flow characteristics for which the tunnel was designed. Many
evaluation studies of wind tunnels are presented in the open literature. Some of which are
the work of Cook [9] on the wind tunnel in Garston, Watford, UK, the presentation of the
closed-return wind tunnel in London [10] and the Oxford wind tunnel, UK [11], the charac
terization of the boundary layer wind tunnel of the UFRGS, Brazil [12] and of the Danish
Maritime Institute, Denmark [13].
Wind tunnel modeling of atmospheric boundary layer is generally oriented to neutrally sta
ble flows. Modeling of stratified boundary layer is more difficult to implement and less used
Statistical Analysis of Wind Tunnel and Atmospheric Boundary Layer Turbulent Flows
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54088
in wind tunnel tests. Similarity criteria imply that a set of non-dimensional parameters
should be the same in model and prototype. In general, the flow is governed by the boun
dary conditions and the Rossby, Reynolds, Strouhal, Froude, Eckert and Prandtl numbers,
but in most of the situations of practical importance the effects of several non-dimensional
numbers can be neglected. Later studies in atmospheric boundary layer simulations at
tempted to reproduce as closely as possible the mean velocity distribution and turbulence
scales of the atmospheric flow. This is made by non-dimensional comparisons of mean and
fluctuating velocity measurements in the wind tunnel flow and atmospheric data.
In general, wind tunnel evaluation is performed at the highest flow velocity, the results be
ing presented in terms of mean velocity distributions, turbulence intensities and scales.
However, many simulations are performed at low velocities to evaluate some specific prob
lems. This is the case of laboratory simulation of dispersion problems [14] and transmission
line modeling [15].
Boundary-layer simulations are performed with help of grids, vortex generators and rough
ness elements, to facilitate the growth of the boundary layer and to define the mean velocity
profile. This is used in the most applied simulation methods, namely the full-depth simula
tion [16] and part-depth simulation [17]. The use of jets and grids is also applied [12].
The Jacek Gorecki wind tunnel, located at the Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, UNNE
at Resistencia (Chaco), Argentina, is a low velocity atmospheric boundary-layer wind tun
nel, built with the aim to perform aerodynamic studies of structural models. The atmospher
ic boundary layer is reproduced with help of surface roughness elements and vortex
generators, so that natural wind simulations are performed. Fig. 1 shows a view of the Ja
cek Gorecki wind tunnel, which is a 39.56 m long channel. The air enters through a contrac
tion, passing a honeycomb prior to reach the test section, which is a 22.8 m long rectangular
channel (2.40 m width, 1.80 m height). Two rotating tables are located in the test section to
place structural models. Conditions of zero pressure gradient boundary layers can be ob
tained by vertical displacement of the upper wall. The test section is connected to the veloci
ty regulator and to the blower, which has a 2.25 m diameter and is driven by a 92 kW
electric motor at 720 rpm. A diffuser decelerates the air before leaving the wind tunnel.
In this wind tunnel, many models of atmospheric boundary layer were implemented. In gener
al, the simulation of natural wind on the atmospheric boundary layer was performed by means
of the Counihan and Standen methods [18, 19, 20]. To illustrate this type of flow model, an ex
ample of full-depth Counihan simulation with velocity distributions corresponding to a class
III terrain is presented. According to Argentine Standards CIRSOC 102 [21], this type of terrain
is designed as ground covered by several closely spaced obstacles in forest, industrial or ur
ban zone. The mean height of the obstacles is considered to be about 10 m, while the boundary
layer thickness is zg = 420 m. The power law for velocity distribution is given by
a
U ( z) z
=
U( zg ) zg
(2)
199
200
with suitable values for the exponent a between 0.23 and 0.28 [3]. This law is of good appli
cation in neutral stability conditions of strong winds, typical for structural analysis. For this
Counihan full-depth simulation, where the complete boundary-layer thickness is simulated,
four 1.42 m (Hv) high elliptic vortex generators and a 0.23 m (b) barrier were used, together
with prismatic roughness elements placed on the test section floor along 17 m (l) (see Fig. 2).
The wind tunnel test section and the simulation hardware are shown in Fig. 3.
Statistical Analysis of Wind Tunnel and Atmospheric Boundary Layer Turbulent Flows
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54088
In this work, measurements of wind velocity realized in three different wind tunnels will be
used for the spectral analysis. The Jacek Gorecki wind tunnel [19] described above, the
TV2 wind tunnel of the Laboratorio de Aerodinmica, UNNE, smaller, also an open cir
cuit tunnel, and the closed return wind tunnel J. Blessmann of the Laboratrio de Aerodi
nmica das Construoes, Universidade Federal de Rio Grande do Sul, UFRGS [12].
Elliptic Vortex
generators
1.8m
Castellated
barrier wall
Hv
Roughness elem ents
b
Hv/3
5/6Hv
Hv/2
Hv/3
201
measured
power law
1.0
0.8
202
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Figure 4. Vertical mean velocity profile experimental values and power law fit.
Statistical Analysis of Wind Tunnel and Atmospheric Boundary Layer Turbulent Flows
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54088
These mean velocity and turbulence intensity vertical profiles show a typical evaluation of
the boundary layer mean flow applied to wind load studies. Similar analysis was made for
other authors to different wind tunnel simulations. Some works include vertical profiles of
longitudinal turbulence scales [12, 20]. When dispersion problems are analyzed and physic
atmospheric research studies in wind tunnel are development the mean flow evaluation is
usually realized utilizing the logarithmic expression, Eq. (1). A simple method to fit experi
mental values of mean velocity to the logarithmic law is presented by Liu et al. [22]. The
characteristic parameters u* and z0, friction velocity and roughness height, respectively, are
used to evaluate critical Reynolds number values on low velocity tests for wind tunnel dis
persion studies [23].
y=0
y = 0.30 m
y = -0.30 m
zg[m]
1.164
1.164
1.164
Ug [m/s]
27.51
28.18
27.76
0.270
0.265
0.270
1.0
y= 0
y= 0.30 m
y=-0.30 m
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
203
204
hours to fractions of one second. Usually power spectra are employed to analyze these at
mospheric records. The Van der Hoven spectrum, obtained in Brookhaven, Long Island,
NY, USA [24], represents the energy of the longitudinal velocity fluctuation on the complete
frequency domain. Two peaks can be distinguished in this spectrum, one corresponding to
the 4-day period or 0.01 cycles/hour (macro-meteorological peak), and another peak be
tween the periods of 10 minutes and 3 seconds associated to the boundary layer turbulence
(micro-meteorological peak). A spectral valley, with fluctuations of low energy, is observed
between the macro and micro-meteorological peak. This region is centered on the period of
30 minutes and allows dividing the mean flow and the velocity fluctuations. This spectral
characteristic confirms that interaction between climate and boundary layer turbulence is
negligible and permits considering both aspects independently.
Velocity fluctuations with periods lower than one hour define the micro-meteorological
spectral region or the atmospheric turbulence spectrum. Interest of wind load and disper
sion problems is concentrated on this spectral turbulence region. In 1948 von Krmn sug
gested an expression for the turbulence spectrum with which his name is related, and 20
years later this spectral formula started to be used for wind engineering applications. Some
deficiencies in fitting data measured in atmospheric boundary layer were pointed later and
Harris [5] shown a modified formulae for the von Krmn spectrum.
According ESDU [3], the von Krmn formula for the dimensionless spectrum of the longi
tudinal component of atmospheric turbulence is:
fSu
s u2
4 Xu ( z)
1 + 70,78 X ( z)2
u
5/6
(3)
where Su is the spectral density function of the longitudinal component, f is the frequency in
Hertz and u2 is the variance of the longitudinal velocity fluctuations. The dimensionless fre
quency Xu(z) is fL(z)/U(z), being L the integral scale. This spectrum formula satisfies the Wie
ner-Khintchine relations between power spectra and auto-correlations and provides a
Kolmogorov equilibrium range in the spectrum. However, the von Krmn expression pro
vides no possibility to fit other measured spectral characteristics [5].
Two situations of spectral analysis of boundary layer flow are presented next from different
wind tunnel studies and atmospheric data. These cases resume a typical spectral evaluation
of a boundary layer simulation and a spectral comparison of different boundary layer flows.
Finally, a discussion of the use of structure functions applied to the analysis of velocity fluc
tuations is presented.
4.1. Spectral evaluation of a wind tunnel boundary layer simulation
A first example of spectral analysis is that corresponding to the Counihan boundary layer
simulation described on previous section. Longitudinal velocity fluctuations were measured
by the hot wire anemometer system and the uncertainty associated with the measured data
is the same as previously mentioned. In this case, spectral results from longitudinal velocity
Statistical Analysis of Wind Tunnel and Atmospheric Boundary Layer Turbulent Flows
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54088
fluctuations were obtained by juxtaposing three different spectra from three different sam
pling series, obtained in the same location, each with a sampling frequency, as given in Ta
ble 1, as low, mean and high frequencies. The series were divided in blocks to which an FFT
algorithm was applied [25]. In Fig. 6, four spectra obtained at height z=0.233, 0.384, 0.582
and 0.966 m are shown. Values of the spectral function decrease as the distance from the
tunnel floor z is increased. An important characteristic of the spectra is the presence of a
clear region with a -5/3 slope, characterizing Kolmogorov's inertial sub-range.
The comparison of the results obtained through the simulations with the atmospheric boun
dary layer is made by means of dimensionless variables of the auto-spectral density fSu/u2
and of the frequency Xu(z) using the von Krmn spectrum, given by the expression of Eq.
(3). Kolmogorov's spectrum will have, therefore, a -2/3 exponent instead of -5/3. The com
parison was realized for spectra measured at different heights, but only is presented the
spectrum obtained at z = 0.233 m (Fig. 7). The agreement is very good, except for the highest
frequencies affected by the action of the low-pass filter.
Low frequency
Mean frequency
High frequency
300
900
3000
Low-pass filter[Hz]
100
300
1000
High-pass filter[Hz]
0.3
0.3
0.3
106.7
35.6
10.7
Bandwidth [Hz]
1.132
3.516
11.719
100
10-1
S u[(m/s) 2/ Hz]
10-2
-5/3
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6 0
10
z=0.233 m
z=0.384 m
z=0.582 m
z=0.966 m
101
102
103
f [Hz]
Figure 6. Power spectra of the longitudinal velocity fluctuation for a boundary layer simulation.
205
This evaluation was realized at high velocity (Ug 27 m/s) being the resulting Reynolds
number value of Re 4106. The juxtaposing technique used to improve the spectral resolu
tion is today unnecessary because of the fact that is possible to utilize a large sample size.
However, sample series were limited to 32000 values for this analysis and three spectra were
juxtaposed.
A scale factor of 250 for this boundary layer simulation was obtained through the procedure
proposed by Cook [4], by means of the roughness length z0 and the integral scale Lu as pa
rameters. The values of the roughness length are obtained by fitting experimental values of
velocity to the logarithmic law of the wall, while integral scale is given by fitting the values
of the measured spectrum to the design spectrum.
Dimensionless spectrum
206
0.1
0.01
measured (z=0.233 m)
von Krmn spectrum
0.1
10
100
Dimensionless frequency
Figure 7. Comparison of the dimensionless spectrum obtained at z = 0.233 m and the von Krmn spectrum.
Statistical Analysis of Wind Tunnel and Atmospheric Boundary Layer Turbulent Flows
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54088
TV2 wind tunnel of the Laboratorio de Aerodinmica, UNNE, too. The TV2, smaller, is
also an open circuit tunnel with dimensions of 4.450.480.48m (length, height, width). The
study was complemented by the analysis of measurements realized on atmospheric boun
dary layer simulations performed in the closed return wind tunnel Joaquim Blessmann of
the Laboratrio de Aerodinmica das Construoes, Universidade Federal de Rio Grande do
Sul, UFRGS [12]. The simulations of natural wind on the atmospheric boundary layer were
performed by means of the Counihan [16] and Standen [17] methods, with velocity distribu
tions corresponding to a forest, industrial or urban terrain. The tube measurement was ob
tained in the centre of a 60 mm diameter smooth tube. Atmospheric data were obtained in a
micrometeorological station located at Paraiso do Sul, RS, Brasil [26, 27].
z [m]
U [m/s]
u2 [m2/s2]
f acq[Hz]
Lu [m]
ReL
Smooth tube
0.03
38.89
1.63
16
0.034
8.83104
Atmosphere
10.00
4.51
3.32
16
36.30
1.09107
Blessman WT-LV
0.15
3.18
0.19
1024
0.51
1.08105
Gorecki WT-LV
0.21
2.97
0.26
1024
0.26
5.16104
Gorecki WT-HV(+)
0.21
16.77
7.55
2048
0.51
5.71105
TV2 WT-LV
0.04
0.68
0.03
900
0.07
3.18103
TV2 WT-HV
0.04
11.69
4.92
3000
0.11
8.59104
The measurements realized in the J. Gorecki wind tunnel at high velocity were used to ana
lyze the sampling effects on the spectral characteristics. Five different samplings were realiz
ed for measurements Gorecki WT-HV(+) at z= 0.21 m. Sampling characteristics like frequency
acquisition facq, low pass frequency flp and sampling time ts are indicated in Table 4. Resulting
superposed spectra are shown in Fig. 8 where it is possible to see a good definition of the
inertial sub-range (-5/3 slope) and the effect of the low pass filter.
Samples
Sp1
Sp2
Sp3
Sp4
Sp5
facq[Hz]
4096
2048
1024
8192
16348
flp[Hz]
3000
1000
300
3000
10000
ts[s]
30
60
120
15
7.5
207
frequency is non dimensionalised by fLu/U in Fig. 10 and by fz/U in Fig. 11, according to pa
rameters usually employed in wind engineering. In general, preliminary results permit veri
fying the good behavior of the wind tunnel spectra and a good definition of the inertial
range (slope -5/3). The inertial sub-region is narrower for low velocity measurements (LV).
Spectral special features in smooth tube and atmosphere appear in Fig. 9 and in the dimen
sionless comparison too (Figs. 10 and 11). This particular behavior is a product of the uni
form flow in the centre of the smooth tube, that is, not a boundary layer flow is being
analyzed. In the atmospheric flow case, this type of behavior is possibly due to the existence
of a convective turbulence component at low frequencies because of that atmospheric stabil
ity is not totally neutral. This behavior was verified in the case of measurements realized in
near-neutral atmosphere. The existence of a low frequency convective component was de
tected in three dimensional measurements obtained at the atmosphere [28]. The aliasing ef
fect is perceived at high frequencies due to high pass filter is not used for sample acquisition
of atmospheric data.
1.00E+05
1.00E+04
Slope -5/3
1.00E+03
Su [(m/s)2/Hz]
208
1.00E+02
1.00E+01
1.00E+00
1.00E-01
1.00E-02
1.00E-03
1.00E-01
sp1
sp2
sp3
sp4
sp5
1.00E+00
1.00E+01
f [Hz]
1.00E+02
1.00E+03
1.00E+04
Statistical Analysis of Wind Tunnel and Atmospheric Boundary Layer Turbulent Flows
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54088
1.00E+02
smooth tube
1.00E+01
atmosphere
Blessmann WT-LV
1.00E+00
slope -5/3
Su [(m/s)2/ Hz]
1.00E-01
Gorecki WT-LV
Gorecki WT-HV
TV2 WT-LV
1.00E-02
TV2 WT-HV
1.00E-03
1.00E-04
1.00E-05
1.00E-06
1.00E-07
1.00E-02 1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02 1.00E+03 1.00E+04 1.00E+05
f [Hz]
fSu/su2
0.1
smooth tube
atmosphere
0.01
Blessmann TW-LV
Gorecki TW-LV
Gorecki TW-HV
TV2 WT-LV
0.001
0.001
TV2 WT-HV
0.01
0.1
fLu/U
10
209
0.1
fSu/su2
210
smooth tube
atmosphere
0.01
Blessmann WT-LV
Gorecki WT-LV
Gorecki WT-HV
TV2 WT-LV
0.001
0.001
TV2 WT-HV
0.01
0.1
fz/U
10
The superposition technique allows defining precisely the sub-inertial range and extending
the frequency analysis interval. Besides, it is possible defining adequately the sampling
characteristics and optimizing the measuring time. In general, the spectral comparison real
ized using fLu/U (Fig. 10) indicates better coincidence [27, 28]. However, the analysis realized
up to now is preliminary and it should be studied in depth. For example, the methods for
the parameter Lu calculation should be analyzed, the application of other parameters to ob
tain the dimensionless frequency at smaller scales and other measurements must be ana
lyzed looking for the improvement of the scale modeling.
A different approach to analyze velocity fluctuations will be presented below. This is based
on the high order moments of velocity increments. Small scales to characterize the boundary
layer flows will be used and a new representation of energy spectra will be evaluated.
4.3. Statistical moments of velocity fluctuations
Previous type of spectral analysis is usually employed in Wind engineering. The following
study is realized using velocity structure functions of turbulent boundary layer flow. These
statistical moments are utilized by atmospheric physical researchers. The approach consid
ers scales smaller than the integral scale Lu and, therefore is presumably more suitable for
applications to turbulent diffusion studies. Apart from integral scales, the mean dissipation
rate, the Kolmogorov and Taylor micro-scales could be obtained. On other hand, results
from this type of study can be employed to analyze the Kolmogorov constant and, indirect
ly, for application to pollution dispersion models [30, 31].
Statistical Analysis of Wind Tunnel and Atmospheric Boundary Layer Turbulent Flows
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54088
Kolmogorov`s laws for locally isotropic turbulence [32, 33] were originally derived for struc
ture functions from the von Krmn-Howarth-Kolmogorov equation [34],
4
d
- e r + 6n S2 (r )
S3 (r ) =
5
dr
valid for r<<Lu in the limit of very large Reynolds number, where Sp (r) = u(x + r) u(x)
(4)
p
is
the structure function of order p, is the kinematic viscosity, is the mean dissipation rate,
and represents statistical expectation operator.
Kolmogorov deduced the following relations for second and third-order structure functions:
S2 (r ) = C(e r )2/ 3
(5)
4
S3 (r ) = - e r ,
5
(6)
1/4
The third-order structure function Eq.(6), also known as the four-fifths law, is straightfor
wardly obtained from Eq.(4) since, for very large Reynolds number, the second term in the
right hand side of Eq.(4) can be neglected. The four-fifths law is of special interest in the stat
istical theory of turbulence because, besides being an exact relation, it allows a direct identi
fication of the mean dissipation energy per unit mass with the mean energy transfer across
scales [35].
The two-thirds law Eq. (3), on the other hand, is not an exact relation; it was obtained using
dimensional arguments and introducing a nondimensional constant that should be empiri
cally determined. The second-order structure function provides information about the ener
gy content in all scales smaller than r. Moreover, the famous Kolmogorov energy spectrum
E(k) = Ck 2/3k 5/3is derived from Eq. (5).
Table 5 shows the results of the analysis for four experiments selected from the analysis de
scribed in section 4.2. The distinct columns report the mean wind speed U, height z, inertial
range (ra, rb), integral scale Lu, mean dissipation rate , Kolmogorov microscale , Taylor's
microscale based Reynolds number Re. The mean dissipation rate, , was determined by the
best fit of S3(r), Eq. (2), in the inertial range. The Kolmogorov microscale was computed by
= ( 3 / )
1/4
from = u 2 / ( x u)2
1/2
, where ( x u)2 was indirectly estimated with the aid of the isotrop
ic relation = 15 ( x u)2 .
211
212
z [m]
U [m/s]
(ra, rb)[cm]
Lu [m]
[m2/s3]
[mm]
Re
Smooth tube
0.03
38.89
0.35-1.10
0.034
52.9
0.08
174
Atmosphere
10.00
4.51
30-600
36.30
0.045
0.51
13141
Gorecki WT-HV
0.21
16.77
2.0-9.0
0.39
33.0
0.10
1311
TV2 WT-HV
0.04
11.69
0.3-2.0
0.13
48.8
0.09
629
Table 5. Main turbulence characteristics from laboratory and atmospheric turbulence data.
Experimental evaluations of second and third-order structure functions for the J. Gorecki
wind tunnel are shown in Fig. 12. In the K41 picture, the estimation of the second-order
structure function constant is reduced to an estimation of the skewness S = S3(r) / (S2(r))3/2;
however, differently from S2(r), S3(r) displays some noise (Fig. 12). This behavior is ob
One immediate consequence of the similarity arguments assumed in K41 is that graphical
representation of distinct turbulence spectra should collapse in a single-curve after a proper
normalization with characteristic velocity and length scales. Another consequence, which
follows from dimensional analysis, is the scaling Sp (r) r p/3 for a structure function of order
p, with <<r<<Lu. However, inertial range physics has been proved to be much more com
plex than previously assumed in the K41. A remarkable consequence of this complexity,
which has close relation with the small scale intermittency phenomenon [33], is the existence
of anomalous scaling concerning structure functions exponents, Sp (r) r p , where p is non
linear function of p. The multifractal formalism was then introduced by Parisi and Frisch in
order to provide a robust framework, allowing the analysis and interpretation for a general
class of complex phenomena presenting anomalous scaling.
One important difference between the multifractal interpretation of turbulence and the
(monofractal) K41 theory is the assumption of a local similarity scaling for small scales. The
global scaling similarity assumed in the K41 theory is still at the core of the most wind tun
nel and atmospheric turbulence modeling [5, 28, 34]. The local scaling similarity ideas of the
multifractal formalism, on the other side, provide a new vocabulary, enabling interpretation
and comparison of diverse multiscale phenomena. Although the multifractal formalism has
been used in many areas of applied physics, does not share the same popularity in the fields
of engineering.
According to the multifractal universality [36], a single-curve collapse of distinct experimen
tal turbulence spectra is obtained by plotting logE(k) / logRe against logk / logRe, after hav
ing properly normalized E(k) and k. On the other hand, an alternative similarity plot has
been proposed by Gagne et al. [7] based on an intermittency model, but still compatible with
the multifractal formalism. These authors propose that a better merging of experimental
Statistical Analysis of Wind Tunnel and Atmospheric Boundary Layer Turbulent Flows
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54088
= 1 / log(Re / R
1/4
against log(ck( 3 / )
1/4
),
with
), where Re is the Taylor scale based Reynolds number and the empirical
constants R* = 75, a = 0.154, and c = 5.42 were determined to provide the best possible super
position in their dataset.
In Fig. 13 the plot proposed by Gagne et al. [7] is presented for laboratory and atmospheric
turbulence data. Despite the fact that data comprise very different scales, Lu 102 m for at
mospheric data, and Lu 10-1 m for smooth pipe, the merging of spectra is reasonably good,
also regarding the fact that the originally proposed empirical constants have been used in
the present dataset.
In this representation the slopes remain unchanged, but the extent of inertial range presum
ably has the same length for all spectra. Although a solid ground for the physics behind the
representation is lacking, it is clear that the properties provided by such a representation can
be very useful for physical analysis and modeling of turbulence.
Figure 12. Second and third-order structure functions for the Gorecki WT measurement.
213
214
Figure 13. Single-curve spectral collapse from laboratory and atmospheric turbulence data (Table 5), as proposed by
Gagne et al. [7].
5. Concluding remarks
Fully developed turbulence measurements from the laboratory and the atmospheric boun
dary layer encompassing a wide range of Reynolds number were analyzed in this study.
First, a typical spectral evaluation of a boundary layer simulation was presented. The spec
tral agreement is very good and the wind simulation can be considered adequate for wind
load modeling.
Next, a spectral dimensionless comparison of different boundary layer flows was realized
by usual parameters in wind engineering. Measurements of the longitudinal fluctuating ve
locity obtained in different wind tunnels, a smooth tube and the atmosphere were selected.
An analysis of sampling effects was realized and some limitations on this classical spectral
comparison were established.
Finally, a discussion of the use of structure functions to investigate turbulent boundary layer
flows was proposed. Turbulent scales smaller than the integral scale were determined and
the behavior of second and third-order structure functions were analyzed. A single-curve
collapse of distinct experimental spectra was obtained. This type of analysis should be ap
plied to verify boundary layer flows at low speed used for dispersion modeling. Time scales
for fluctuating process modeling could be improved too by applying this analysis method.
Statistical Analysis of Wind Tunnel and Atmospheric Boundary Layer Turbulent Flows
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54088
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the atmospheric physics group from Universidade Federal de
Santa Maria for sharing their atmospheric boundary layer measurements. One of us (GSW)
is supported by a PCI scholarship provided by the Brazilian research agency CNPq.
Author details
Adrin Roberto Wittwer1, Guilherme Sausen Welter2 and Acir M. Loredo-Souza3
*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]
1 Facultad de Ingeniera, Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Argentina
2 Laboratrio Nacional de Computao Cientfica, Brasil
3 Universidade Federal de Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
References
[1] Kaimal, J. C., Wyngaard, J. C., Izumi, Y., Cote, O. R., Spectral characteristics of sur
face-layer turbulence, Quart. J. R. Met. Soc. 1972, 98: 563-589.
[2] Kaimal, J. C., Atmospheric boundary layer flows: their structure and measure
ment, Oxford University Press, Inc., New York, 1994.
[3] Blessmann, J., O Vento na Engenharia Estrutural, Editora da Universidade,
UFGRS, Porto Alegre, Brasil, 1995.
[4] Cook, N. J., Determination of the Model Scale Factor in Wind-Tunnel Simulations of
the Adiabatic Atmospheric Boundary Layer, Journal of Industrial Aerodynamics,
1978, 2: 311-321.
[5] Harris, R. I., Some further thoughts on the spectrum of gustiness in strong winds,
J. of Wind Eng. & Ind. Aerodyn. 1990, 33: 461-477.
[6] Isymov, N., Tanaka, H., Wind tunnel modelling of stack gas dispersion Difficulties
and aproximations, Wind Engineering, Proceedings of the fifth International Con
ference, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA, 1980, Ed. by J. E. Cermak, Pergamon Press Ltd.
[7] Y. Gagne, M. Marchand and B. Castaing, A new representation of energy spectra in
fully developed turbulence, Applied Scientific Research, Volume 51, 99-103, 1993.
215
216
[8] Arya, S. P., Atmospheric boundary layers over homogeneous terrain, Engineering
Meteorology, Ed. by E. J. Plate, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam,
1982: 233-266.
[9] Cook, N.J., A Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel for Building Aerodynamics, Journal of
Industrial Aerodynamics, 1975, 1: 3-12.
[10] Sykes, D.M., A New Wind Tunnel for Industrial Aerodynamics, Journal of Indus
trial Aerodynamics 1977, 2: 65-78.
[11] Greenway, M., Wood, C., The Oxford University 4 m 2 m Industrial Aerodynam
ics Wind Tunnel Journal of Industrial Aerodynamics 1979, 4, 43-70.
[12] Blessmann, J., The Boundary Layer TV-2 Wind Tunnel of the UFGRS, Journal of
Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 1982, 10: 231-248.
[13] Hansen, S., Sorensen, E., A New Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel at the Danish Mari
time Institute, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1985, 18:
213-224.
[14] Wittwer, A. R., Loredo-Souza, A. M., Schettini, E. B. C., Laboratory evaluation of the
urban effects on the dispersion process using a small-scale model. In: 13th Interna
tional Conference on Wind Engineering, Amsterdam. Proceedings of the ICWE13,
2011.
[15] Loredo Souza, A. M., The behaviour of transmission lines under high winds, The
sis Doctor of Philosophy, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario,
1996.
[16] Counihan, J., An Improved Method of Simulating an Atmospheric Boundary Layer
in a Wind Tunnel, Atmospheric Enviroment 1969, 3: 197-214.
[17] Standen, N.M., A Spire Array for Generating Thick Turbulent Shear Layers for Nat
ural Wind Simulation in Wind Tunnels, National Research Council of Canada,
NAE, Report LTR-LA-94, 1972.
[18] A. R. Wittwer, M. E. De Bortoli, M. B. Natalini, The importance of velocity fluctua
tions analysis at the atmospheric boundary layer simulation in a wind tunnel, 2nd
East European Conference on Wind Engineering, Proceedings, Vol. 2, pp. 385, Acad
emy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechan
ics, Czech Republic, Prague, 1998.
[19] Wittwer A. R., Mller S. V., Characteristics of the low speed wind tunnel of the
UNNE, Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics, 2000, 84: 307-320.
[20] J. Marighetti, A. Wittwer, M. De Bortoli, B. Natalini, M. Paluch, M. B. Natalini, Fluc
tuating and mean pressures measurements in a wind tunnel over a stadium cover
ing, Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics, 2000, 84: 321-328.
Statistical Analysis of Wind Tunnel and Atmospheric Boundary Layer Turbulent Flows
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54088
[21] Centro de Investigacin de los Reglamentos Nacionales de Seguridad para las Obras
Civiles, Reglamento CIRSOC 102, Accin del Viento sobre las Construcciones, IN
TI, Argentina, 1982.
[22] Liu, G., Xuan, J., Park, S., A new method to calculate wind profile parameters of the
wind tunnel boundary layer, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerody
namics 2003, 91: 1155-1162.
[23] Robins, A., Castro, I., Hayden, P., Steggel, N., Contini, D., Heist, D., A wind tunnel
study of dense gas dispersion in a neutral boundary layer over a rough surface, At
mospheric environment 2001, 35: 2243-2252.
[24] Cook, N. J., The designers guide to wind loading of building structures, BRE,
Building Research Establishment, London, UK, 1990.
[25] Press, W.H., Flannery, B.P., Teukolsky, S.A., Vetterling, W.T., Numerical Recipes:
The Art of Scientific Computing, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1990.
[26] Acevedo, O.C., Moraes, O.L.L., Degrazia, G.A., Medeiros, L.E., Intermittency and
the exchange of scalars in the nocturnal surface layer, Boundary-layer meteorology,
119: 41-55, 2006.
[27] Wittwer A. R., Welter G. S., Degrazia G. A., Caractersticas espectrales de la turbu
lencia en vientos de capa superficial, Proceedings de 1er. Congreso Latinoamericano
de Ingeniera del Viento, Montevideo, Uruguay, 4 - 6 nov. 2008.
[28] Wittwer A. R., Welter G. S., Degrazia G. A., Loredo-Souza A. M., Acevedo O. C.,
Schettini E. B. C., Moraes O. L. L., Espectros de turbulncia medidos na camada at
mosfrica superficial e em um tnel de vento de camada limite., Cincia & Natura,
Revista do Centro de Cincias Naturais e Exatas, UFSM, Brasil, V. Esp. 2007: 137-141.
[29] Welter, G. S., Wittwer, A. R., Degrazia, G.A., Acevedo, O.C., Moraes, O.L.L., Anfossi,
D., Measurements of the Kolmogorov constant from laboratory and geophysical
wind data, Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 388 : 3745-3751,
2009.
[30] Degrazia G. A., Welter G. S., Wittwer A. R., Carvalho J., Roberti D. R., Acevedo O. C.,
Moraes O.L.L., Velho H.F.C., Estimation of the Lagrangian Kolmogorov constant
from Eulerian measurements for distinct Reynolds number with application to pollu
tion dispersion model, Atmospheric Environment 42, pp. 24152423, 2008.
[31] Degrazia, G., Anfossi, D., Carvalho, J., Mangia, C., Tirabassi, T. & Campos Velho, H.
Turbulence parameterisation for PBL dispersion models in all stability conditions,
Atmospheric environment 34(21): 35753583, 2000.
[32] Kolmogorov, A. N. (1941a). Energy dissipation in locally isotropic turbulence, Dokl.
Akad. Nauk SSSR, Vol. 32, pp. 1921, 1941.
217
218