CCENT Notes Part-3
CCENT Notes Part-3
Part 3 IP Routing
It is highly recommended that you read at least once the above study guide to make full
use of this notes, it is expected that there may be minor errors in this notes, please
always refer the study guide for accurate information.
2
Chapter 12 IP Addressing and Subnetting
List of all possible valid network numbers.reference table for the number of network,
size of the network part, size of the host part, for Class A,B and C ip networks.
Class A Class B Class C
First Octect range 1 to 126 128 - 191 192 223
Valid Network Numbers 1.0.0.0 to 128.0.0.0 192.0.0.0 to
126.0.0.0 191.255.0.0 223.255.255.0
Number of networks in this Class 2^72 2 ^ 14 = 2 ^ 21=
= 128 16,384 2,097,152
Number of hosts per network 2 ^ 24 2 = 2 ^ 16 2 = 2^82=
16,777,214 65,534 254
Size of network part of the address 1 2 3
(bytes)
Size of hosts part of the address 3 2 1
(bytes)
^ raised to
CLASS A (7 Network Bits)
0 N N N N N N N H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Class A , B and C network, network and host parts and default mask
Class of Size of network part of Size of host part of Default mask for
Address address in bits address in bits each class of
network
A 8 24 255.0.0.0.
B 16 16 255.255.0.0
C 24 8 255.255.255.0
3
RFC 1918 Private IP Address Space
Private IP Networks Class of Networks Number of Networks
10.0.0.0 through 10.0.0.0 A 1
172.16.0.0 through 172.31.0.0 B 16
192.168.0.0 through 192.168.255.0 C 255
IPv4 vs IPv6
Feature IPv4 IPv6
Size of address 32 bits , 4 octects 128 bits , 16 octects
Example address 10.1.1.1 0000:0000:0000:0000:FFFF:FFFF:0A01:0101
Same address ---- ::FFFF:FFFF:0A01:0101
abrreviated
Number of possible 2 ^ 32 2 ^ 128 , or roughly 3.4 x 10 ^ 38
addresses, ignoring Approx 4 billion
reseved addresses
Step 1. write down x binary 1s, where x is the value listed in the prefix notation of the
mask
4
Step 2. Write down binary 0s after binary 1s until you have written down all the 32 bits
Step 3. Convert this binary number, 8 bit at a time to dotted decimal format.
Eg. 255.255.240.0
Start from 0
First octect 255 add 8
Second octect 255 add 8
Third octect 240 add 4
Fourth octect 0 add 0
Prefix is 20
Step 1. Divide x by 8 ( x / 8) , noting the number of times 8 goes fully into x , the
dividend represented as d, and the number left over, the reminder represented as r.
5
Step 3. for the next octet, find the decimal number that begins with r, binary 1s,
Followed by all binary 0s.
20 / 8 = 2 and a reminder of 4
2 octects with all binary 1s , third octed with 1 birary 1 and 4 binary 0 , and last one with
all binary 0s.
255.255.240.0
/30 - 255.255.255.252
/25 - 255.255.255.128
/11 - 255.224.0.0
/22 - 255.255.252.0
/24 - 255.255.255.0
6
ANALYSING AND CHOOSING SUBNET MASKS
How to find the size of the Network , Subnet and Host part of an IP Address
The network part of the address is always defined by the class rule
The host part of the address is defined by the subnet mask, the number of binary zeros
in the subnet mask defines the number of host bits.
Subnet part of the address is what is left over in the 32 bit address
IP Address : 8.1.4.5
Mask : 255.255.0.0
Class : A
Network Bits : 8
Host bits : 16
Subnet bits : 32 24 = 8
IP Address : 130.4.102.1
Mask : 255.255.255.0
Class : B
Network Bits : 16
Host bits : 8
Subnet bits : 32 24 = 8
IP Address : 199.1.1.100
Mask : 255.255.255.0
Class : C
Network Bits : 24
Host bits : 8
Subnet bits : 32 32 = 0
Facts about how the subnet mask identifies part of the structure of an IP address
A subnet masks binary 1s define the combined network and subnet part of an IP
address
The masks binary 0s define the hosts part of the IP address
Class rules define the size of the network part
7
Finding the Network, Subnet and Host part using binary..
Step 1. Compare the first octet of the address to the table of Class A,B or C addresses,
write down the number of network bits depending on the address class.
Step 3. Calculate the number of subnet bits by subtracting the combined network and
hosts bits from 32.
Decimal Process : Finding the Network, Subnet and Hosts bits in a subnet mask
Step 1. Compare the first octet of the address to the table of Class A,B or C addresses;
write down the number of network bits based on the address class.
Step 2. If the mask is in dotted decimal format, convert the mask to prefix format
Step 3. To find the number of host bits, subtract the prefix length from 32
Step 4. Calculate the number of subnet bits by subtracting the combined network and
hosts bits from 32
Given a class full network number and a single subnet mask is used throughout the
classfull network.
8
Analysing the subnet mask
8.1.4.5 /16
Hosts bits : 32 16 = 16
Class A network bits : 8
Subnet bits : 32 24 = 8
Number of subnets = 2 ^ 8 = 256
Number of host = 2 ^ 16 2 = 65,534
130.4.102.1/24
Hosts bits : 32 24 = 8
Class B network bits : 16
Subnet bits : 32 24 = 8
Number of subnets = 2 ^ 8 = 256
Number of host = 2 ^ 8 2 = 254
199.1.1.100/24
Hosts bits : 32 24 = 8
Class C network bits : 24
Subnet bits : 32 32 = 0
Number of subnets = 2 ^ 0 = 1
Number of host = 2 ^ 8 2 = 254
130.4.102.1/22
Hosts bits : 32 22 = 10
Class B network bits : 16
Subnet bits : 32 26 = 6
Number of subnets = 2 ^ 6 = 64
Number of host = 2 ^ 8 2 = 1022
9
199.1.1.100/27
Hosts bits : 32 27 = 5
Class C network bits : 24
Subnet bits : 32 29 = 3
Number of subnets = 2 ^ 3 = 8
Number of host = 2 ^ 5 2 = 30
With a Class B network 130.1.0.0 , what is the only subnet mask you can use to have
upto 200 subnets and 200 hosts per subnets???
Only possible subnet so is(16 bits for network part as it is a Class B network).
10
Finding the multiple possible MASKs
With a Class B network, what are the subnet masks you can use to have upto 50 subnets
and 200 hosts in the largest subnet???
Possible subnet format is (16 bits for network part as it is a Class B network).
That mean you may get 2 ^ 2 = 4 possible combination of subnet masks, however
All masks must start with one unbroken consecutive string of binary 1s, followed by one
unbroken consecutive string of binary 0s.
So the possible mask are listed below but only three are valid.
The mask with the most subnet bits : the mask with the wildcard bits set to binary 1s,
there by increasing the subnet bits, maximizes the number of subnets and minimizes the
number of hosts per subnet.
The mask with most host bits : the mask with the wildcard bits set to binrary 0s, thereby
making the host part of the subnet address larger, maximizes the number of hosts per
subnet and minimizes the number of subnets.
11
Choosing a subnet mask steps ..
Step 1. Find the number of network bits (N) based on the Class A,B or C rules
Step 2 : Find the number of subnet bits (S) based on the formula 2 ^ s , such that 2 ^ s >
or = the number of required subnets.
Step 3. Find the number of host bits (H) based on the formula 2 ^ h 2, such that 2 ^ h
2 is >= the number of required hosts.
Step 4. Write down starting from the left N+S binary 1s
Step 5. Write down starting from right H binary 0s
Step 6. If the binary 1s and 0s together adds up to less than 32
a. fill in the remaining wildcard bit positions with X between binary 1s and 0s.
b. find all combination of bits for the wildcard bit positions, meeting the requirement of
having one unbroken consecutive string of binary 1s on left.
Step 7. convert the mask to decimal or prefix format
Step 8. To find the mask that maximizes the number of subnets pick the mask with most
binary 1s init, and to find the mask that maximizes the number of hosts pick the mask
with most binary 0s.
10.55.44.3
128.77.6.7
192.168.76.54
12
190.190.190.190
9.1.1.1
200.1.1.1
10.66.5.99 255.255.254.0
Steps
Mask in prefix format /23
Class : A
Results
Network bits 8
Subnet bits 32 (8+9) = 15
Host bits 9
Number of subnets in the network 2 ^ 15 = 32,768
Number of hosts per subnet 2 ^ 9 2 = 510
13
172.16.203.42 255.255.252.0
Steps
Mask in prefix format /22
Class : B
Results
Network bits 16
Subnet bits 32 (16+10) = 6
Host bits 10
Number of subnets in the network 2 ^ 6 = 64
Number of hosts per subnet 2 ^ 10 2 = 1022
192.168.55.55 255.255.255.224
Steps
Mask in prefix format /27
Class : C
Results
Network bits 24
Subnet bits 32 (24+5) = 3
Host bits 5
Number of subnets in the network 2 ^ 3 = 8
Number of hosts per subnet 2 ^ 5 2 = 30
10.22.55.87 /30
Steps
Class : A
Results
Network bits 8
Subnet bits 32 (8+2) = 22
Host bits 2
Number of subnets in the network 2 ^ 22 = 4,194,304
Number of hosts per subnet 2 ^ 2 2 = 2
172.30.40.166 /26
14
Steps
Class : B
Results
Network bits 16
Subnet bits 32 (16+6) = 10
Host bits 6
Number of subnets in the network 2 ^ 10 = 1024
Number of hosts per subnet 2 ^ 6 2 = 62
192.168.203.18 /29
Steps
Class : C
Results
Network bits 24
Subnet bits 32 (24+3) = 5
Host bits 3
Number of subnets in the network 2 ^ 5 = 32
Number of hosts per subnet 2 ^ 3 2 = 6
Class : A
Network bits : 8
Min. Subnet bits 6
Min. Host bits 8
15
10.0.0.0 /19
10.0.0.0 /20
10.0.0.0 /21
10.0.0.0 /22
10.0.0.0 /23
10.0.0.0 /24 (Maximum number of subnets)
Class : B
Network bits : 16
Min. Subnet bits : 7
Min. Host bits : 7
Class : C
Network bits 24
Min. subnet bits : 4
Min. host bits : 3
Class : A
Network bits : 8
Min. subnet bits : 9
Min. host bits : 9
16
10.0.0.0 /18 255.255.192.0
10.0.0.0 /19 255.255.224.0
10.0.0.0 /20 255.255.240.0
10.0.0.0 /21 255.255.248.0
10.0.0.0 /22 255.255.252.0
10.0.0.0 /23 255.255.254.0 Maximum subnets
Class : B
Network bits : 16
Min. subnets bits : 9
Min. host bits : 5
Class : B
Network hosts : 16
Min. subnet bits : 11
Min. host bits : 2
17
Address 8.1.4.5 00001000 00000001 00000100 00000101
Mask 255.255.0.0 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000
Subnet Number 8.1.0.0 00001000 00000001 00000000 00000000
Record decimal mask in the first row of the table, and decimal IP address below it
For any mask octect of value 255, copy the IP addresss octet value for the same octet
of the decimal subnet number
Similarly for any mask octet value of 0, write down decimal 0 for the same octet of
the subnet number
If the subnet number has still has one remaining octet to be filled in, then
o Convert the remaining octet of the ip address to binary
o Convert the remaining octet of the mask to binary
o AND the two 8-bit numbers together
o Covert the 8 bit number to decimal, and place the value in the remaining octet
of the subnet number
Address 199.1.1.100
Mask 255.255.255.0
Sub. Number 199.1.1.0
18
Calculating the Broadcast address Binary
Address 8.1.4.5
Mask 255.255.0.0 nnnnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhhh hhhhhhh
Subnet
Address 8.1.0.0 00001000 00000001 00000000 00000000
Broadcast
Address 8.1.255.255 00001000 00000001 11111111 11111111
Address 130.4.102.1
Mask 255.255.255.0
Subnet
Address 130.4.102.0
Broadcast
Address 130.4.102.255
Address 199.1.1.100
Mask 255.255.255.0
Subnet
Address 199.1.1.0
Broadcast
Address 199.1.1.255
Step 1. Write down the subnet number (IP address), and subnet mask in binary form,
Step 2. Separate the network/subnet and host bits by a vertical line
Step 3. To find the subnet broadcast address in binary
19
o Copy the bits of the subnet number (IP address) that are to the left of the
vertical line
o Write down binary 1s for the (HOST) bits to the right of the vertical line
Step 4. Convert the 32 bit binary subnet broadcast address to decimal, 8 bits at a time,
ignoring the vertical line
Step 1. To find the first IP address, Copy the subnet number but add 1 to the fourth octet
Step 2. To find the last IP address, Copy the subnet broadcast address but substract1 from
the fourth octet
Address 8.1.4.5
Mask 255.255.0.0 nnnnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhhh hhhhhhh
Subnet
Address 8.1.0.0 00001000 00000001 00000000 00000000
Broadcast
Address 8.1.255.255 00001000 00000001 11111111 11111111
First
Address 8.1.0.1
Last
Address 8.1.255.254
Address 130.4.102.1
Mask 255.255.255.0
Subnet
Address 130.4.102.0
Broadcast
Address 130.4.102.255
First
Address 130.4.102.1
Last
Address 130.4.102.254
Address 199.1.1.100
Mask 255.255.255.0
Subnet
Address 199.1.1.0
Broadcast
20
Address 199.1.1.255
First
Address 199.1.1.1
Last
Address 199.1.1.254
Finding subnet address, broadcast address and range of address using Decimal
Difficult Mask
Subnet Chart 130.4.102.1 / 255.255.252.0
Octet 1 2 3 4 Comments
Mask 255 255 252 0
Address 130. 4 102 1
Subnet Address 130 4 100 0 Magic number = 256 252 = 4
100 is the multiple of 4 closes to
but not higher than 102
First Address 130 4 100 1 Add 1 to the subnets last octet
Last Address 130 4 103 25 Subtract 1 from broadcast
4 addresss fourth octet
Broadcast Address 130 4 103 25 Subnets interesting octet +
5 magic number 1 (100+4 1)
21
Summary of decimal process to find the subnet, broadcast and range
Step 1. Write down the subnet mask in the first empty row of the subnet chart, and the IP
address in the second empty row.
Step 2. Find the octet for which subnet masks value is not 255 or 0. This octet is called
the interesting octet. Draw a dark rectangle around the interesting octets column of the
table, top to bottom.
Step 3. Record the subnet numbers value for the uninteresting octets as follows
a. for each octet to the left of the rectangle, drawn in step 2, copy the IP address value in
the same octet.
b. for each octet to the right of the rectangle: write down decimal 0
Step 4. To find the subnet numbers value for this interesting octet
a. calculate the magic number by subtracting the subnet masks interesting octet value
from 256
c. write down the interesting octet value, calculated as follows, Find the multiple of
magic number that is closest to, but not higher than the IP Addresss interesting octet
value.
a. for each subnet mask octet to the left of the rectangle, copy the IP address octet value
b. for each subnet mask octet to the right of the rectangle, write down 255
c. find the value for the interesting octet by adding the subnet numbers value in the
interesting octet to the magic number and subtract 1.
Step 6. To find the first IP address, copy the decimal subnet number, but add 1 to the
fourth octet.
Step 7. To find the last IP address, copy the decimal subnet broadcast address, but
subtract 1 from the fourth octet.
22
Problem 1
10.180.10.18 255.192.0.0
255.192.0.0
10.180.10.18
(256 192 ) = 64
64 x 3 = 192
64 x 2 = 128
Problem 2
10.200.10.18 255.224.0.0
255.224.0.0
10.200.10.18
(256 224 ) = 32
32 x 6 = 192
23
Problem 3
10.100.18.18 255.240.0.0
255.240.0.0
10.100.18.18
(256 240 ) = 16
16 x 6 = 96
Problem 4
10.100.18.18 255.248.0.0
255.248.0.0
10.100.18.18
(256 248 ) = 8
8 * 12 = 96
24
Problem 5
10.150.200.200 255.252.0.0
255.252.0.0
10.150.200.200
(256 252 ) = 4
37 * 4 = 148
Problem 6
10.150.200.200 255.254.0.0
255.254.0.0
10.150.200.200
(256 254 ) = 2
75 * 2 = 150
25
Problem 7
10.220.100.18 255.255.0.0
255.255.0.0
10.220.100.18
(256 255 ) = 1
220 * 1 = 220
Problem 8
10.220.100.18 255.255.128.0
255.255.128.0
10.220.100.18
(256 128 ) = 128
0 * 128 = 0
26
Problem 9
172.31.100.100 255.255.192.0
255.255.192.0
172.31.100.100
(256 192 ) = 64
1 * 64 = 64
Problem 10
172.31.100.100 255.255.224.0
255.255.224.0
172.31.100.100
(256 224 ) = 32
3 * 32 = 96
27
Problem 11
172.31.200.10 255.255.240.0
255.255.240.0
172.31.200.10
(256 240 ) = 16
12 * 16 = 192
Problem 12
172.31.200.10 255.255.248.0
255.255.248.0
172.31.200.10
(256 248 ) = 8
25 * 8 = 200
28
Problem 13
172.31.50.50 255.255.252.0
255.255.252.0
172.31.50.50
(256 252 ) = 4
12 * 4 = 48
Problem 14
172.31.50.50 255.255.254.0
255.255.254.0
172.31.50.50
(256 254 ) = 2
25 * 2 = 50
29
Problem 15
172.31.140.14 255.255.255.0
255.255.255.0
172.31.140.14
Problem 16
172.31.140.14 255.255.255.128
255.255.255.128
172.31.140.14
256 128 = 128
0 * 128 = 0
30
Problem 17
192.168.15.150 255.255.255.192
255.255.255.192
192.168.15.150
256 192 = 64
2 * 64 = 128
Problem 18
192.168.15.150 255.255.255.224
255.255.255.224
192.168.15.150
256 224 = 32
4 * 32 = 128
31
Problem 19
192.168.100.100 255.255.255.240
255.255.255.240
192.168.100.100
256 240 = 16
6 * 16 = 96
Problem 20
192.168.100.100 255.255.255.248
255.255.255.248
192.168.100.100
256 248 = 8
12 * 8 = 96
32
Subnet address and Broadcast address are the subnet and broadcast address for the
subnet the given IP addresss 192.168.100.100 belongs to. (see the binary version in
appendix d for more details)
Problem 21
192.168.15.230 255.255.255.252
255.255.255.248
192.168.100.100
256 248 = 8
12 * 8 = 96
Problem 22
10.1.1.1 255.248.0.0
255.248.0.0
10.1.1.1
256 248 = 8
0*8=0
33
Problem 23
172.16.1.200 255.255.240.0
255.255.240.0
172.16.1.200
256 240 = 16
0 * 16 = 0
Problem 24
172.16.0.200 255.255.255.192
255.255.255.192
172.16.0.200
256 192 = 64
3 * 64 = 192
34
Problem 25
10.1.1.1 255.0.0.0
Step 1. Write down the subnet mask in decimal, in the first empty row of the table
Step 2. Identify the interesting octet, which is the octet with value other than 255 or 0,
and draw a rectangle around the column of the interesting octet.
Step 3. Calculate the magic number by subtracting the masks interesting octet from 256
Step 4. Write down the classful network number (zero subnet number)
Step 5. To find each successive subnet number
a. for the three un-interesting octets copy the previous subnet numbers value
b. for the interesting octet add the magic number to the previous subnet numbers
interesting octet value.
Step 6. Once the sum calculated in stp 5.b becomes 256, stop the process, the number
with 256 in it is out of range, and previous subnet number is the broadcast subnet
number.
35
Finding all subnets with exact 8 subnet bits
The subnet octet is the interesting octet, to find all the subnets add 1 to the interesting
octet till it reaches 256.
The process follows the same five steps as with fewer than 8 subnet bits.
Step 7. each time the process results in a sum of 256, repeat step 6 of this process
Step 8. Repeat the steps until the addition in step 6b, would actually change the value of
the network portion of the subnet number
Octect 1 2 3 4
Mask 255 255 255 192
Magic Number 64
Network number/Zero subnet 130 4 0 0
First non-zero subnet number 130 4 0 64
Next subnet 130 4 0 128
Next subnet 130 4 0 192
Next subnet (add 1 to the third octet, and 130 4 1 0
write 0 in the fourth octet)
Next subnet 130 4 1 64
Next subnet 130 4 1 128
Next subnet 130 4 1 192
Definitions.
Bitwise Boolean AND : A Boolean AND between two numbers of the same length where
the first bit in each number is ANDed and the second bit and so on
Boolean AND : A math operation performed on a pair of one digit binary numbers, the
result is another one digit binary number, binary 1 and 1 yields a result of binary 1, all
other combinations yielding binary 0.
36
Broadcast subnet : When subnetting a Class A, B or C network, the one network in each
classful network, for which all subnet bits have a value of binary 1s. The subnet
broadcast address in this subnet has the same numeric value as the classful networks
network wide broadcast address.
Classful network : An IPv4 Class A,B or C network, called classful network, because
these networks are defined by the class rules for IPv4 addressing.
Default Mask : The mask used in Class A,B or C network, that does not create any
subnets, specifically mask 255.0.0.0 for Class A, 255.255.0.0 for Class B, and
255.255.255.0 for a Class C network.
Prefix notation , CIDR notation : A shorter way to write subnet mask, in which number of
binary 1s in the mask is simply written in decimal. For instance /24 denotes the subnet
mask with 24 binary 1 bits in the subnet mask.
Private IP address : IP addresses within Class A,B and C, networks that are set aside for
use within a private organization. These addresses are defined by RFC 1918, and are not
routable through internet.
Subnet Mask : A 32 bit number that numerically represents the format of an IP address,
by representing the network and subnet part with a mask bit value of 1, and host part with
a mask bit value of binary 0s.
Subnet number/ Subnet address : In IPv4 a dotted decimal number that represents all
addresses in a single subnet. Numerically smallest value in the range of numbers in a
subnet, reserved so that it cannot be used as a uni cast IP address by a host.
Zero Subnet : For every class ful IPv4 network that is subnetted, the one subnet whose
subnet number has all binary 0s in the subnet part. In decimal zero subnet can be easily
identified, because it is the same number as the classful network number.
37
Chapter 13 Operating Cisco Routers
Physical installation
Steps required to install a router..
Step 1. Connect any LAN cables to LAN ports
Step 2. If using an external CSU/DSU connect the routers serial interface to CSU/DSU
and the CSU/DSU to the line from telco.
Step 3. If using internal CSU/DSU connect the routers serial interface to the line from
telco
Step 4. connect the routers console port to a pc using a rollover cable as needed to
configure the router
Step 5. Connect the power cable to power port on the router
Step 6. Turn on the router
The configuration commands used for the following features are the same on both routers
and switches
Differences.
38
Routers have an auxiliary port, intended to be connected to an external modem and
phone line, to allow remote users to dial into the router and access the CLI, by
making a phone call.
There is no show mac address-table dynamic command in a router, but a router has
show ip route command.
Router Interfaces
Routers generally have two types of physical interfaces : Ethernet Interfaces and Serial
Interfaces.
Ethernet Interfaces
Interface Ethernet number
Interface fastethernet number
Interface gibabitethernet number
Serial Interfaces
For PPP links and Frame relay links and uses HDLC or PPP protocols HDLC being the
default.
Interface Ethernet 0
Interface fastethernet 0/1
Interface serial 1/0/1
39
Router Interface status codes and their meaning
Name Location General Meaning
Line Status First Status Refer to the layer 1 status, eg. If the cable is
code installed, is it the right/wrong cable, is the device on
the other end powered on.
Protocol Status Second Status Refer generally to the layer 2 status, It is always
code down if the line status is down. If the line status is up
and protocol status is down, usually is caused by
mismatch in the data link layer protocol
configurations.
40
The clock rate speed sub command sets the rate in bits per second on the router that has
the DCE cable plugged into it. Show controllers serial 0/1/0 command will show if a
DCE/DTE cable is connected to a router interface. IOS accepts the clock rate command
on an interface only if it has a DCE cable attached to it, or if no cable is installed. If a
DTE cable is installed IOS silently rejects the clock rate command.
Bandwidth speed command tells the IOS the speed of the link, in kilobits, which are
mainly used by routing protocols (EIGRP, OSPF) etc in their default routing matrices.
For serial link the default bandwidth is 1544 , 1544 kbps, 1.544 Mbps, (a T1 line).
Router ethernett interface default to a bandwidth setting that reflects the current speed of
the interface. If routers fasterethernet interface is running at 100 Mbps then the
bandwidth is 100,000 Kbps.
Clock rate uses a unit of kbps, whereas bandwidth command uses a unit of Kbps
Setup mode is intended to allow basic configurations by prompting the CLI user via a
series of questions.
You can reach the setup mode, either by booting the router after erasing the startup-
config file, or by using the setup enable mode EXEC command.
At the end of the process you get three options (0,1,2), to either ignore the answers
and go back to the CLI (0), ignore the answers but begin again in setup mode (1), or
to use the resulting config (2).
Ctrl C key combination to eject the user out of the setup mode
If the user selects to use the resulting config, the router writes the configuration file to
the startup-config file as well as the running-config file.
The questions asked differ between switches and routers especially on IP configurations.
1. The router performs Power On Self Test (POST) , to discover hardware components,
and to verify that all components work properly.
41
2. The router copies the bootstrap program from ROM into RAM, and runs the bootstrap
program
3. Bootstrap program decides which IOS (or other OS) to load into the RAM, and loads
the OS. After loading the IOS the bootstrap program hand over the control of the router
hardware to the newly loaded OS.
4. If the bootstrap program loads IOS, IOS find the configuration file typically the
startup-config from the NVRAM and loads it into the RAM as running-config.
RAM
Flash
NVRAM
Running
TFTP Step 4 Config File
Console
Router can get the Cisco IOS image from three different locations, and running config
file from other three different locations.
42
The Three Router Operating Systems
Comparison of ROMMON and RxBoot Operating Systems
Operating Common Name Stored in Used in
Environment
ROM Monitor ROMMON ROM Older and new routers
Boot ROM Rx Boot, Boot helper ROM Only in older routers
Cisco routers use different OSs to perform some troubleshooting, to recover router
passwords, and to copy new IOS into the flash when the flash has been erased or
corrupted.
The configuration register is a special 16 bit number, that can be set on any cisco router.
Eg. The console speed, what IOS iamge to load etc are set using the configuration
register bits.
Config-register values are automatically saved, to both running config and startup-config,
but these new values will not be used until the router is re-loaded.
The show version command lists the configuration registers current value, if different
the value that will be used once the router is re-loaded.
In most cisco routers the default configuration register setting is Hex 2102.
A router chooses the OS to load based on the low order 4 bits in the configuration
register, and the details configured in any boot system global configuration command
found in start-up configuration command. The low order 4 bits, (the 4th hex digit) is the
configuration register are called boot-field.
43
ROM
Bootstrap and
ROMMON
BOOT = 0
RAM
FLASH
IP Network
BOOT = 1
1st IOS File TFTP
ND
2 IOS File
3rd IOS File BOOT = 2...F
NVRAM (Startup Config)
.
Last IOS File
Boot System command 1
Boot System command 2
.
Boot system command last
If all three steps fails, as it may be possible that flash memory is erased, the router send
broadcasts looking for tftp server and guessing IOS file name to load, if that fails, router
loads the ROMMON which provides the tools to recover.
From the factory Cisco routers have not boot system command configured, and comes
with a configuration register value of 0x2102, meaning boot field hex 2, the process tires
step 3, finds no boot system commands and loads the first IOS image from the flash
memory.
Boot System commands
Boot system command Result
Boot system flash The first file from flash memory is loaded
Boot system flash filename IOS with name filename is loaded from flash memory
Boot system tftp filename IOS with name filename loaded from TFTP server
10.1.1.1
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The SHOW VERSION command
Show version command supplies a wide variety of information about the router,
including the current and future configuration register.
1. IOS Version
2 The uptime the length of time passed since the last reload
3. The reason for the last reload of the IOS (reload command, power off/on, software
failure)
4. The time of the last loading of IOS (if the routers clock has been set)
5. The source from which the router has loaded the current IOS
6. The amount of RAM memory
7. The number and types of interfaces
8. The amount of NVRAM memory
9. The amount Flash memory
10. The configuration registers current and future settings (if different)
Please refer to page 430 for a detailed listing of the show version command
Bandwidth : A reference to the speed of a network link. Its origins come from earlier
communication technologies where the range or width of frequency bands dictated how
fast communication could occur.
Boot field : Low order 4 bits of the configuration register in a cisco router. The value in
the boot field in part tells the router where to look for the cisco IOS image to load.
Clock Rate : The speed at which a serial link encodes bits on the transmission medium
Configuration register : In cisco route a 16 bit use configurable value that determines how
router the router functions during initialization. In software, the bit position is set by
specifying a hex value using configuration commands.
IOS Image : A file that contains IOS Cisco operating system that provides majority of
the routers or switchs features with the hardware providing the remaining features.
Power On Self Test (POST) : The process on any computer, including routers and
switches , in which computer hardware first runs hardware diagnostics on required
hardware before even trying to load a bootstrap program.
ROMMON : A shorter name of ROM Monitor , which is a low level operating system,
that can be into cisco routers for several seldom needed maintenance tasks, including
password recovery, and loading new IOS when flash memory has been corrupted.
45
RxBoot : A limited function version of IOS stored in the ROM, in some older models of
Cisco routers, for the purpose of performing seldom needed low level functions including
loading new IOS into flash memory, when flash memory has been corrupted or erased.
46
Chapter 14 Routing Protocol Concepts and
Configuration
`
10.1.1.0/24
Fa0/0
10.1.1.251
10.1.128.0/24 10.1.130.0/24
10.1.130.253
10.1.128.252 S0/0/1
S0/0/1
10.1.2.252 10.1.3.253
` `
` `
10.1.2.0/24 10.1.3.0/24
A router adds routes to its routing table for the subnets connected to each of the routers
interfaces. For this to occur the router must have an ip address and mask configured on
the interface, and the interface must be in an up/up status.
Show running config will show the ip address and mask on each interface
Show ip interface brief will show the interface status (line/protocol)
47
Static Route
Adding a static route to router alberquerque for the subnet 10.1.2.0/24 and 10.1.3.0/24
Ip route global configuration command supplies the subnet number, mask and the next
hop id address.
Extended PING - a router enable mode command allows the CLI user to change many
option on Ping command, including the source ip address, which enables to issue a ping
command from a router which resembles more closely to a ping command issues by an
end user.
Cisco ping command by default uses the output interfaces ip address as the packets
source address, unless otherwise specified in an extended ping.
Default Routes
Subnet 1
172.16.3.2 Subnet 2
Fa0/0
Rest of the enterprises network
S0/1
172.16.3.0
R1 R2
Subnet 3
As part of the routing process a router compares a packets destination ip address to its
routing table, if a no matching route is found the router discards the packet. A default
48
route is a route that matches all destination ip addresses, and the router forwards using the
default route, when no other route is matched with packets destination ip address.
Configure hundreds of static routes on R1, but all with an outgoing interface of s0/1
and next hop id address 172.16.3.2 (R2).
Enable routing protocols on routers to learn routes
Add a default route on R1 with outgoing interface as S0/1
49
Routing Protocol Overview
`
3
R3 IP Routing Table
5 172.16.5.253 Fa0/0 Subnet Out.Int Next hop Metric
------------------------------------------------------------
I have a route to
172.16.3.0 s0/1 172.16.6.252 1
172.16.3.0/24 , Metric 2
S0/0 S0/1
R3
2
5 I have a route to
I have a route to 172.16.3.0/24 , Metric 1
172.16.3.0/24 , Metric 2
S0/1 172.16.6.252
172.16.2.252 S0/1
S0/0
S0/0
172.16.1.251
R1 2 R2
Fa0/0 Fa0/1 172.16.3.252 1
I have a route to
172 .16.3.0/24 , Metric 1
` `
` `
4
R1 IP Routing Table
Subnet Out.Int Next hop Metric
------------------------------------------------------------
172.16.3.0 s0/0 172.16.2.252 1
50
Interior and Exterior Routing Protocols
Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) : A routing protocol that was designed and intended
for use inside a single autonomous system
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) : A routing protocol that was designed and intended
for use between different autonomous systems.
BGP Border Gateway Protocol is the used to exchange routes between routers in
different autonomous systems and is an EGP.
Metrics
Each routing protocol defines a metric that gives an objective numeric value to the
goodness of each route. The lower the metric the better the route.
RIP uses a metric called hop count, which counts the number of routers (hops) between a
router and a subnet.
EIGRP uses a metric which by default considers both the interface bandwidth and
interface delay settings as input into the mathematical formula to calculate the metric.
ROUTERS generally perform routing more quickly with smaller routing table, Route
Summarization (Auto summarization and Manual Summarization) helps shorten the
routing table while retaining all the needed routes in the network.
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Routing protocol that must consider Class (A,B,C) rules are called Classful Routing
Protocols, and that do not need to consider Class rules are called Classless Routing
Protocols.
The process used by routing protocols to recognize changes in a network (a link comes
up or fail, a router is added or removed), to figure out now-best route to each subnet, and
to change each routers routing table is called Convergence.
RIP-2 Configuration
Step 1. Router RIP configuration command to move into the RIP configuration mode
Step 2. Version 2 RIP subcommand to tell the router to use RIP Version 2
Step 3. Use one or more network net-number to enable RIP on the correct interface
Step 4. passive-interface type number to disable RIP on an interface
The RIP network command uses a classful network number as its net-number parameters.
52
For any of the routers interface ip address within that clasful network, the router does the
following three things
10.1.1.2.
Fa0/0
199.1.1.1
S0/0
10.1.4.2.
53
RIP-2 Verification
Show ip route
Show ip route rip
Show ip route 10.1.2.1
Please refer to page 460 for a detailed listing of show ip route command.
54
Unknown or unbelievable 255
Normally a static route has lower administrative distance than a RIP learned route,
however a backup static route can be configured with an administrative status higher
than any default administrative distances say 150, so that this static route will be added to
the routing table only if no route is learned by any routing protocols.
Show ip protocol
Please refer to page 464 for a detailed listing..
Debug ip rip
Undebug all
Show process
Service timestamps
Definitions
Backup Static Route : A static route configured with an administrative status higher than
any of the default routing protocol administrative statuses.
55
Balanced Hybrid : A general type of routing algorithm, other than distance vector and
link state, EIGRP is the only routing protocol that uses Balance Hybird algorithm.
Classful Routing Protocol : Does not transmit mask information along with the subnet
number, and therefore must consider Class A, B or C network boundaries, and perform
autosummarization at those boundaries. Does not support VLSM.
Covergence : Time required for a routing protocol to react to a change in the network,
removing bad routes, and adding new, better routes so that the current best routes are in
all routers routing tables.
Default Route : On a router, the route that is considered to match all packets that are not
otherwise matched some more specific routes.
Distance Vector : Logic behind some of the Interior Routing Protocols such as RIP.
Distance Vector algorithm calls for each router to send its entire routing table in each
update, but only to its neighbours. Distance vector algorithm can be prone to routing
loops but are computationally simpler than the link state algoritm.
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) :A routing protocol that was designed to exchange
routing information between two different autonomous systems.
Link State : A classification of underlying algorithm used in some routing protocols. Link
state protocols build a detailed database that lists links (subnets) and their states
(up/down) from which the best route is calculated.
Metric : A unit of measure used by routing protocol algorithms, to determine the best
route, for the traffic to use to reach a particular destination, in RIP-2 it is the hop-counts.
Routing Updates : A generic reference to any routing protocol message, in which it sends
the routing information to its neighbours.
Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM) : The capacity to specify different subnet
masks for the same Class A,B, or C network number on different subnets. VLSM can
help optimize available address space.
56
Configuration command reference
Command Description
Router rip Global configuration command that moves the user
to the RIP configuration mode.
Network network-number RIP subcommand that lists a clasful network
number, enabling RIP on all of that routers
interfaces in that classful network.
Version {1|2} RIP subcommand that sets the RIP version
Passive-interface [default] RIP subcommand that tells the RIP to no longer
interface type, number advertise RIP updates on the listed interface
Ip address ip-address mask Interface subcommand that sets the routers intefaces
ip address and mask
Ip route prefix mask {ip-address | Global command that defines a static route
interface type, interface number}
(eg. Ip route 10.102.0
255.255.255.0 10.1.128.252)
Service timestamp Global command that tells the router to put a
timestamp on log messages, including the debug
messages
57
Chapter 15 Troubleshooting IP Routing
IP Troubleshooting Tips and Tools
First octet values of addresses that are always reserved, and that cannot be assigned to
hosts. Reserved IP addresses.as recognized based on the value of the first octect.
0 (because network 0.0.0.0 is always reserved)
127 (because network 127.0.0.0 is always reserved)
224 239 (all Class D Multicast IP Addresses)
240 255 (all Class E Experimental IP Addresses)
Summary of reasons why an exam question should or should not allow the use of the zero
and broadcast subnets. Determine whether a question allows the use of the Zero and
Broadcast subnets
Clue in the question Subnet reserved?
Says nothing about it (default for the exam) No
List the ip subnet-zero configuration command No
Use a classless routing protocol (RIP-2, EIGRP, OSPF) No
List the no ip subnet-zero configuration command YES
Use a classful routing protocol (RIP-1) YES
Check the mask used on each device in the same LAN; if different then the devices
cannot have the same view of the range of addresses in the subnet.
On a point-to-point WAN link, check the IP addresses and masks on both end of the
link, and confirm that the two ip address are in the same subnet.
When checking to confirm that hosts are in the same subnet, do not just examine the
subnet number. Also check the subnet mask and the implied range of IP addresses.
Be ready to quickly use the commands in the table below, to find the ip address,
masks, and subnet numbers.
58
Host Networking
Summary of how hosts think about routing, address assignment, name resolution and
ARP
Routing : If the packets destination is in the same subnet, send the packet directly, if not
send the packet to the default gateway.
Address Assignment : Before sending any packets, the host may use DHCP client
services to learn its IP address, mask, default gateway, and DNS ip address. The host
could also be statically configured with the same details.
Name resolution : When the user directly or indirectly when a host references a host
name, the host typically uses DNS name resolution request to ask DNS to identify the
hosts ip address, unless the host already has the information in its name cache.
IP-to-MAC resolution: The host uses ARP requests to find the other hosts MAC
address, or the default gateways ip address, unless the information is already in the
hosts ARP cache.
Command Function
Ipconfig/all Displays detailed IP configuration information for all
interface, including IP address, mask, default gateway, and
DNS IP address.
Ipconfig/release Releases any DHCP leased IP addresses
Ipconfig/renew Acquires an IP address and related information using DHCP
Nslookup name Sends a DNS request for the listed name
Arp a Lists the hosts ARP cache
Ipconfig/displaydns List hosts name cache
Ipconfig/flushdns Remove all dns-found name cache entries
Arp -d Flushes (removes) the hosts ARP cache
Netstat -rn Displays hosts routing table
The two hosts have incorrect ip address, and mask configuration, so that at least one
of the two hosts thinks it is in a different subnet.
The two hosts have correct ip address and mask configuration, but the underlying
Ethernet has a problem
59
When a host can ping hosts in the same subnet, but not the hosts in a different
subnet..the root cause could be..
There is a mismatch between the hosts default gateway configurations and the router
acting as the default gateway. The problems include mismatched masks between
hosts and the router, which impacts the perceived range of addresses in the subnet, or
the host simply referring the wrong router IP address.
If the default gateway settings are correct but the ping of the default gateway still
fails, then probably there is a layer 1 or 2 problem in the LAN.
If the default gateway setting are correct, and ping works, but if ping of one of the
other router interface fails, then the routers other interface must have failed.
Tips regarding how a router matches a packets destination IP address as part of the
routing process. Finding the matching route on a routerkey points to remember..
When a destination IP address matches more than one route in a routers routing
table, the router uses the most specific route, the route with the longest prefix length.
Although the router uses binary maths to match the destination IP address to the
routing table entries, you can simply compare the destination address to each subnet
in the routing table. If a subnets implied address range include the packets
destination address, the route matches packets destination.
If the question include a simulator, you could easily find the matched route by issuing
a command show ip route address command, which lists the route matched for the IP
address listed in the command.
Please see a listing of show ip route rip , in page 484 , and determine the matching route
for a list of destination ip address from page 487.
Troubleshooting Commands
60
It lists the ip-address, mac address and interface. The age heading if lists a number, the
value represents the number of minutes since the router last received a packet from the
host and the timer is reset each time a matching packet is received. If the age heading lists
a the arp entry represents the ip address assigned to the router.
telnet newYork
show sessions
where (lists all the suspended telnet sessions)
Reminders that are helpful when thinking about source and destination MAC, and IP
addresses that are used at various points in an internetwork.
61
Two key requirements for a router to add a connected route
Command Purpose
Show sessions Lists the suspended telent and ssh sessions, from which the telnet
and ssh session were created
Where Does the same thing as show sessions
telnet { hostname| ip Connect the CLI to another host using telnet
address}
Ssh l username Connects CLI to another host using ssh
{hostname | ip
address}
Disconnect Disconnects currently suspended telnet or ssh session, based on
[connection number] the connection number as seen with the show sessions command
Resume Connects CLI to a currently suspended telnet or ssh session, based
[connection number] on the connection number as seen with the show sessions
command
Traceroute Discovers if a path from a router to a destination ip address is
{hostname|ip working, listing each next hop router in the route.
address}
Ctrl + Shift + 6 and The key sequence required to suspend a telnet or ssh session
x
Show ip arp Lists the contents of routers arp cashe
Show arp Lists the contents of routers arp cashe
Show ssh Lists the information about the users logged into the router using
ssh
Show users Lists the information about the users logged into the router,
including telnet, ssh , and console users.
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63