HRW Physics 1 Measurement PDF
HRW Physics 1 Measurement PDF
the lVorfAern Hemisphere. They were seen severa! more times in the following decades, However, in recent decades they have appeared frequently, apparently indicating e major change in EaHhh'satmosphere.
Chopter i Measurement
1-2
Measuring Thlngs
We discover physics by learning how to measure the quantities involved in physics. Among these quantities are length, time, mass, temperature, pressure, and
electric current.
We measure each physical quantity in its own units, by comparison with a
standard. The anit is a unique name we assign to measures of that quantityfor example, meter (m) for the quantity length. The standard corresponds to
exactly 1.0 unit of the quantity. As you will see, the standard for length, which
corresponds to exactly 1.0 m, is the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during
a certain fraction of a second. We can define a unit and its standard in any way
we care to. However, the important thing is to do so in such a way that scientists
around the world will agree that our defitions are both sensible and practical.
Once we have set up a standard-say, for length-we must work out procedures by which any length whatever, be it the radius of a hydrogen atom, the
wheelbase of a skateboard, or the distance to a star, can be expressed in terms
of the standard. Rulers, which approximate our length standard, give us one such
procedure for measuring length. However, many of our comparisons must be
indirect. You cannot use a ruler, for example, to measure the radius of an atom
or the distance to a star.
There are so many physical quantities that it is a problem to organize them.
Fortunately, they are not all independent; for example, speed is the ratio of a
length to a time. Thus,what we do is pick out-by international agreement-a
small number of physical quantities, such as length and time, and assign standards
to them alone. We then d e h e all other physical quantities in terms of these base
quantities and their standards (called base standards). Speed, for example, is delined in terms of the base quantities length and time and their base standards.
Base standards must be both accessible and invariable. If we d e h e the length
standard as the distance between one's nose and the index fmger on an outstretched arm, we certainly have an accessible standard-but it will, of course,
vary from person to person. The demand for precision in science and engineering
pushes us to aim first for invariability. We then exert great effort to make duplicates of the base standards that are accessible to those who need them.
TABLE la
Unlts for Three SI Base Quantities
meter
second
Mass
kilogram
m
s
1-4
Many SI derived units are defined in terms of these base units. For example, TABLE 1-2
the SI unit for power, called the watt (W), is defined in terms of the base units Preflxes for SI Units
for mass, length, and time. Thus,as you will see in Chapter 7,
Factor
1watt
1W
1kg. m21s3;
(1-1) I*"
where the last collection of unit symbols is read as kilogram-meter squared per 1021
second cubed.
lo18
To express the very large and very small quantities we often run into in 1015
physics, we use scientific notation, which employs powers f 10. In this notation, 1012
and
1.27 GW
Changing Units
PrefixQ
Svrnbol
zetta-
Y
Z
exa-
peta-
tera-
yotta-
megakilohectodeka-
decicentimillimicro-
nanopico-
(1-5)
Some prefixes, as used in milliliter, centimeter, kilogram, and megabyte, are probably familiar to you.
1 min
60 s
- 1 and --1.
60 s
1 min
--
Thus, the ratios (1 min)/(60 s) and (40 s)l(l min) can be used as conversion
factors. This is not the same as writing & = 1or 60 = 1;each number and its unit
must be treated together.
Because multiplying any quantity by unity leaves the quantity unchanged,
we can introduce conversion factors wherever we find them useful. In chain-link
conversion, we use the factors to cancel unwanted units. For example, to convert
2 min to seconds, we have
2 min = (2 min)(l)
(PZ)
(2 d)-
120 s.
If you introduce a conversion factor in such a way that unwanted units do nol
cancel, invert the factor and try again. In conversions, the units obey the same
algebraic rules as variables and numbers.
Appendix D gives conversion factors between SI and other systems of units,
including non-SI units still used in the United States. However, the conversion
factors are written in the style of "1 min = 40 s" rather than as a ratio. The
following sample problem gives an example of how to set up such ratios.
zeptoyocto-
J~iiirpleb b f e r n1-2
'
= 4.7227 X
loT3kmls = 4.7 X
kmls.
(Answer)
(Answer)
1255 crans
170.474 L
1cran
= 1.403 x 103covidas3.
=
(lZs5
crms)(
1000 cm3
)(T)
1covido
(-)
rA c T Ic
r:
Decimal Places
sometimes an extra significant figure is kept.) When the Ieftmost of the digits to be discarded is 5 or more, the last remaining digit & rounded up; otherwise it is retained as is. For
of comparisons.
Eventually, modern science and technology required a standard more precise
than the distance between two fine scratches on a metal bar. In 1960, a new
standard for the meter, based o n the wavelength of light, was adopted. Specs-
1-6 Time
cally, the standard for the meter was redehed to be 1 650 763.73 wavelength TABLE i-3
of a particular orange-red light emitted by atoms of krypton-86 (a particular Some Approximate Lengths
isotope, or type, of krypton) in a gas discharge tube. This awkward number of
Length in
wavelengths was chosen so that the new standard would be close to the old meter- Measurement
Meters
bar standard.
By 1983, however, the demand for higher precision had reached such a point Distance to the first
galaxies formed
that even the krypton-86 standard could not meet it, and in that year a bold step
was taken. The meter was redefined as the distance traveled by light in a speczed Distance to the
Andromeda galaxy
time interval. In the words of the 17th General Conference on Weights and
Distance to the
Measures:
nearby star
Proxima Centauri
Distance to Pluto
Radius of Earth
Height of Mt. Everest
This time interval was chosen so that the speed af light c is exactly
Thickness of this page
Length of a typical
virus
Measurements of the speed of light had become extremely precise, so it made
sense to adopt the speed of light as a defined quantity and to use it to redefine Radius of a
hydrogen atom
the meter.
Table 1-3shows a wide range of lengths, from that of the universe (top h e ) Radius of a proton
to those of some very small objects.
T A c T Ic 2 : Order of Magnitude
The order of magnifudeof a number is the power of ten when
the number is expressed in scienac notation. For example, if
A = 2.3 x lo4and B = 7.8 X lo4,then the orders of magnitude
of both A and B are 4.
Often, engineering and science professionals will esti-
2 X 10"
loz2
4 x 10l6
6 x 10l2
6 x lo6
9 x lo3
1X
1X
5 x 10-'I
1 x 10-l5
mate the result of a calculation ta the mar& order of magnitude. For our example, the nearest order of maphde is 4
for A and 5 for B. Such estimation is common when d e w d
or precise data required in lb calculation rrre nat known or
easily found. S m p b Probtsm 1-3 gives an example.
SohItion: We wuld, of course, take the ball apart and measure the total length L, but that would take great effort and
make the ball's builder most unhappy. A Key Idea here is that,
because we want only the nearest order of magnitude, we can
estimate any quantities required in the calculation.
Let us assume the ball is spherical with radius R = 2 m.
The string in the ball is not closely packed (there are uncountable gaps between adjacent sections of string). To allow for
these gaps, let us somewhat overestimate the cross-sectional
area of the string by assuming the cross section is square, with
an edge length d = 4 mm. Then, with a am-sectional area
V = (cross-sectional area)(length)
= d2L.
d2L= 4R3,
Or
4R3
= -=
d2
4(2
m)3
(4~10-~rn)~
= 2 x lo6 m = 106 m = lo3 km. (Answer)
1-6 Time
Time has two aspects. For civil and some scientific purposes, we want to know
the time of day so that we can order events in sequence. In much scientific work,
we want to know how long an event lasts. Thus, any time standard must be able
to answer two questions: "When did it happen?" and "What is its duration?"
Table 1-4 shows some time intervals.
TABLE 1-4
Some Appmlmate Time Intervals
* ,1411
Interval in
Seconds
Measurement
Lifetime of the proton
(predicted)
Age of the universe
Age of the pyramid of
Cheops
Human life expectancy
Length of a day
Time between human
heartbeats
Lifetime of the muon
Shortest lab light puke
Lifetime of the most
unstable particle
The Planck timea
Any phenomenon that repeats itself is a possible time standard. Earth's rotation, which determines the length of the day, has been used in this way for
centuries; Fig. 1-1shows one novel example of a watch based on that rotation.
A quartz d&k, in which a quark ring is-made to vibrate continuously, can be
calibrated against Earth's rotation via astronomical observations and used to
measure time intervals in the laboratorv. However, the calibration cannot be
carried out with the accuracy called for by modern scientific and engineering
technology.
To meet the need for a better time standard, atomic clocks have been developed. An atomic clock at the National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST)in Boulder, Colorado, is the standard for Coordinated Universal Time
(UTC) in the United States. Its time signals are available by shortwave radio
(stations WWV and WWVH) and by telephone (303-499-7111). Time signals
(and related information) are also available kom the United States Naval Observatory at Web site http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/time.html. (To set a clock extremely accurately at your particular location, you would have to account for the
travel time required for these signals to reach you.)
Figure 1-2 shows variations in the length of one day on Earth over a Cyear
period, as determined by comparison with a cesium (atomic) clock. Because the
variation displayed by Fig. 1-2 is seasonal and repetitious, we suspect the rotating
Earth when there is a Merence between Earth and atom as timekeepers. The
variation is due to tidal effects caused by the Moon and to large-scale -&nds.
The 13th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1967 adopted a
standard second based on the cesium clclrk.
:i-
Atomic clwks are so consistent that, in principle, two cesium clocks would have
to run for 6000 years before their readings would differ by more than 1s. Even
such accuracy pales in comparison with that of clocks currently being developed;
their precision may be 1 part in 10l8--that is, 1s in 1 x 1018 s (whlch is about
3 x 10l0y).
m
ng.1-1 When themetricsystem
was proposed in 1792, the hour was
redefined to provide a 10-hour day.
The idea did not catch on. The
maker of this lbhour watch wisely
provided a small dial that kept w n ventionall2-hour time. Do the two
dials indicate the same time?
appeared following the huge 1883 volcanic explosion of Krakatoa Island (near Java in the southeast Pacific). The explosion was so violent that it hurled dust to the mesosphere, a
wol portion of the atmosphere located well above the strato-
1-7 Mass
'/
PI
Distant sun{
angle
5 . 1 - g The last sunlight reaching an observer at point A
occurs at sunset. The last sunlight reaching clouds at height
H above the observer orcuts later, after the Sun appears to
rotate through an angle 0. Height H and angle 6 are exaggerated for clarity.
lence, The methane works its way into the upper atmosphere
and undergoes chemical changes, resulting in an increase of
water molecules and the bits of ice needed for the formation
of the mesospheric clouds, as they are now called.
The mesospheric clouds are visible after sunset because
they are in the upper portion of the atmosphere that is still
illuminated by sunlight. They are not visible earlier in the day
in spite of their illumination because the lower atmosphere is
then too brightly lit for them to be distinguished.If the clouds
are spotted overhead 38 min after sunset and then quickly
dim, what is their altitude H?
(-)
Ih
0 = (38 min) 60 min
360"
(%)
= 9.50'.
From Fig. 1-3, this angle 6 is also the angle between the
Earth radii r to the two tangent p i n t s A and B. The figure
shows a right triangle: one leg is r and the hypotenuse is r
H.Using the dehition of the h e function from trigonometry, we can write
(1-7)
which gives us
H = 8.86 X lo4 m
89 km.
(Answer)
The more hequent occurrence of the douds in recent decades
indicates that methane production on Earth's surface is changing even tbe mesosphere.
1 7 Muss
The Standard Kiiogmm
The SI standard of mass is a platinum-iridium cylinder (Fig. 1-4) kept at the TABLE 1-5
International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris and assigned, by in-
Moon
Asteroid Eros
Small mountain
Ocean liner
Elephant
Grape
m. 2-q
Speck of dust
Penicillin molecule
Uranium atom
Proton
Electron
Moss in
Kilograms
1 X los3
2 x 1041
2 x low
7 x 10"
5 x lois
1 X 1012
7 x lo7
5 x lo3
3 x lo4
7 X lo-'*
5 x 10-l7
4 x lo4
2 x lo-2'
9 x lo-3i
Chapter i
Measurement
with an uncertainty of 210 in the last two decimal places. Scientists can, with
reasonable precision, experimentally determine the masses of other atoms relative to the mass of carbon-12. What we presently lack is a reliable means of
extending that precision to more common units of mass, such as a kilogram.
Measurement in Physics Physiw is based on measurement of physical quantities. Certain physical quantities have
been chosen as base quantities (such as length, time, and
mass); each bas been defined in terms of a standard and given
a unit of measure (such as meter, second, and kilogram).
Other physical quantities are defined in terms of the base
SSM
WWW
ILW
1@
0'-
Mass The kilogram is defined in terms of a phtinurn-iridium standard mass kept near Paris. For measurements on an
atomic scale, the atomic mass unit, defined in terms of the
atom carbon-12, is usually used.
.BM
Problems
mon in Spain; a vohune of 1 h e g a is equivalent to 55.501
dm3(cubic decimeters). To complete the table, what numbers
(hthree si@cant ilgwes) should be entered in (a) the cahiz
column, (b) the fanega column, (c) the cuartilla column, and
(d) the almude wlumn, starting with the top blank? Express
7.00 almudes in (e) medios, (f) cakes, and (g) cubic centimeters (cm3).
TABLE 1-6
Problem 6
cahiz
fanega
cuartilla
almude
medio
1cahiz =
1 fanega =
1cuartilla =
1almude =
1 rnedio =
percentage difference
actual - approximation
-Z
Tlme
A lecture period (50 min) is dose ta 3. microcentury. (a)
now long is a microcentury in minutes? (b) Using
Clock
Sun.
A
B
C
D
E
12+3&40
11.5954
15:$0AS
12:03:59
12:03:59
Mon.
Tues.
Wed.
Thurs.
12:37:44
12:00:M
155437
11:59:33
12:01:32
Fn.
Sat.
12:37:59 12338314
11:59:56 12W.03
15:55:35 1?5&3
11:58:24 113717
l201:22 1291:12
10
Chapter i Measurement
sec.a-7 Mass
m19 (a) Assuming that each cubic centimeter of water has a
mass of exactly 1g, find the mass of one cubic meter of water
in kilograms. @) Suppose that it takes 10.0 h to drain a con-
volume of 193 U.S. fluid gallons. (a) How much short of 1.0
million cubic centimeters is that? (b) If the bottle were filled
with water at the leisurely rate of 1.8 glmin, how long would
the filling take? Water has a mass of 1000 kg per cubic meter
of volume.
023 Iron has a mass of 7.87 g per cubic centimeter of volume,
and the mass of an iron atom is 9.27 X lomz6kg. If the atoms
'
'
AddiimaI Problems
An old English children's rhyme states, "Little Miss Mufsat on a tuffet, eating her curds and whey, when along came
a spider who sat down beside her. . . ."The spider sat down
not because of the curds and whey but because Miss Muffet
bad a stash of 11 tuffets of dried flies. The volume measure of
a tuffet is given by 1M e t = 2 pecks = 050 Imperial bushel,
where 1Irngerial bushel = 36.3687 liters (L). What was Miss
Muffet's stash in (a) pecks, (b) Imperial bushels, and (c) liters?
L ~ L
As a contrast between the old and the modern and between the large and the small, consider the following: In old
mral England 1hide (between 100and 120 acres) was the area
of land needed to sustain one family with a single plough for
one year. (An area of 1 acre is equal to 4047 mZ.)Also, 1
wapentake was the area of land needed by 100 such families.
In quantum physics, the cross-sectiond area of a nucleus (defined in terms of the chance of a particle hitting and being
absorbed by it) is measured in units of barns, where I barn is
1x
mz.(In nuclear physics jargon, if a nucleus is
"large," then shooting a particle at it is like shooting a bullet
at a barn door, which can hardly be missed.)What is the ratio
of 25 wapentakes to 11barns?
28 Prior to adopting metric systems of measurement, the
United Kingdom employed some challenging measures of liquid volume. A few are shown in Table 1-7.To complete the
table, what numbers (to three significant figures) should be
entered in (a) the wey column, (b) the chaldron column, (c)
the bag column, (d) the pottle column, and (e) the gill column,
starting with the top blank? (f) The volume of 1bag is equal
to 0.1091 m3. If an oId British story has a witch cooking up
some vile liquid in a cauldron of volume 1.5 chaldrons, what
is the volume in cubic meters?
TABLE 1-7
Problem 28
I
1 wey =
1clddron
1 bag =
1 pottle =
1giIl =
.,
chaldron
bag
1019
4013
pottle
g120240
For a hip of 750 miles (in the United States), how many gallons of fuel does (a) the mistaken tourist believe she needs
and (b) the car actudly require?
30 An old English wokbook carries this recipe for cream of
nettle soup: "Boil stock of the following amount: 1 breakfastcup plus 1teacup plus 6 tablespoons plus 1dessertspoon. Using gloves, separate nettle tops until you have 0.5 quart; add
the tops to the boiling stock. Add 1tablespoon of cooked rice
and 1 saltspoon of salt. Simmer for 15 min." The following
table gives some of the conversions among old (premettic)
British measures and among common (still premetric) U.S.
measures. (These measures scream for metrication.) For liquid measures, I British teaspoon = 1 U.S. teaspoon. For dry
Problems
measures, 1British teaspoon = 2 U.S.teaspoons and 1British
quart = 1U.S. quart. In U S , measures, how much (a) stock,
(b) nettle tops, (c) rice, and (d) salt are required in the recipe?
U.S. Measures
teaspoon = 2 saltspoons
dessertspoon = 2 teaspoons
tablespoon = 2 dessertspoons
teacup = 8 tablespoons
breakfastcup = 2 teacups
tablespoon = 3 teaspoons
half cup = 8 tablespoons
cup = 2 half cups
11
4 - One molecule of water (HzO) contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. A hydrogen atom has a mass
of 1.0 u and an atom of oxygen has a mass of 16 u, approximately. (a) What is the mass in kilograms of om molecule of
water? (b) How many molecules of water are in the world's
oceans, which have an estimated total mass of 1.4 x loa1kg?
A ton is a measure of volume frequently used in shipping,
out that use requires some care because there are at least three
types of tons: A dkplacernent tun is equal to 7 barrels bulk, a
freighs ton is equal to 8 barrels bulk, and a register ton is equal
to 20 barrels bulk. A barrel bulk is another measure of volume:
1 barrel bulk = 0.1415 m3. Suppose you spot a shipping order
for "73 tons" of M&M candies, and you are certain that the
client who sent the order intended "ton" to refer to voiume
(instead of weight or mass,as discussed in Chapter 5). If the
client actually meant displacement tons, how many extra U.S.
bushels of the candies will you erroneously ship if you interpret the order as (a) 73 freight tons and (b) 73 register tons?
(1 m3 = 28.378 U.S.bushels.)
# You receive orders to sail due east for 24.5 mi to put your
salvage ship directly over a sunken pirate ship. However,
when your divers probe the ocean floor at that location and
find no evidence of a ship, you radio back to your source of
information, only to discoyex that the sailing distance was sup-
12
Chapter i
Measurement
47 An astronomical unit (AU) is the average distance between Earth and the Sun,approximately 1.50 x lo8km. The
speed of light is about 3.0 X 108 m/s. Express the speed of
light in astronomical units per minute.
a What mass of water fell on the town in Problem 9? One
ubic meter of water has a mass of 1.0 x lo3 kg.