CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR AND MARKETING

Consumer behavior
Reasons for the emergence of consumer behavior:
1. Very low level of marketing implementation in practice
2. Market competition increasingly accentuates the need to implement disciplines such as
marketing in order to achieve competitive advantage.
3. The increasingly successful application of communication and other technologies requires
orientation towards a closer and more thorough understanding of consumers in the short run.
The digital revolution grants consumers more power, greater amount of available information, a better
selection, an interactive and very often instant exchange, the availability of extensive and good quality
data bases, and the use of the increasing range of platforms and tools in the process.

Definition and application of consumer behavior

Consumer behavior is a marketing discipline that studies the behavior of individuals, groups, or
organizations and the processes they use to select, secure, use, and dispose of products and services,
experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumers and
society.
Individual vs group consumers
institutional consumption vs final consumption
In the consumer behavior model, the black box marked the processes in consumers awareness, and
symbolically implied the inability to anticipate the course or content of those processes.
Market strategy creation requires a detailed and sophisticated understanding of consumers.
The discoveries about consumer behavior can facilitate the design of best solutions, not only to
stimulate but also to protect consumers
It is very important to understand, anticipate, and to some extent control consumer behavior in order to
protect societys interests
Can help consumers discover and understand some elements of their own behavior, which can lead to
a more efficient consumption and a better fulfilment of needs in a more rational way and with a higher
level of consumer control.
3 key stages of consumer behavior:

Purchase
o Problem/ need recognition
o Information search
o Evaluation of alternatives
o Purchase
o Post-purchase behavior

Consumption
Divestment or disposal

5 basic principles regarding consumer: they are sovereign, consumer motivation can be understood
through research, consumer behavior can be influences, all consumer influence should be socially
acceptable, and consumer behavior is a dynamic process.
Consumer sovereignty implies that consumers are free and independent on their decision-making and
that their decisions are based on personal reasons and goals.
Identifying motivation is very important. A single product can satisfy several needs and motives
simultaneously.
Marketing actions can influence consumers in their decision making process.
Market activities should be motivated by sincere attempts to satisfy consumers needs, taking their
interests into consideration.
The dynamic of the consumer behavior process stems from continuous and rapid changes in the
environment.

Consumer behavior and other scientific disciplines

Psychology has provided the foundations for the development of consumer behavior as a separate
discipline, enabling the scientific approach to consumer behavior through a series of areas that stem
from it.
Social psychology, sociology, anthropology, macro and microeconomics, jurisprudence, history,
demographic research, language science, ecology, pedagogy, political science, information technology,
etc.

Final and organizational consumption

Individual and group consumers typically buy products to use for final consumption, while
organizational or institutional customers will usually use the products in the production process.
Characteristics of organizational purchase:

Organizational purchase is professional

Purchase is primarily done by a team
There are clear formal procedures and processes
There are fewer buyers
Purchases are less frequent but volume and value are higher

Consumer behavior model

Presents a process of consumers decision-making in three different but interrelated stages or steps:
1. Input stage processes that lead to a consumers ability to recognize the product or service.
a. Those undertaken by companies or businesses (clear)
b. Environmental inputs that affect consumers (hard to measure)
2. Processing of information and influences
a. Psychological factors have a key role here
3. Output purchase and post purchase behavior
a. Three types of purchase: trial, repeat, and complex

Post-purchase review implies the evaluation of purchase and the expression of content or discontent
with it. This influences future purchases
Cognitive dissonance second guessing

Consumer behavior determinants

Key determinants that influence consumer behavior can be divided into two basic groups: those
influencing a consumer as a group member (cultural and social), and those influencing an individual
(personal, psychological, and demographic).
Cultural determinants are basic components of human behavior in general, including consumption.
Marketing has to be culturally sensitive and proactive, with the tendency of pervading culture and
contemporary influences
One of the elements of cultural influences is class organization of a society, which implies separation
of each society into social classes. The members of a group have similar consumption that stems from
similar values, traditions, interests, methods, and location.
Social determinants of consumer behavior mainly refer to the influence of a family, reference groups,
roles, and status that individuals have in a society.
Reference groups refer to various types of clubs or societies in which people socialize
Personal or demographic determinants are one of the most powerful researchers tools in the process of
understanding and predicting consumer behavior.
Lifestyle can be characterized as a certain trend of behavior that individuals choose under the
influence of a series of cultural, social, personal, and psychological factors

VALS 2 (values and lifestyle) understand the basic values and lifestyle of each group, and
based on that the corresponding understanding, supply and need satisfaction
AIO (action-interest-opinion) evaluates the lifestyle of examinees through activities,
interests and opinions

Psychological determinants:

Motivation
Perception
Attitudes
Learning

Ethical aspects of consumer behavior

By developing a scientific discipline such as consumer behavior, we take the responsibility to prevent
all discoveries and understanding from being used in a way contrary to the interests and rights of
consumers
1.
2.
3.
4.

Treat others the way you want to be treated

Do only what the majority of your colleagues would approve of
Only take actions that can be classified as universal ones in such circumstances
Ask yourself whether you could explain your behavior to a large TV audience

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR RESEARCH

Why research consumer behavior?
Consumer behavior research is aimed at looking at the ways individual decision-makers use their
available resources regarding consumption-related points.
The aim of research is to understand the methods of consumer purchase and use of products and
services.
3 basic groups of research
1. Research for practical application purposes, where companies are marked as users
2. Research for consumer protection purposes done by governments and organizations for
consumer protection
3. Research for the purpose of general understanding of consumers, done by various researchers
from the academic community.
Important for consumers to review behavior and decisions and identify influence factors in the process

Approaches to consumer behavior research

Consumer behavior research relies on two very different methodologies. Quantitative and qualitative
research.
Positivism implies the use of an appropriate rigorous systematic procedure in order to explain, control
and predict consumer behavior (quantitative)
Interpretivism is focused on the act of consumption and on understanding consumers from a wider
social perspective.
Researching consumer experiences is done by quantitative techniques such as focus groups, in-depth
interviews, projective techniques, and metaphor analysis

Types of consumer behavior research

Exploratory research is used as a general inquiry into a problem we know very little about

Diagnosing a situation, selecting different possibilities of action, discovering new ideas

Conclusive research

Descriptive used when researching characteristics of potential and existing consumers, their
behaviors, attitudes and so on.
causal research cause and effect (experimental)

It is possible to use all of these research methods at the same time

Quantitative research is descriptive in nature while qualitative research is more to the point. Results
are the best when these two research types are combined.

Research process
Six elementary phases of the consumer behavior research process:
1. defining the problem and research goals

2.

3.
4.
5.

6.

a. can be any phenomenon or process which is not familiar enough and needs further
research or clarification
collecting and evaluating secondary data
a. three groups of external sources of secondary data
i. standard data sources, where they distinguish data published in the country
and data published abroad
ii. commercial sources
iii. databases, including the internet
primary research design
primary data collection
processing and analysis of collected data
a. applying suitable statistical techniques
b. Data categorization (grouping data), pre-logical control and coding (checking for
possible errors), and data entry and post-logical control precede processing data.
preparing a research report
a. Includes information about all the previous phases and possibly recommendation for
particular marketing activities.

Data collection techniques

Quantitative research techniques
Survey used to collect written data on attitudes and opinions

individual contact with the examinee (personal survey), postal survey , telephone survey,
online survey

Experiment data collection technique used to measure how an independent variable affects a
dependent variable, while controlling all other effects.

Natural experiments are carried out in a completely natural environment, where respondents
are usually not aware that there is an experiment taking place whereas a laboratory experiment
is carried out in an artificial environment, where the respondents are aware of the experiment.
One-group experiments (measuring is done before or after the independent variable has an
effect) and parallel groups experiments (measuring is done at one point after the independent
variable has an effect)

Observation goal is to notice and record facts related to the actual situation by observing consumers
while they purchase and use products

Ordinary observation (random and unsystematic) and scientific observation (carried out
according to a previously determined plan)
According to the way it is realized direct (observe a phenomenon at the moment it is
happening) and indirect (observing other phenomena related to it)
Within scientific observation there are also simple and multiple observation, individual and
mass observations, and observation with and without participation
There is also observation within a natural and artificially created situation. Also there is
personal observation and observation using technical apparatus
Types of equipment used in technical observation are psycho-galvanometer (sweaty palms),
pupil-meter (pupil dilation), eye tracking camera (tracks eye movements to see what
consumers notice first on advertisements), measuring voice range (emotional reaction and
lying), EEG or device for electroencephalography (monitors brain activity)

Panel identifying differences in theoretical approaches. A constant representative sample of units on

which continuous research is conducted at regular intervals, using a constant research instrument

Various panel forms:

o Consumer panel: home control (regular panel) and individual panel (keeping a record)
o Bar code panel: based on scanner technology
o Panel of TV viewers: follows the exposure to different channels and advertising
messages. Can be monitored with a diary or a technical apparatus
o Online panel

Content analysis focused on content and on the message form in the communication process
Qualitative research techniques
In-depth interview unstructured, longer interview. This is used to research the needs and attitudes of
consumers and to understand their behavior in different situations.

Laddering focus questioning from listing characteristics of the observed product to revealing
characteristics of the consumer himself.
Hidden issue questioning focused on researching values by indirectly discovering what the
examinee finds important
Symbolic analysis examinees are asked to describe their best and worst experiences with
products or services

Focus group a trained moderator discusses a certain issue with a group of 8 to 12 examinees using a
reminder.
Projective techniques purpose is to encourage examinees to project their hidden motives, feelings,
attitudes and beliefs through seemingly unrelated things

Association technique word association test (what responders associate with certain words)
and picture association test
Completion test sentence completion test, balloon test (complete a conversation),
construction test (complete an event presented in pictures)
Role-playing
Personalization
Symbol technique

Metaphor analysis

Collage research examinees cut out pictures from magazines which show their feelings
about a product
Case study - direct observation of activities and documenting data during a process

Data collection instruments

In consumer research, the three main instruments are a questionnaire, test, and scales.
A questionnaire consists of a sequence of questions related to the research problem. It is possible to
distinguish between a questionnaire for gathering facts and an opinionary for investigating attitudes
and opinions.

Questions can be either open ended or closed ended. They can also be either direct or indirect. They
need to be clear, interesting, unambiguous, objective and short.
The order of the questions can be determined by psychological strategy and logical strategy.
A test consists of a sequence of connected tasks. Personality group tests are the most important.
Personality inventory is a personality test for researching nature and temperament, and it consists of a
list of statements which distinguished it from a questionnaire that offers a series of questions.
Projective tests are used to investigate the subconscious field or to discover what the examinees are
consciously hiding.
Scale is used to examine attitudes

Likert scale requires the examinee to express their level of agreement with the statements by
choosing one of the five possible intensities
Semantic differential scale formed based on bipolar adjectives. The scale is used when
comparing consumers perceptions of competitive products and for identifying the product
characteristics which need to be improved.
Rank scale requires the examinees to rank objects according to certain criteria

Sampling
A part of the total population on which the research will be conducted. It needs to be representative it
has all the characteristics of the group it is representing
Designing a sample means answering three questions: who will be included in the sample, what will
be the size of the sample, and how the sample will be formed
Three types of sample:
1. Probability sampling all units have the same probability of being selected as a sample
a. Simple each member of the set is equally likely to be selected
b. Stratified first the population is divided into groups by specific criteria and then the
sample units are obtained by random selection from each group
c. Depending on the proportion from each group samples can be proportional or unproportional
2. Non-probability sample used if there is no need for the research results to be projected onto
the entire population, but if it is enough for them to represent the population.
a. Convenience a sample which is most accessible at the moment
b. Deliberate formed based on the researchers evaluation of the most typical
representatives of the population in terms of a specific characteristic.
c. Quota begins with a certain population then members are chosen by set quotas
3. Combined samples selected through several phases where combinations of previous types
are used.
a. Zone sample created by defining zones according to a specific characteristic, where
only a few zones are chosen by random selection, the they are divided into new zones
and the process is repeated until a sample is formed

Negative aspects of consumer behavior research

Fear of misuse of information and data. There are also high costs of marketing research that consumers
feel are being put on them. Violation of intimacy and consumer fraud exist in contemporary practice of
consumer research

MOTIVES AND MOTIVATION

Motivation represents a valid link in the chain of needs, motives and goals.
In order to analyze the meaning of motivation for consumer behavior, theoretical attention has to be
paid in the explanation of similarities and differences among needs, motives, motivation and goal
achievement as concepts without which motivation overall cannot be understood.

Needs
Need is the first element of the motivational chain and therefore a precondition for the rest of them.
The most common classification of needs is into: inborn (biological) needs and acquired needs

Goals
The last element in the motivational chain is goals. A goal is actually a specific external stimulant that
acts as a landmark in a persons attempts to satisfy their needs
If a goal is seen as a marketing category, it is possible to notice certain uniqueness form one to another
and we can then classify them.
Generic (fruit juice) vs product-specific (dimes) goals and positive (desired goals toward which a
persons behavior is directed) vs. negative (goals that are avoided) goals

Motives
The space between needs and goals is occupied by motives and motivation.
A motive is a result of interaction between psychological and physiological processes within a person,
a totality of internal factors that stimulate one to activity, and that direct and manage that activity.
Important because they enable the external results of these internal processes to be discovered.
Types of motives:

Rational rely on logic that consumer behavior is rational

Emotional rely on logic that consumers choose goals using personal or subjective criteria

Maslows hierarchy of motives

1. Physiological
2. Safety and security
3. Social
4. Motives or needs of ego or self-esteem
5. Motives or needs of self-actualization, self-realization, or self-fulfillment
The precondition of satisfying every next level of motives or needs is a previous satisfaction of the one
before it. Marketers often use this information in the advertising industry, appealing primarily to
unsatisfied physiological needs.
It is impossible to empirically reach reliable indicators that would show to what extent a need has to be
satisfied before the next one is actualized
Mass consumption products often satisfy a number of levels of needs. An advertisement can also put
the emphasis on various levels of motives or needs.

When people cannot achieve specific goals that would fulfill certain needs, their behavior can divert to
an alternative goal. Failure to achieve a goal often results in frustration
Other classifications of motives
McClellands theory of acquired needs: need for achievement, need for affiliation, need for power
Contemporary theories:

All motives can be classified into two groups:

o Social orientation toward people
o Non-social needs that are fulfilled independently from any external influences, in
isolation.
Three fundamental groups of motives
o Functional based on the search for products that can make a person or a household
function
o Symbolic the need for achievement
o Hedonistic determined by the feeling of satisfaction at the moment of fulfillment.

Types of motivation
Motivation is a state of being in which a persons energy is mobilized and directed toward an external
goal; a driving force that stimulates an individual to action.
The state of motivation can have two possible outcomes

Function of a wink function that precedes behavior

Function of stimulating specific behavior in order to achieve a goal by fulfilling a need

Motivation is not under the influence of only one, but a number of motives: a special motivational
combination
The most common state of motivation in real life is that of a parallel existence and a conflict of
positive and negative motivational forces.

A consumer can be given a choice of two equally attracting alternatives

They can be faces with the positive and negative aspects of the purchase and use of a specific
product
The situation when a consumer has to choose between two equally unpleasant alternatives

Involvement can be manifested in at least two forms:

Rational thinking about products attributes and comparing them to the attributes of similar
products
Emotional involvement at the very act of purchase of products

Four types of involvement are significant for consumer behavior:

Permanent involvement long term interest of an individual for a certain product or group of
products
Situational involvement involvement in the process of shopping does not have a
characteristic of durability. Closely related to concrete situations

Cognitive involvement involvement manifested as contemplation during the processing of

purchase related information. Directly related to price
Affective involvement involvement of emotions

Regarding the involvement during the purchase of a certain product we have high and low
involvement. Low involvement implies little readiness to spend time and money on the decision
making process. High level involvement is the opposite.
One of the causes of a persons motivation lies in the fact that most needs are never completely or
permanently satisfied. Also, because satisfaction of some needs means the actualization of others.
Lastly, the increase of self- confidence results in higher aspirations and goals.
Existence of specific latent needs has to be discussed. Here we have physiological initiation, emotional
activation, and environmental need activation

Exploring motives
Four methods of motivational research are the most important:
Depth interview individual interview consisting of long conversations that have not been structured
in advance. Used when a detailed examination of personal behavior, attitudes, and needs is necessary
and when the research subject is highly confidential and private. It should also be used when the
subject of examination is a step-by-step understanding of complex behavior.
If values are the research subject, then depth interview uses the following techniques:

Laddering technique starts with having the client define all attributes that they find useful
for describing and differentiating brands. Further examination leads to higher levels of
consideration.
Technique grand tour starts with clients imagining themselves in a specific situation. The
objective is to take clients through their typical experience with a product and uncover what is
relevant for them.

Depth interview technique is a critical incident technique. Can be carried out without an examiner.
Group interview (focus group) - Conducted with a small group of people. Unstructured, casual
conversation. Projective techniques are often used (imaginary situations).
Association technique showing words or images as an incentive.

Word say what words they associate with this.

Image measuring how much certain brands or products are in agreement with the situation,
lifestyle, or expectations of the target market.

Finalization technique based on presenting an unresolved situation to the examinees that they need
to resolve.

Finishing sentences or stories

Balloon test describing situation in a picture with balloons as thoughts or conversations
Comic finalization finishing a comic story

Role-play technique examinees become imaginary persons and are asked to behave the way they
would in a given situation

Personalization examinees give features and appearances of living things to objects that normally
do not possess such characteristics.
Psycho drawing requests examinees to relate an object to a certain color, shape, or symbol whose
meaning is familiar.

PERCEPTION
Perception determine the level of possibility to create and master communication by creating a
companys image, brand, products, and other elements of vital importance for marketing in general
Perception determines individual attitudes, beliefs, evaluations, decisions, and reactions
Knowledge of perception implies understanding events during the exposure of consumers to stimuli,
as well as an acceptance and appreciation of environmental incentives

Definition of perception
The process by which an individual selects, organizes and interprets stimuli into a meaningful and
coherent picture of the world
In numerous situations completely identical stimuli result in a number of interpretations and
explanations
People see, hear, and feel what they expect or want to. Because of this marketing stimuli cannot be
homogenous, but need to adapt to different market segments or target markets.

Elements that influence perception

Sensory or sensorial factors relate to senses that all people have. In practice, senses are often combined
and they influence each other.
Involvement is an interest or relevance that an individual gives to a certain purchase. The factors that
influence the level of interest are the type of product or need, the nature of communication with an
individual, situational factors, and personal traits of individuals.
Psychological and social factors (real factors)

Perception process stages

Two basic approaches: exposure, attention, and understanding, and perceptual selection, organization
of terms, and interpretation.
Exposure/selective perception stage
Exposure is the stage of accepting information through senses
The process of selection of a small number of stimuli depends on individual expectations and
willingness to open up to the possibility of perception, as well as on the characteristics and intensity of
stimuli
The nature of stimuli, perception and previous experiences play an important role in the process of
stimuli selection
The perception of reality is individual. Perception is most frequently not an objectivized reality but a
reflection of what an individual thinks it is.

The absolute threshold of perception presents the level of stimuli intensity below which people do not
know of a stimuluss existence, and above which they become aware of it. This presents a logical limit
of the effort to make an impression.
The differential threshold of perception refers to two levels of a stimulus: one that does not stimulate
any perception, and one that does. This is also called the just noticeable difference. In marketing this
means that any change must be visible and distinct enough to cause consumers to detect it
Webers law is an extension of JND, and refers to the fact that the relation between two stimuli is not
an absolute objectivized category, but depends on the intensity of the primary stimulus.

K=

i
I

K Perception of JND
i minimal change of intensity of a stimulus necessary to cause JND and
I intensity of the initial stimulus
JND-related elements that influence perceptivity re: the relevance of the product and purchase for the
consumer, pleasure and enjoyment in the process, repetition of stimuli, surprise, contrast, and
prominence of stimuli.
The phenomenon called sensory adaptation is related to Webers Law and JND. People exposed to
intensive stimuli adjust to them with time and stop noticing them regardless of their intensity or
attraction.
The butterfly curve phenomenon is based on the idea of sensory adaptation and possible changes. The
preference acceptance and attraction to a specific stimulus lasts for a certain amount of time until the
adaptation of senses occurs, which is when the relation turns into indifference or insensitivity for
further stimuli of that type. When a new stimulus occurs, the process is repeated
Subliminal or unconscious perceptions relates to the possibility that people perceive stimuli without
conscious understanding or under the level of awareness
Selective perception is a defense mechanism that selects stimuli in accordance with the motives,
expectations, and interests of individuals, but that also depends on the nature and intensity of stimuli

Selective exposure is openness toward stimuli that lead to pleasant and satisfying reactions
Selective attention takes people specifically to those stimuli that match the current needs and
interests
Perceptual defense explains how it is possible for completely identical stimuli to be
interpreted differently
Perceptual blocking is a common mechanical method of defense from the vast amount of
stimuli in the contemporary world

Attention stage
Attention is a cognitive process of recognizing a stimulus that is processed in consciousness

Pre-attention is a type of selection process, most commonly below the level of awareness or at
the border of it. Transitional stage between exposure and realization.
Involuntary attention is mainly caused by extreme or dramatic stimuli (orientation reflex)

Voluntary attention is a reflection of a persons interest in something.

Organization and interpretation stage

Organization of stimuli is a process in which people do not observe each stimulus individually but
organize them into various groups and processes.
Three basic figures of perceptual organization, according to Gestalt research are figure and
background (people always group visual images into contrasts so that there is always a figure that
stands out), grouping (every image from the environment is placed into a context where it is then
given a specific meaning), and closure (in case of an incomplete or unfinished perception, individuals
tend to find an understandable and comprehensive meaning)
Interpretation is the final action of attaching significance or meaning to stimuli.
Interpretation is an individual process and that very often the interpretations of a single stimulus vary
or differ greatly from one person to another.
Perceptual distortions are contributing factors that cause different understandings or variations in the
way stimuli are interpreted.

Perceptual semiotics
Consumers interpret symbols and characteristics of products based on their experience and cultural
values.
Semiotics is very important for the study of perception because it represents the foundation of a
correct understanding between the sender and recipient of a stimulus or a meaning.

PERSONALITY
Understanding a consumers personality as well as personality types is of
exceptional importance for two reasons at least.
Firstly, for market segmentation, and secondly, for the communication
strategy which needs to answer the question of how adjusted the message
is to the personality traits dominant in the market segment that it
addresses.

Personality concept
Personality could be said to represent the totality of characteristics that
determine behavior, thoughts and emotions of every person

Determinants of personality
Is personality a genetic category, the result of heredity, or a result of a
persons interaction with the environment?
Personality is a result of both influences
Heredity refers to the factors defined by birth: physical appearance, facial
attraction, sex, temper, muscle structure and reflexes.

Genetics are accountable for around 50% differences in personality and

more than 30% variations in professional interests and hobbies.
Among the factors playing an important role in the shaping of our
personalities are those of the environment we live in: the culture we were
brought up in, the norms in our families, friends and social groups, and
other influences that we experience.
Situation is the third determinant of personality, a factor that influences
the effects of the heredity and environment on personality

Personality traits
Personality traits imply a set of elements which enable ones personality to
function as a single structure.
When it comes to personality traits it is possible to identify some common
elements that do not reveal any discrepancies or disagreements.
It is undisputable that personality traits are not homogenous for all
consumers personality traits are related to the situational variables.
Personality traits can be used to predict consumer behavior.

Theories of personality traits

Four personality traits theories such as psychoanalytic, behavioral, NeoFreudian or socio-psychological, and personality trait theory are
mentioned
Psychoanalytic theory of personality

The founder of the psychoanalytic theory of personality was Sigmund

Freud
In the focus of human personality and motivation are peoples unconscious
needs or urges such as sexual and other biological ones Id, Ego and
Superego
The Id characterizes an instinctive, unconscious, animalistic, and therefore
an unorganized impulse.
The Superego, the humans internal expression of moral and ethical
behavioral codes.
the Ego is a part of personality that is developed after the Id, due to a
persons need to have a direct contact and relations with the external
world in order to exist personality is said to represent a result of the
interaction between the Id and the Superego as the unconscious impulses,
and the Ego as an individuals conscious control
Behavioral theory of personality

Behavioral theory of personality was founded by John B. Watson, and

developed by B.F. Skinner

The human behavior can entirely be explained by the environment in

which one is and the effects it has on a person.
The processes and influences of the environment are manifested as
causes and a persons behavior as a consequence
The basic principle of the human behavior is the principle of legality, and
that determinism is one of its underlying principles.
The human being is not an autonomous creature but the result of learning
and environmental influence
The strength lies in a continuous marketing activity that creates a causeeffect ambient in which individuals function
Neo-Freudian theory of personality

Personality is not primarily instinctive or sexual and that, instead of these

variables, it is the social relations that are the foundation for the creation
and development of personality.
Horney's socio-psychological theory

Classifies people into three types of personality. The first consists of the
so-called submissive or accommodating, the persons who are turned
towards the others and, accordingly, expect love and devotion from them.
In the second group are the aggressive, people characterized by their wish
for success and an admiration of others. The third group is the
independent, people who are distinguished by the independence and selfconfidence as typical features of their personality.
Resisman's social theory

Three categories.
The first are the tradition-oriented, whose behavior is based on the
traditional values of the society they live in
The self-oriented are in the second category. They depend on
personal values and standards
The third category consists of the so-called other-oriented. They rely
on the values of those they are connected with in the group and
who,
Personality trait theory

The theory of the character, traits or features is based on the

premise that a consumers personality consists of a certain number of
traits or features such as sociability, relaxation, inner control some traits
are common to a large number of people, and that common traits are
generally stable

The most significant personality traits regarding their

influence on consumer behavior
All personality traits relevant for consumer behavior belong to one of four
groups: traits related to personality innovativeness, cognitive personality
factors, ethnocentrism, and consumption & possession.
Consumer innovativeness

The traits related to innovativeness of a person refer to whether a

consumer can be identified as an innovator commonly tested observing
three types of features: innovativeness, dogmatism, and the social
character of a consumers personality.
Consumer innovativeness

Insight into the nature and the levels of a consumers readiness for
innovation.
Consumer dogmatism

Rigidity for the unknown and the information opposed to personal beliefs
highly dogmatic persons rather commit to familiar products than
experiment with new ones.
Lowly dogmatic individuals are significantly more liberal regarding new
products; they accept them more readily
The social character of personality

Personalities who are self-directed and Other-directed

Cognitive personality factors

Special attention should be paid to the need for cognition here,

regarding which it is possible to identify two types of personality. The first
are the persons with a high level of cognition.
There are personalities with a low level of cognition visual and verbal type
Consumers' ethnocentrism

The consumers ethnocentrism implies their reaction to foreign products.

The most famous scale for measuring ethnocentrism is CETSCALE
Consumerism and possession

Consumer materialism, fixed consumer behavior, and compulsive

consumer behavior
Consumer materialism: those who find possession important for their
personal identity and life, and those who find possession irrelevant.
Fixed consumer behavior: the consumer does not try to hide his interest in
a product and in buying something

A pronounced interest in a particular product or a group of them, and

readiness to travel a long distance to get such a product.
COLLECTORS

Compulsive consumer behavior: characterized by addiction, loss of control,

and the possibility of a negative influence on the environment.

The self-image
Personality traits or features are something that exists independently from
a persons will implies a mode in which a person perceives himself
It is quite natural for consumers to buy what pleases their self-image and
avoid what does not fi t in it
Single-dimension concept of the self-image: based on the thesis that
consumers have only one self-image, the self-perception that is constant
and therefore their relation towards products and services is constant
Multi-dimensional concept of the self-image: human beings behave
differently in various situations
Self-image is formed by individuals based on their personal opinion of what
is socially acceptable and what is not.
Social comparison, the formation of self-image based on how the self is
perceived compared with the others.
A theory of incorrect scanning: they perceive themselves as what they
want to be rather than what they actually are.
Different types of self-image:

The first one is the real self-image, a persons real self, i.e. the
way consumers actually perceive themselves
Ideal self-image, consumers ideal self, which describes what kind
of person they would like to be, where they would like to perceive
themselves.
A social self-image, a persons social self. It refers to what people
think about how others perceive them.
The ideal social self-image, the ideal social self. It refers to how
consumers as individuals would like to be seen by others

Self-image can be changed by modifications in consumption

We could also make changes in an eff ort to prevent losing the existing
self
Our ambition could be to expand the self by making adequate changes
and modifications

Brand personality
Attributing of features and characteristics of a personality to different
brands in a broad range of products

functional brand personality

symbolic
associative

Brand personality on its own does not mean a lot. Its importance for
consumer behavior stems from the so-called brand personification - the
ability to convert the perception of a product or service so that it assumes
human-like characteristics gender is frequently given to products. Another
common way of identifying with a brand is through colors

Application of personality traits or features in marketing

Two areas of the application of personality traits or features in marketing
deserve specific attention: predicting consumer behavior and market
segmentation.
Prediction usually refers to one of the two areas. The first may be
identified as sensitivity to
Social influences. The second area of prediction refers to the choice of a
product and a brand:
Market segmentation: Several key determinants regarding personality
traits are relevant here.
Firstly, individuals characterized by the same or similar personality traits
usually originate from the same demographic strata of age, level of
income and education
To single out specific personality traits, the instruments with specific
values and reliability level must be used
If the differences in personality traits exist, they will be proportionally
manifested through the differences in the consumers behavior and
preferences.
In order to economically justify an investment into the adaptation of the
marketing mix to a target segment, not any segment with the same or
similar personality traits is sufficient

LEARNING AS A FACTOR OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Definition of learning
Learning is a continuous change originating from practice
The learning process is different from other similar processes by a few
variables
It can be separated from the similar processes by changes in the
probability for repeated occurrence

As the time of its duration increases, the learning process decreases the
time of a correct reaction
The longer the learning process, the greater is the width and strength of a
reaction to certain stimulation
What is learnt well is much more difficult to forget than the superficial or
bad knowledge of something
It implies a process in which individuals acquire the knowledge and
experience related to purchase and consumption, which they then apply in
similar future behaviours2
The first part of learning is intentional, a result of a careful information
search
Unintentional; a part of learning that is obtained without a plan,
accidentally

Elements of the learning process

Schiff man-Kanuk theory: four elements of the consumer behavior-related
learning process: motivation, cues, response, and reinforcement
Motivation creates a need for learning and stimulates the learning
process
Several important motivation defining factors can be identified.
The first one is the meaning, i.e. the values that the consumers give to the
information they learn
The second motivating factor is reinforcement, i.e. all that intensifies the
probability of the same reaction in the future
Positive and negative
The third motivating factor is repetition which intensifies the strength and
speed of learning.
Motivation is closely determined by imagination, i.e. the probability that, in
the consumers mind, a brand or a slogan will initiate the images that the
provider expects. To reinforce imagination, pictures can be used,
emotionally charged slogans, a good selection of music etc.
Clues are the second element of the learning process.
Stimuli which direct the motives to learn

Response is the third element of the learning process. It implies the way
individuals react to an urge or a clue
Reinforcement is the last element of learning. It implies every increase of
the probability that a response will happen in the future as a reaction to
clues or stimuli
Another element relevant for consumer behavior and closely related to the
learning process is forgetfulness, i.e. the loss or disappearance of the
facts acquired during the learning process
Inattention or insufficient attention occurs when your attention is split
between reading a newspaper and listening to the radio
Forgetfulness may also emerge as a consequence of various types of
mental blockages in an individual
Biological age
Excessiveness of stored information
Consumers forget the information they find irrelevant faster
Consumers recognize products through slogans and selling appeals rather
than through mere information

Forms of social learning

Three basic types of learning can be identified: conditional learning
(classical, instrumental, and observational or vicarious conditioning),
model learning (learning by identification, imitation and role playing), and
learning by insight or cognition6
Behavioral learning theories

Founded by J.B. Watson

Behaviorism is an approach that supplies its discoveries from the close
observation of how people, especially children, behave in various
circumstances, and based on these findings explains mental processes
Focuses only on objective behavior that can be measured objectively
Conditional and model learning
Conditional learning

Conditional learning is based on a Stimulus-Response principle

A conditional stimulus always causes the same, so-called conditional
response
Two conditional learning modes relevant in marketing: classical and
instrumental conditioning or reinforcement.

Classical conditioning is based on a thesis that an organism is a passive

entity and that it can be taught certain behavior by multiple repetitive
actions that produce such behavior.
Pavlovs theory of conditioning which claims whenever a stimulus causes
a familiar reaction it is an example of conditional learning.
Repetition is a precondition of automation of a response to a specific
stimulus,
Another term associated with the classical conditioning is generalization
of stimuli. The starting point is that learning does not only depend on
repetition but also on the persons ability to generalize. An equal response
to somehow different stimuli
Consolidation of the entire family of products under the same brand.
Licensing: allowing a brand to be used with other manufacturers products
Discrimination of stimuli is the third term related to the classical
Conditioning. Discrimination enables learning differences among similar
stimuli
Ability to position a product. The capability to tell the difference between
the product he likes and other similar products
Differentiation of products.
Instrumental conditioning is another principle or a form of conditional
Learning
There is a possibility of choosing a response from among several
alternatives, assuming that only one is rewarded.
Some types of purchase behavior result in rewards, others do not
The behavior rewarded most will be repeated
The difference between positive and negative reinforcement is often
emphasized. Firstly, positive reinforcement increases the possibility for
some reaction to take place.
Model learning

Learning based on the experience of others

learning by identification: it is the role of emotional and motivational
factors, as well as the emotionally established relation with the model, it is
the adoption of global forms of behavior as our own permanent ways of
response, it is the adoption of complex forms of behavior rather than

specific responses, and it is relevant that the adopted forms are

permanent and that they manifest through a long period of time.
Types of identification:

defensive identification
o manifested as the identification with the aggressor, and occurs
as a result of fear that the role-model will display aggression
o a consequence of imaging oneself in the role which enables
satisfaction of desires
Developmental or analytic identification
o Based on love and respect for the role-model, and it denotes
the need to adopt the role models behavior.

Learning by imitation: learning social behavior

This logic cannot explain the acquisition of new forms of behavior
A form of behavior that is accidental at first will be adopted as permanent
if it is reinforced repeatedly.
The third type of model learning is learning by role-playing
Role implies the expected behavior related to a certain status
Learning by role-playing can be defined as learning by imitating someone
who has the position we have achieved or we want to achieve
Role-playing does not imply learning individual responses but only the
organized system of behavior.
Roles always have an interactive character
Vicarious or observational learning

Learning by observation
New forms of behavior are acquired, or the unwanted ones are modified,
based on the observation of others, without trying to practice or learn
such behavior, without a direct reward or punishment, by a direct imitation
of a role-models behavior
Perceived similarity and perceived competence are factors
Stages of observational learning
1. attention
2. retention
3. reproduction

4. motivation
Cognitive learning theories

Learning based on mental activities

Learning implies knowledge about relations among specific stimuli.
Learning activates complex mental information processing.
Information processing implies a consumers processing of the information
about a product, taking into consideration its features, the brand,
comparison with other brands, etc.
Assumptions:
The larger the cognitive abilities the greater the ability to gather
more information about a product, and the greater the skill of
integrating the information about several product features.
the greater the experience with the category of the product, the
greater the ability to use the product information efficiently
Information is stored in one of the three, separated storages: sensory,
short-term or long-term.
The stored information is continuously reorganized, updated and profiled
as new insights arrive.
A consumer is prone to memorizing the advantages of a product rather
than its features

ATTITUDES
Definition of attitudes
An attitude always refers to something, to an object. Regarding consumer behavior, this object can
be a product, type of product, brand, price, shop, etc.
Attitudes are not genetic but a result of learning. Regarding consumer behavior they are the result of:

experience with a product,

exposure to the influence of mass media,
information acquired from others,
family members,
Friends, acquaintances, etc.

Consistency as one of the important characteristics of attitudes. Attitudes generally portray the
behavior they reflect. This means that the coherence of attitudes is not inevitable. More precisely,
different intervening variables can produce behavior that is not a reflection of ones own attitudes.

Complexity of attitudes
Most relevant characteristics: their dispositional character, the fact that they are not genetic but
acquired, and that they influence behavior and its consistency, and their complexity
Cognition, affect and conation
Cognitive component implies that there is certain knowledge and assumptions about the attitude
objects
A consumer is convinced that the attitude object has certain characteristics matching this attitude
Affective component refers to the fact that attitudes always include emotions toward the attitude
object.
Connotative component implies a tendency to do something about the attitude object, to take certain
action
Complexity refers to the assumption that attitudes are not homogenous
Different types of attitudes: personal and social ones. Logic and prejudices
Personal attitudes refer to peoples attitudes toward something:
Social attitudes are common to many people and in accordance with these attitudes such people can be
compared
Attitudes that are logically unsubstantial, difficult to change and as a rule accompanied with strong
emotions

Influence of attitudes on consumer behavior

To what extent can an attitude be used to predict consumer behavior?
The answer primarily depends on the social adequacy of the attitude. This means that some types of
behavior are less the result of a personal judgement of individuals that could result in the contempt of
the group, and more the result of their desire to fi t in by a socially adequate and rewarding behavior.
The extent to which an attitude can be used to predict consumer behavior also depends on how strong
the attitude is with respect to the product
The rigor of an attitude is more relevant for permanent and more valuable products than for mass
consumption products.
Situations in which the influence of attitudes on consumer behavior is certain.
Directly related to the trust in ones own attitudes. The greater the trust, the greater the influence of
attitudes on consumer behavior
The level of the trust depends, among other factors, on the level of available information. The trust in
attitudes also depends on the trust in available information
The more general an attitude is and the more ambiguous and abstract the attitude object is, the lesser is
the influence of the attitude on consumer behavior

An attitude itself does not always have to produce behavior. However, such behavior can be caused by
behavioral factors that stimulate or discourage certain behavior
Consumer behavior can be related to the influence of group attitudes
Certain types of personality are, simply, more appropriate for the influence of various intervening
variables on their behavior.
The principle that an attitude is a precondition of certain behavior is valid as a rule
Attitudes precede behavior and behavior follows attitude formation
Two theoretical approaches:
1. Cognitive dissonance theory and
2. Attribution theory
Cognitive dissonance theory
Cognitive dissonance theory is based on the thesis that dissonance always occurs when a consumer has
contradicting thoughts about the object of an attitude or conviction.
It is possible to talk about two cognitive dissonances: the cognitive dissonance before the purchase and
post-purchase dissonance.
Cognitive dissonance before the purchase is possible to be expected after the consumer has decided on
a product
Post-purchase dissonance, occurs after a purchase
Attitude change forces the consumer to change behavior during the next purchase and its adjustment
to the change
Post-purchase dissonance with consumers does not suit the businesses. Therefore they take certain
actions in order to disable or minimize it.
A large number of companies decide to develop a consumer loyalty program. Philosophy of rewarding
valuable consumers
Post-purchase dissonance however does not suit the consumers either
Attribution theory
The attribution theory focuses on an individuals continuous eff orts to discover and interpret the
causes of the events he witnesses.
Why has she tried to make me change the brand?
This theory claims that people, while discovering what the causes of someones behavior are, are
trying to establish whether this behavior was induced by some extreme causes from the individuals
environment, or by some internal ones such as motives, attitudes or capabilities
People are often prone to being biased and making mistakes in their perception of the causes of ones
behavior or predication and representation of certain social and political attitudes.

Theory of self-perception attitudes develop when consumers observe and evaluate their own
behavior
One of the attribution forms is also attribution toward others. It is always present when an individual
asks the why question in relation to a statement or action of another person
Attribution can be manifested in the form of attribution toward Objects

Attitude formation
Generally we could say that attitudes are the result of socialization
Four most important mechanisms were identified in 1935 by Allport7:

Integration mechanism, which results in attitude formation based on a gradual integration of

individual experiences during a lifetime on a rational basis.
Imitation mechanism, through which attitudes are assumed based on social heritage, through
primary groups and other agents of socialization
Trauma mechanism, which results in the formation of a permanent attitude due to a certain
shock, dramatic events from childhood, fears, prejudices etc.
Differentiation mechanism, which assumes that based on the formed attitudes, new ones are
formed regarding the objects that the individual has not had enough experience with

Factors that influence attitude formation

General or universal factors are those that influence the social scene in general
Social factors include the characteristic norms and values, attitudes and beliefs of the communities and
groups that individuals belong to and identify with.
Personal factors are sometimes marked as specific conditions and mechanisms of attitude formation
The specific conditions an individual is in, the awareness and knowledge that he has about the object,
and the direct needs and motives that stimulate him at a given time
Their influence is first of all manifested by their effect on the selection and filtration of the
information that reaches the group members.
Emphasis on the values that the group advocates, as well as the credibility of the communication and
communicators of attitudes and beliefs
This influence is manifested through the social support that the group provides for maintaining the
attitudes that comply with the group beliefs.

Sources

One of them is the personal experience of trying and evaluating products.

influence of family, friends and respected individuals
direct marketing
The influence of an individuals personality on attitude formation is also indisputable
Influence of mass media. the media are an important source of
information that influences attitude formation

Attitude change
In the life cycle of existing attitudes, two routes are possible, at a theoretical level: their petrifaction
and their change
Petrifaction of attitudes implies their solidification, fossilization, resistance to all eff orts to modify or
change them
Attitudes acquired a long time ago, and strong attitudes. They both have solid foundations and are
resistant to any, even the smallest changes.
The change of acquired attitudes. At least two types of situations lead to it: attitudes being acquired
relatively recently, or not being deeply ingrained.
Whether a change occurs or not depends on the attributes that an attitude has. Four of them are worth
emphasizing:

Attitude direction, which can be positive or negative.

Attitude intensity or firmness: whether an attitude is strong or weak, deep or shallow, resolute
or irresolute, etc.
Attitude universality: whether it is an attitude shared with a large number of people or one
specific to an individual.
Attitude progressivity: whether it is progressive or reactionary

Marketing attention is therefore on the attitudes that are subject to modification and change. By
influencing them they try to cause changes that would benefit the company, by causing the consumers
identification with a certain product or service but also with the product providers themselves.
It can happen in various forms:

an attitude can change the direction entirely

the direction of an attitude has not been changed, but the intensity of its manifestation has

Different approaches can be used to achieve this strategic goal.

Changing the basic motivational function of consumers

Relating a product with the target group, event or cause.
conflict resolution
Changing the conviction about competitors brands or product categories

The influence of mass media on the attitude formation and

change
There are two basic types of media: classical, such as the print, radio and television, and new media
such as teletext, videotext, hypertext, multimedia and the Internet whose influence is becoming more
profound.
The influence in the conditions of a high level of involvement is present if the mass media influence is
realized in situations when the consumers are interested in buying a certain product or brand
What sort of impact the increased consumers interest for the information is going to make depends on
a number of reasons. Two groups of these reasons are impossible to ignore in any serious analysis:
trust in the communication source and trust in the message content.

Trust in the communication source as an assumption that influences what source of effect the
increased interest of consumers for the information is going to have,
It is created gradually and under the influence of various factors. Three of these factors deserve
attention: the credibility of the source, the expertise of the message sender, and the social status of the
message sender.
The second assumption on which it largely depends what the impact of the increased interest of
consumers for the information is going to be, is related to the message content

it is relevant what the quality of the arguments used in the message is

The nature of argumentation also influences the content of a message:
o Whether it is a one-way or two-way argumentation.

The second example of the influence of mass media is a low level of consumer involvement - it is
about various situations in which the consumer is not interested in buying a certain product or a brand
The influence via the source and the influence via the message
The influence of mass media on attitude formation and change via the source focuses on the fact that
the perceived attractiveness of the communication source influences the attitude
Influence via the message. This is about certain appeals that are contained within messages influencing
their successful acceptance
Three types of appeals are worth emphasizing: emotional, fear and humor Appeals
Emotional appeals are appeals to joy, hope, excitement, fear, anger, shame etc., which we use when we
want to change or intensify a certain attitude of an individual or, even more commonly, of a group of
consumers
The second group of appeals is appeals to fear. Their goal is to present a situation that the consumer is
going to get into unless he acts as the message appeal is asking him to.
Humor appeals are relatively common as a method of the mass media influence on the attitude
formation and change