Chap 22
Chap 22
2. descent with modification by natural selection explains the adaptations of organisms and the
unity and diversity of life
3. evolution is supported by an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence
Darwin great contribution :
a. Mechanism for evo
b. NS
c. Differential reproductive success of ind within a popn based on how well
those ind are adapted to their envir
d. A processs in which organisms with certain phenotypic chara are more
likely to survive and reproduce than are org with other charac
- 2 definitions of EVOLUTION
A. a change in the genetic composition of a population from generation to generation.
B. descent with modification
1. evolution pattern : the pattern of evolutionary change is revealed by data from a range of
scientific disciplines (bio,chem,phy)
1. evolution process : consist of evolutions of mechanisms that produce the observed pattern of
change. (natural causes)
1. Scala Naturae : a scale were every life-forms could be arranged on a ladder.
-Lamarck mechanisms : 1) use and disuse ;the idea that parts of the body that are used
extebsuvely becom larger and stronger. While those who are not deteriorate.
2) Inheritance of acquired characteristics: organism could pass modification to the next
generation
Lamarcks thoughts : 1) evolution happens because organisms have aninnate drive to
become more complex
Cuvier denied that species ever evolve
Concept: Descent with modification by natural selection explains the adaptations of
organisms and the unity and diversity of life
ADAPTAION : base on NS, individuals that have certain inherited traits that help them in
1
their survival depending on the region they are, tend to live and reproduce at higher rates
As a descendants of that ancestral organism who lived in different habitats, give them
diverse mod and adap to fit there specific way of life
Darwin viewed the history of life like a tree with multiple branches from a commun trunk
out to the tips of the youngest twigs.
Linnaeus realized that some org resemble each other more closely than others but he didnt
connect his though to the fact that its due to evo.
Darwin proposed the mechanism of NS to explain the patterns of evo
O1: Members of a popn often vary in their inherited traits
O2: all species produce more offspring than the env can support and lots of them fail to
survive
I1: individuals whose inherited traits give them a gigher probability of surviving and repro
in a given env tend to leave more offspring
I2: the unequal ability of ind to survive and reproduce=>more of them
Thomas Malthus helped Darwin to understand the important connection between NS & the
capacity of org to overreproduce: 1) organism heritable traits can influence its
performance 2) war and shit are due to pop to increase faster than food
How rapidly do change occur : 1) artificial sel: very fast/short time 2) NS: substantial mod
over hundred of gen
The process of variations ( Favorable or non fav traits) will increase the frequence of ind
with fav adap 7 hence refine the match between org and their enviro
Supported evolution:
A. Direct observation : NS a) process of editing not a creative mechanism
b) depends on time and place
B. Homology : evo comes from analyzing similavities among different org : related
species can have charact that have an underlying similarity yet function diff.
similarity resulting from common ancestry= homology
1. Anatomical and molecular homologies
related species share the features used to determine their
relationship. they also share similar features.
comparing early stayed of dev in different animal species reveals
add anatomical homologies not visible in adult org
vestigial structures : remnants of features that served a function in
the org ancestors
2. genetic code are shared by all species because they come from the start
evolution tree: diagram that reflects evolutionary relationships
among groups of organisms
3. convergent evo: in devo of similar features in diff lineages
analogous: share similar func, but not common ancestry, whiles
homologeous features share common ancestry, but not necessary
similar funct
C. fossil record: doc patterns of evo = show that past org differs from today org and
many have being extinct
shed lights
fossil indicated us that most mamals were terrestrial
recent fossil discoveries dc the formation of new specie& origin of
a major new group of mammals, CETACEANS
descent with mod produced increasingly large diff among related
groups of org= diversity of life
D. biogeography : geo distribution of species caused by continental drift show
movement of earths continents
use understanding of evo to explain bio datageo bio data
most island species are similar to the nearest mainland
Pre-Darwinian views: ARISTORTLE
a. Scala Naturae
b. Specie can be arrange on a scale of increasing complexity
c. Species =/= change & have fixed place on this ladder
Natural theology: adaptations : evidence of the creators design
a. Good design implies an intelligent designer
b. Beautiful & functional
Human did not evolve from gorillas: human&gorillas ahd a common ancestor
Progress in evo: YES
a. NS create adaptations within species
b. But the RED QUEEN HYPOTHESIS(it takes all the running u can do, to
keep in the same place
c. Arms races between species
Theory : scien Vs non : non: conjecture, hypo,unproven speculation/ Scie: well
substantiated overarching idead that explains the Nworld, series of proven hypo
The natural world can be explained without invoking pre-existing germs, essential life
forces, th Darwins theory:
Species evolved from ancestral forms
Mechanism: natural selection
2. NS as the blind watchmaker of life
3. Evolution is like a bush not a ladder.
4. Progress between species is not part of the theory
Local adaptation within species
5. Evolution is an historical fact
6. Theory: does our current understanding explain the diversity of life on earth?
e great chain of being, Ptolemaic epicycles or a prime mover
Summary Chap 22
Life diversity arose from ancestral through NS
Lamarch hypo that species evolve
Hutton & Lyell thought that geological change results from mechanisms that
Chap 23
key concepts
1. genetic variation makes evolution
2. the Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to test wheter a population is evolving
3. nat Sel, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in a poupulation
4. nat sel is the only mechanism that consistently cause adaptive evolution
microevolution : change in allele frequencies in a population over generations. its caused by nat
CHAP 24
Key:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPECIATION: process by which one species splits into two or more species. It explains
similarity & diff between current and old species
1. Microevolution: change in allele frequencies
2. Macroevolution: broad pattern of evo above the species level.
REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION: the existence of biological factors that impede members
of 2 species from interbreeding & producing viable,fertile offspring.= block gene flow= limit
HYBRID . keeps gene pools separate 2 type : pre & post zygotic
HYBRID: offspring that result from an interspecific mating
PREZYGOTE BARRIERS: block fertilization from occurring;
A. Imbedding members of different species from attempting to mate,
B. by preventing an attempted mating from being completed successfully
C. Hindering fertilization if mating is completed successfully
Exemple: habitat isolation,temporal(breed during different times), behavioural(actractive
acting), mechanical(morphological difference), gametic(sperm=/=fertilize egg)
POSTZYGOTIC BARRIERS: contribute to reproductive isolation after the hybrid zygote
is formed
Exemple: reduce hybrid viability(gene may make the dev or survival impossible),
fertility( if not the same #chromosome =/=fail produce normal gamet), breakdown(next
generation gene are sterile)
Limitation of the bio species concept
A. Directs our attention to a way by which speciation can occur: evolution of reproductive
isolation. (does not apply to asexual)
B. species are designated by the absence of gene flow.sometimes gene flow occurs between 2
ind that are morphologically and ecologically different.
OTHER DEF OF SPECIES
A. Morphological species concept: characterizes a species by body shape and structural
features. Similarity of appearance. Strength : easy & practical. It can be applied to
sexual&asexual, and its usefull even without info on the extent of gene flow.
Disadvantage: relies on subjective criteria ; researchers may disagree on which
structural features distinguish a species. Similar looking things can be diff species
B. Ecological species conept: views species in terms of its eco niche. The sum of how
members of the species interact with nonliving/living parts of env. EMPHASIZES
role of disruptive NS as organism adapt to diff env cond.
C. Phylogenetic species concept: defines a species as the smallest group of ind that
share a common ancestor= forming 1 branch on the tree of life.
2 mechanisms of specification : ALLOPATRIC(OTHER COUNTRY)
SPECIATION
A. DEF : gene flow = stop when a population is divided into
geographically isolated subpopulation
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SYMPATRIC SPECIATION
A. DEF: specition occurs in popn that live in the same geo area. Diff
because the cause are rare
B. DO to poluploidy,habitat differentiation, sexual speciation)
1. POLYPLOIDY : species originate from an accident during cell % that
results in extra sets of chromosomes. 80% of plants via polyploidy,
sterile hybrids can reproduce asexually, fertile hybrids can self, less
common in animals
A. Autopolyploid: ind has +2 sets of chromo that derived from
single species.
B. Allopolyploid: In subsequent generations, various mechanisms
can change a sterile hybrid into a fertile polyploid
2. HABITAT DIFFERENTIATION:When genetic factors enable a subpop
to exploit a habitat or resource not used by the parent popn.
3. SEXUAL SELECTION: female choose base on appareance (like
human)
REVIEW ALLOPATRIC&SYMPATRIC
1. ALLOPATRIC: new species forms in geo isolation from its parent
popn.= restric gene flow=other barrier arise do to genetic changes
2. SYMPATRIC: requires emergence of a reproductive barrier that
isolate a subset of a popn from the remainder of the popn in the
same area. Due to polyploidy
Evolution of RIMS:
1) Incidentally : byproduct of separate evolution
2) By NS: when hybrids have lower fitness
HYBRID ZONE: members of diff species meet & mate, producing at least
some offspring of mixed ancestry.
PATTERNS WITHIN HYBRID ZONES:
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CHAP 25 :
Eras defined by: mass extinctions follow by radiaotion of new forms
Mass extinction :
1) part of our evolutianry history
2) 5 big : Permian extinctions (palezoic & Mesozoic), Cretaceous
(Mesozoic &cenozoic)
3) Names, dates and causes of the two famous episodes of mass
extinction:
Permian extinctions : 250 million BP
a) 96% marine animal go extinct
b) duration : 0.5 million years
c) cause : volcano, global warming, ocean anoxia, Pangaea( reduction
in intertidal habitat, continental climate, dry,)
cretaceous extinctions: 65 millins BP, duration: thousnads of
years,dino:extinct,1/2 marine animal extinct. Recovery: 20 million yrs
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CHAP 27
Key concepts
1) Structural & functional adaptations contribute to prokaryotic
success
2) Rapid reproduction, mutation, & genetic recombination promote
genetic diversity in prokaryotes
3) Diverse nutritional & metabolical adaptation have evolved in
prokaryotes
4) Molecular systematics is illuminating prokaryotes phylogeny
5) Prokaryotes play crucial roles in the biosphere
6) Prokaryotes have both beneficial & harmful impacts on humans
7) #of organisms: prok, # of species:euk,#cell inside ur body:
pro,biomas earth:pro
8) most life is asexual for organism & sexual for species
9) age kingdom:pro>protest>animal>fungi>plants
cladist view: supported by biochem & gene
traditional view: supported by cell structure &
morphology(size,nucleus,organelles,genetic mat,reproduction)
sex: small vs large gametes, anisogamy
a) genetic recombination
b) combining genes from 2 ind into a single genome
c) genetic transfer involving 2 ind
reproduction is production of new organisms
sexual repro: sex linked in time with repro, meiosis &
recombination, virtually all euks have the capacity for sexual
reproduction.
a)benefits: genetically diverse offspring
ancestral role of males: make genetically diverse offspring. MUTUALISM
what is possible
a) repro without sex: yes bac & others
b) sex whithout reprod: yes , bacteria
c) sex without gender: yes, isogamous fungi
d) gender without sex: no, gender implies sexual reprodu
repro in prok: binary fission, repro without sex, not diff from mitosis
endospores: resistant cells, copy of chro surrounded by though wall,
dormant until cond improve
asexual but rapid evo: RNA gene differs more between 2 strains of
E.coli than between humans/platypus. High mutation rate
Function of the cell wall : a) maintain cell shape
b) protects cells
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15
16
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classified as cyanobac
In mosses gamete are produced by mitosis and in fern in
mitosis
CHAP 28
Protest are a taxonomically unicell eukaryotes that span all
five supergroups
1. Eukar: nucleus, membrane bounded organelles, mitochondria,
plastids & golgi apparatus
2. protis are mostly unicellular
3. protest organelles: nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus,& lysosomes. Certain freshwater protest have
contractile vacuoles that pump water out.
4. Protist are photoautrophs or heterotrophs or mixotrophs. They
repro asexulally or sex. Or employ the sex processes of
meiosis & fertili.
5. 1st euk, 2.1 billion Bp
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anaerobe
nd
genome
endosymbiosis has shaped the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Host was able to steal portportion of sugars being made by
algae or acquired other essential metabolite
both green & red algae are part of same supergroup of land
plants
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21
Chap 29
1) plant have a waxy waterproof curticle and algae do not
2) how are gametes produced by bryophyte?:by mitoss of
gametophyte cells
3) in mosses. Haploidprotonemata directly produce buds that grow
into gametophores
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3) Global cooling
4) Decline of coal forest? Drier,cooler cond-pangea
5) Permian extinctions
6) Subsequent forests: conifers
c) Transport in Xylem & phloem : vascular tissue.
1) Xylem: conducts most of the water & minerals. Includes
tracheids(tube-shaped cells carry water & minerals up from
roots
a) Water-conducting cell = lignified, help to grow
2) Phloem: distribute sugars,amino acids, other organic products
d) Evolution of roots: evolved in the sporophytes and they absorb
water & nutrient
e) Evolution of leaves: surface area of plant body & serve as primary
photosynthetic
a) Microphylls: (410 million years) small, usually spineshaped
leaves supported by single strand vas tissue. Origanted from
sporangia(on the side of plant)
b) Megaphylls: (370 millions) leaves with highly branched vas
sys
Sporophylls & spores variations:
a) Sporophylls: modified leaves that bear sporangia, produce :
sori(clusters of sporangia).
b) Strobili: groupe of sporophylls form cone-like
c) Most seedless vascular are homosporous( have one type of
sporangium that produces one type of spore=>bisex game
d) Heterosporous: 2 type of sporangia & produces 2 kind of spores :
megasporangia on megasporophylls produce megaspores=>
female gametophyles
e) Microsporangia produce microspores=> male gamet
f) Homosporous spore prod: 1) sporangium on sporophyll=>single
type of sore=>typically a bisexual gametophyte =>1)eggs 2)
sperm
g) Heterosporous spore production: megasporangium on
megasporophyll=megaspore=female gametophyte=eggs
h) megasporangium on megasporophyll=microspore=male
gamet=sperm
classification of seedless vascular plants: lycophytes et pterophytes
1) lycophytes: club mosses,spike mosses, quillworts, most ancient
group,include small herbaceous plants & giant trees. Grow on
tropical trees as epiphytes(plant that use other plants as a
substrate but are not parasites), microphyles, ligning
vascular tissues, moist soil,underground,nourished there by
symbiotic fungi, permanently shady places
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CHAP 30
what are the key difference between an animal and a plant life cycle:
gymnosperms & angio have the following in common except ovaries
key adaptations of seed plants: pollen, seed, reduction of gametophyte
what are male &female gametophytes: male(pollen)
female(cone,megasporangium2n undergo meiosis to become
megaspore then mitosis that make female gametophyte (n) multicell
embryo sac)
4 key traits present in land plants but absent in charophyte: 1) alter of
generation, ,walled spores produces in sporangia,multicell
gametangia,apical meristems
why reduce the gametophyte:
1) dev within the sporangia
2) nourished by sporophyte
3) protect it from desiccation
4) protect from uv radiation
what is a seed: embryo with food within a protective coat from the
integuments
seed
3 generation: 1) embryo=2n
2) food supply=female gametophytic tissue n
3) seed coat-derived from integument 2n
5) protect it from desiccation
replaces the spore as dispersal phase
more resistant than spore
protects(integument) whole structure is called ovule & nourishes
embryo
common to all seed: reduced
gametophyte(microscopic),pollen,heterospory,ovules
their tiny gametophytes can develop from spores retained within the
sporangia of the parental sporophyte=protect them from env stress
seedless plants are homosporous: produce one kind of spore=give
rise to bisexual gametophyte
pollen
a) replace swimming sperm
b) vehicle for sperm
c) pollen grain:male gametiphyte
d) microspore dev into pollen grain
e) tough protective coating
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1)
2)
3)
sperm cell=>one sperm fertilize egg the other one fuse with two
nucleid forming tripoloid cell=>ovule mature into seed,zygote dev a
sporophyte with a rudimentary root & 1 seed leaves called
cotyledons.=> triploid central dev into endosperm(rich in
starch&food)
function of fruit:
1. spread seed
2x fertilization:
one sperm+ovum=zygote
one sperm+ 2 nuclei=endosperm(3n)
why?: 1) prevents squandering food on infertile ovules
synchronize dev of food storage in the seed with the dev of
embryo
2) why do we need pollinators?
Radiation of flowering plants: 1st fossils :140 million BP
Dominant :65 million BP
Newest phylum? Smyho 200000
4 phyla:
phylum cycadophyta: next largest group of gymnosperms. Large
cone & palmlike leaves
phylum gnetophyta: consist of 3 genera:
gnetum,ephedra,welwitschia. Tropical & desert. Group together
based on mol data
phylum Ginkgophyta: deciduous fanlike leaves that turn gold in
autumn.tolerates air pollution well
phylum coniferophyta: largest of the gymnosperm
a)ginkgo :1 species
b)cycads:130 species palm like leaves
c) Gnetophytes : 70 spp in genera
d)conifers :600 species most are evergreen
male cones:
female
gymnosperms bear naked seeds,typically on cones
their seed are exposed on sporopylls that form strobili
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chap 31
Characteristics of fungi:
1) Eukaryote
2) Absorptive hetero
3) Sexual repro
4) Haploid,primarily
5) Mushroom poloidy?
6) Continuous cell wall
Def of fungus: absorptive heterotrophic eukaryotes that have
chitinous cells walls
The haplid nuclei of dikaryotic hyphal cells fuse to form a
diploid zygote,spores germinate & then mitotically divide to
form a mycelium, the dominant stage of lice cycle is usually
haploid,many species obtain their nutrients from decaying org
mat
Unique structure:
1) hyphae:filaments of cytoplas & nuclei surrounded by cell wall,
2) Chitinous cells wall
Unique structure(cntd)
1)mycelium :feeding network of hyphae
origin of fungi
1) oldest:460 mya
2) in earliest vascular plants(420mya)
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highlights :
Nutrition: absorptive heterotrophs
Structure: hyphae & mycelium
2-stage syngamy
Chytrids: flagella
Zygomycota: dikaryon within resistant sporangium
Glomeromycota: arbuscular mycorrhizae
Ascomycota: dikaryon cup of the fungus
Basidiomycota: dikaryon long-lived mycelium & fruiting body
lifestyles
The haploid nuclei of dikaryotic hyphal cells fuse to form a diploid zygote.
-Many species obtain their nutrients from decaying organic matter.
-Spores germinate and then mitotically divide to form a mycelium.
-The dominant stage of the life cycle is usually haploid
Chap 32
characteristique of an animal:
1) eukaryotes
2) diploid
3) ingestive heterotroph
4) glycogen
5) no cell walls
6) structural proteins,collagen
what is an animal: multicell,ingestive heterotrophic,diploid,eukaryote that
develops from a blastula
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CHAP 32
38
cell structure & specilialization: animal dont have cell wall instead
they have proteins external to the cell membrane providing them
structural support
1) muscle cells & nerve cells are only for animals
2) they are organized into tissues(group of cell that have common
structural, fct)
reproduction & development: sperm & egg are produced directly by
meiotic
%=>fertilization=>zygote=>cleavage=>blastula=>gastrulation=>ga
strula
1) some animal have larva. Its a sexually immature form that differ
from the adult form but then they go metamorphosis that will
develop them into a juvenile form but still dont have sexually
mature.
2) Gene that control animal develop are the same across a big range
of taxa. They have gene that regulate expression of other genes
and they contain homeoboxe.
Neoproterozoic era: (1 billion-542 mya):
1) Ediacaran biota: early group of soft body multicell eukaryote
2) Some fossils are unclassifiable because they are not related
to animal
3) Time of increasing animal diversity
Paleozoic era(542-251mya): Cambrian explosion,vertebrates made
transition to land around 365 mya & diversified into numerous
terrestrial groups where 2 of them still exist: amphibians
(frogs&shit) and amniote(reptiles,birds mammal)
Mesozoic era: angiosperms & insects had big diversification
Cenozoic era: mass extinctions of both terrestrial & marine animals
ushered in a new era Cenozoic.
1) Climate cooled down= triggered shifts in many animal lineages
Animal can be characterize by body plan.
Body plant: set of morphological & developmental traits integrated
into a functional whole
a) Symmetry
1) Radial symmetry: top and bottom no front & back,left,right\
2) Bilateral symmetry: front(anterior) to back(posterior) &
top(dorsal)to bottom(ventral), left,right.
3) Bilaterally symmetrical body plan have sensory equipment
concentrated at their anterior end,including nervous system an
evolutionary trend called cephalization. And they move. They
are triploblastic
b) Tissues: true tissues are collections of specialized cells isolated from
other tissues by membranous layers.
1) Embryo becomes layered through the process of gastrulation
2) Diploblastic: have ectoderm & endoderm
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c)
3) Triploblastic: ecto,endo,meso
Body cavities: a fluid or air filled space located between the
digestive tract & the outer body wall.mostly triploblast
1) Coelom: tissue derived from mesoderm. Aka coelomates
2) Pseudocoelomate: body cavitie form from meso & endo
3) Acoelomates: lack a body cavity altogether
4) Function: fluid cushions,prevent internal,injury
Protostome & deuterostome
1) cleavage
a) Protostome undergo Cleavage: protostome development
undergo spiral cleavage, plan of cell % are diagonal to vertical
b) Determinae cleavage: rigidly cast
c) Deuterostome is characterized by radial cleavage. Parrallelle
or perpendicular to the vertical axis of the embryo. They also have
indeterminate cleavage
2) Coelom formation:
a) As archeteron form in protostome development, the solid masses
of mesoderm cells split to form the fluid-filled cavity,the coelom
3) Fate of the blastopore: prot & deuteron differ in the fate of
blastopore
a) In protostome development, the mouth dev from the first
opening
b) Deuteron mouth derived from the secondary opening &
blastopore usually forms the anus
Based on cladistics methods, phylogenetic tree takes shape as a
hierarchy of clades nested within larger clades(finer & thicker branches
respectively). Clades are inferred from shared derived character that
are unique to memebers of the clade
1) Points of agreement:
a) All animals share a common ancestor
b) Sponges are basal animals
c) Eumetazoa is a clade of animals with true tissues:
eumetazoans(true animal) include the phyla ctenophore &
cnidarian are diploblastic & generally have radial symmetry
d) Most animal phyla belong to the clade bilateria: Cambrian
explosion was primarily a rapid diversification of bilaterians
e) Chordates & some other phyla belong to the clade
deuterostomia: include vertebrates & chordates
Ecdysozoans: refers to a characteristic shared by
nematodes,arthropods & some other ecdysozoan phyla
Lophotrochozoans:refers to 2 different features observed in some
animal
a) Lophophore: a crown of ciliated tentacles that fct in feeding
b) Trochophore larva: molluscs,annelids
Chap 52
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Whats ecology?
a) The scientific study of : interaction between organism &
environment or distribution & abundance of organisms
2 great env issues of our time: climate change & biodiversity crisis
what is the current population of humans on earth?
% changes: last 20 years
a) world pop: +29%
b) Canadian pop: +22%
c) Atmospheric CO2: +11%
d) Fossil fuel consumption: +52%
e) # malnourished people on Earth +9%
2 aapproaches to ecology/ science
a) reductionism-seeks answers at lower levels of hierarchy
b) reducing complex systems to simpler components
c) traditional science
2 holism: holism-seek answers at the same or higher levels of analysis
by examining , emergent properties
a) novel properties that emerge at each level
b) invisible to reductionist
c) become apparent to holist
2 approaches to asthma:
a) reductionistic
b) holistic
emergent properties :
a) individuals
b) age,size,clutchsize,lifespan,ersonality
c) density,dispersion,growth rate
d) communities
e) S,species diversity,successional stage,species interactions
f) Ecosystems
g) Efficiency of nutrient cycling,energy flow,transfer efficiency
Ask new questions at all 4 levels:
a) Individual level?
b) Cold water caused poor reproduction?
c) Population level?
d) Overharvesting
e) Community leve?
f) Predation inhibiting recovery of the cod?
g) Ecosystem?
h) Atlantic ecosystems now fundamentally changed?
The environment has 2 components:
a) Abiotic
b) Biotic
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