SQL & ADVANCED SQL

Marcin Blaszczyk (CERN IT-DB)

[email protected]

AGENDA
Goal of this tutorial:
Present the overview of basic SQL capabilities
Explain several selected advanced SQL features

Outline
Introduction
SQL basics
Joins & Complex queries
Analytical functions & Set operators
Other DB objects (Sequences, Synonyms, DBlinks, Views & Mviews)
Indexes & IOTs

Partitioning
Undo & Flashback technologies
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5th of May 2012

SQL LANGUAGE
Objective: be able to perform the basic operation of the
RDBMS data model
create, modify the layout of a table
remove a table from the user schema
insert data into the table
retrieve and manipulate data from one or more tables
update/ delete data in a table
+
Some more advanced modifications

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SQL LANGUAGE (2)

Structured Query Language
Programing language
Designed to mange data in relational databases

DDL Data Definition Language

Creating, replacing, altering, and dropping objects
Example: DROP TABLE [TABLE];

DML Data Modification Language

Inserting, updating, and deleting rows in a table
Example: DELETE FROM [TABLE];

DCL Data Control Language

Controlling access to the database and its objects
Example: GRANT SELECT ON [TABLE] TO [USER];
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SQL LANGUAGE(3)

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STATEMENT

DESCRIPTION

SELECT

Data Retrieval

INSERT
UPDATE
DELETE

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

CREATE
ALTER
DROP
RENAME
TRUNCATE

Data Definition Language (DDL)

GRANT
REVOKE

Data Control Language (DCL)

COMMIT
ROLLBACK

Transaction Control
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TRANSACTION & UNDO

A transaction is a sequence of SQL Statements that Oracle treats
as a single unit of work
A transaction must be commited or rolled back:
COMMIT; - makes permanent the database changes you made during the
transaction.
ROLLBACK; - ends the current transaction and undoes any changes
made since the transaction began.

Check COMMIT settings in your Client Tool (eg

AUTOCOMMIT, EXITCOMMIT in SQL*Plus)
UNDO tablespace:
circular buffer
records all actions of transactions
used when rolling back a transaction
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SQL LANGUAGE(3)

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STATEMENT

DESCRIPTION

SELECT

Data Retrieval

INSERT
UPDATE
DELETE

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

CREATE
ALTER
DROP
RENAME
TRUNCATE

Data Definition Language (DDL)

GRANT
REVOKE

Data Control Language (DCL)

COMMIT
ROLLBACK

Transaction Control
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DATABASE SCHEMA (USER)

Collection of logical structures of data
called schema objects
tables, views, indexes, synonyms, sequences, packages, triggers,
links,

Owned by a database user

same name of the user

Schema objects can be created and manipulated with SQL

SELECT * FROM USER_OBJECTS | USER_TABLES ()
SELECT user DROM dual;
SHOW USER; (in SQL*Plus)
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CREATE A TABLE
Define the table layout:
table identifier
column identifiers and data types

column constraints,
default values
integrity constraints
relational constraints

CREATE TABLE employees (

employee_id NUMBER(6) NOT NULL,
first_name VARCHAR2(20),
last_name VARCHAR2(25),
hire_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE,
department_id NUMBER(4),
salary NUMBER(8,2) CHECK (salary > 0));

SQL> describe employees

Name
Null? Type
----------------- -------- -----------EMPLOYEE_ID
NOT NULL NUMBER(6)
FIRST_NAME
VARCHAR2(20)
LAST_NAME
VARCHAR2(25)
HIRE_DATE
DATE
DEPARTMENT_ID
NUMBER(4)
SALARY
NUMBER(8,2)
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DATATYPES
Each value has a datatype
defines the domain of values that each column can contain
when you create a table, you must specify a datatype for each
of its columns

ANSI defines a common set

Oracle has its set of built-in types
User-defined types

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ANSI data type

Oracle

integer

NUMBER(38)

smallint

NUMBER(38)

numeric(p,s)

NUMBER(p,s)

varchar(n)

VARCHAR2(n)

char(n)

CHAR(n)

float

NUMBER

real

NUMBER
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SELECT STATEMENT
SELECT [ALL | DISTINCT] column1[,column2]
FROM table1[,table2]
[WHERE "conditions"]

[GROUP BY "column-list"]
[HAVING "conditions]
[ORDER BY "column-list" [ASC | DESC] ]
SELECT d.department_name,
sum(e.salary)as DEPT_AL
FROM departments d, employees e
WHERE d.department_id = e.department_id
GROUP BY d.department_name
HAVING SUM(e.salary) > 10000
ORDER BY department_name;

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DEPARTMENT_NAME
DEPT_SAL
-------------------- ---------Accounting
20300
Executive
58000
Finance
51600
IT
28800
Marketing
19000
Purchasing
24900
Sales
304500
Shipping
156400
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INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE (DML)

Insert some data
INSERT INTO table1 values(value-list) ;
INSERT INTO table1(column-list) values(value-list);
INSERT INTO table1(column-list)
SELECT values(value-list);
COMMIT;

Update
UPDATE table1 SET column = value;
COMMIT;

Delete
DELETE FROM table1;
COMMIT;
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ALTER TABLE (DDL)

Modify the name:
ALTER TABLE employees RENAME TO newemployees;

Modify the layout:

ALTER TABLE employees ADD (salary NUMBER(7));
ALTER TABLE employees RENAME COLUMN id TO emp_id;
ALTER TABLE employees DROP(hiredate);

But also:
Add/modify/drop constraints
Enable/Disable constraints

Modify more advanced properties

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CONSTRAINTS (DDL)
NOT NULL / CHECK
ALTER TABLE employees MODIFY last_name NOT NULL;
ALTER TABLE employees MODIFY salary CHECK (salary > 1000);

PRIMARY KEY
ALTER TABLE employees ADD PRIMARY KEY(emp_id);

FOREIGN KEY
ALTER TABLE employees ADD FOREIGN KEY(dept_id) REFERENCES
departments(department_id);

Constraints errors:
ORA-02290: check constraint (owner.constraintname) violated DURING
INSERT
ORA-02291: integrity constraint (owner.constraintname) violated - parent key
not found DURING INSERT
ORA-02292:violated integrity constraint (owner.constraintname)- child record
found DURING DELETE

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NULL VALUE
special value that means

unavailable
unassigned
unknown
inapplicable

not equivalent to
zero
blank space
SELECT * FROM [TABLE] where id = 0;
SELECT * FROM [TABLE] where id IS NULL;

Often used as default

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DUAL TABLE
special one-row table present by default in all Oracle database
installations
SQL> describe dual;
Accessible to all users
Examples of use:

Name
Null? Type
----------------- -------- -----------DUMMY
VARCHAR2(1)

SELECT SYSDATE FROM DUAL;

SELECT USER FROM DUAL;
-- equal to SHOW USER in SQL*Plus

Create really big table in one command - use dual;

CREATE TABLE BIG_TABLE
AS SELECT trunc(dbms_random.value(0,20)) RANDOM_INT
FROM DUAL
CONNECT BY LEVEL <= 100000;

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DELETE ALL ROWS FROM A TABLE

?
What is the difference between:
DELETE FROM employees;
vs
TRUNCATE TABLE employees;

DML vs DDL commands?

Is COMMIT essential? In which case?

Generate UNDO segments?

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Which is more efficient?

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TYPES OF JOINS
EQUIJOIN

Values in the two corresponding columns of

the different tables must be equal

NON-EQUIJOIN

The relationship between the columns of the

different tables must be other than equal

OUTERJOIN
(LEFT, RIGHT, FULL)

It returns also the rows that do not satisfy the

join condition

SELFJOIN

Joining data in a table to itself

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EQUIJOIN
SQL> SELECT e.emp_name, e.emp_deptno, d.dept_name
FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.emp_deptno = d.deptno
ORDER BY emp_name;
EMP_NAME

EMP_DEPTNO

KING

10

BLAKE

30

CLARK

10

EMP_NAME

DEPT_NO

EMP_DEPTNO

DEPT_NAME
10

ACCOUNTING

30

SALES

20

OPERATIONS

DEPT_NAME

KING

10

ACCOUNTING

BLAKE

30

SALES

CLARK

10

ACCOUNTING

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OUTERJOIN
SQL> SELECT e.emp_name, e.emp_deptno, d.dept_name
FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.emp_deptno = d.deptno(+)
ORDER BY emp_name;
EMP_NAME

KING

EMP_DEPTNO

DEPT_NO

10

BLAKE

NULL

CLARK

10

MARTIN

20

TURNER

10

EMP_NAME
KING

JONES

NULL

10

ACCOUNTING

30

SALES

20

OPERATIONS

EMP_DEPTNO

DEPT_NAME
10

ACCOUNTING

BLAKE

NULL

CLARK

10

ACCOUNTING

MARTIN

20

OPERATIONS

TURNER

10

ACCOUNTING

JONES
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DEPT_NAME

NULL

NULL

NULL
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JOINS SYNTAX ANSI VS ORACLE

Equijoins:
ANSI syntax
SELECT e.name, d.name FROM employees e
INNER JOIN departments d ON e.dept_id=d.dept_id;

Oracle
SELECT e.name, d.name FROM employees e, departments d
WHERE e.dept_id=d.dept_id;

Outerjoins
ANSI syntax (LEFT, RIGHT, FULL)
SELECT e.name, d.name FROM employees e
RIGHT OUTER JOIN departments d ON e.dept_id=d.dept_id;

Oracle
SELECT e.name, d.name FROM employees e, departments d
WHERE e.dept_id(+)=d.dept_id;
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5th of May 2012

ADVANCED SQL QUERIES

Types

Question

SUBQUERIES

Who works in the same department as

Clark?

Correlated SUBQUERIES

Who are the employees that receive more

than the average salary of their
department?

Inline Views

What are the employees salary and the

minimum salary in their department?

Top-N QUERIES

What are the 5 most well paid

employees?

Hierarchical QUERIES

What is the hierarchy of management in

my enterprise?

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SUBQUERIES (1/5)
A subquery is a query within a query and it is used to answer
multiple-part questions.
Oracle fully supports them in the sense that:
You can create subqueries within your SQL statements
A subquery can reside in the WHERE clause, the FROM
clause or the SELECT clause.

Subquery

Inline view

Nested subquery

SELECT ... FROM ... WHERE ...

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SUBQUERIES (2/5)
A) Single-row (and single-column)
Types

B) Multiple-row (and single-column)

C) Multiple-column

who works in the same department as Clark?

SELECT WHERE dep = (SELECT dep FROM WHERE name = CLARK);
who works in the same department as Clark OR Blake?
SELECT WHERE dep IN (SELECT dep
FROM
WHERE name =CLARK or name = BLAKE);
who works in the same department(s) AND under the same boss as Clark?
SELECT WHERE (dep, mgr) = (SELECT dep, mgr
FROM
WHERE name = CLARK)

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CORRELATED SUBQUERIES
A correlated subquery is a subquery that is evaluated FOR
EACH ROW produced by the parent query.
Which employees receive more than the average salary of
EMP_ID DEPT_ID LAST_NAME SALARY
their department?
------ ------- ---------- -----SELECT e.emp_id, e.dept_id,
e.last_name, e.salary
FROM employees e
WHERE e.salary > (SELECT avg(i.salary)
FROM employees i
WHERE e.dept_id = i.dept_id)

201
114
123
122
120
121
103
147
146
145
100
108

20
30
50
50
50
50
60
80
80
80
90
100

Hartstein
Raphaely
Vollman
Kaufling
Weiss
Fripp
Hunold
Errazuriz
Partners
Russell
King
Greenberg

13000
11000
6500
7900
8000
8200
9000
12000
13500
14000
24000
12000

In this case, the correlated subquery specifically computes,

for each employee, the average salary for the employees
department
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INLINE VIEWS
An In-line view is a subquery in the FROM clause of a SQL
statement just as if it was a table. It acts as a data source!
What are the employees salary and the MINIMAL salary in their
department?
SELECT e.emp_id a.dept_id, e.last_name,
e.salary, a.min_sal,
FROM employees e,
(SELECT MIN(salary)min_sal, dept_id
FROM employees
GROUP BY dept_id) a
WHERE e.dept_id = a.dept_id
ORDER BY e.dept_id, e.salary DESC;

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EMP_ID DEPT_ID LAST_NAME

SALARY MIN_SAL
------ ------- ----------- ------ ------200
10 Whalen
4400
4400
201
20 Hartstein
13000
6000
202
20 Fay
6000
6000
114
30 Raphaely
11000
2500
115
30 Khoo
3100
2500
116
30 Baida
2900
2500
117
30 Tobias
2800
2500
118
30 Himuro
2600
2500
119
30 Colmenares
2500
2500
203
40 Mavris
6500
6500
121
50 Fripp
8200
2100
120
50 Weiss
8000
2100
122
50 Kaufling
7900
2100
123
50 Vollman
6500
2100
124
50 Mourgos
5800
2100
184
50 Sarchand
4200
2100
185
50 Bull
4100
2100
192
50 Bell
4000
2100

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TOP-N QUERIES
We need to use in-line view together with the ROWNUM
pseudocolumn
What are the top 5 most well paid employees?
SELECT * FROM
(SELECT emp_id, last_name, salary
FROM employees
ORDER BY salary desc)
WHERE rownum < 6

EMP_ID
-----100
101
102
145
146

LAST_NAME SALARY
---------- -----King
24000
Kochhar
17000
De Haan
17000
Russell
14000
Partners
13500

What are the next 5 most well paid employees?

SELECT emp_id, last_name, salary FROM (
SELECT emp_id,last_name, salary,
rownum as rnum
FROM employees
ORDER BY salary desc)
WHERE rnum between 6 and 10;

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EMP_ID
-----108
109
106
105
107

LAST_NAME SALARY
---------- -----Greenberg
12000
Faviet
9000
Pataballa
4800
Austin
4800
Lorentz
4200

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HIERARCHICAL QUERIES
If a table contains hierarchical data, then you can select rows in a
hierarchical order using the hierarchical query clause
Syntax:
SELECT FROM WHERE
START WITH <condition>
Specifies the starting point of the hierarchy (tree)
CONNECT BY PRIOR child_row = parent_row (TOP-DOWN)
parent_row = child_row (BOTTOM-UP)
relationship between parent row and child rows of the hierarchy

Pseudo-column LEVEL is the hierarchy level

SELECT empid, last_name, mgrid, LEVEL
FROM employees
WHERE LEVEL <= 3
START WITH employee_id = 100
CONNECT BY PRIOR
EMPID LAST_NAME MGRID LEVEL
employee_id = manager_id;
----- --------- ----- ----100
101
200
203
204
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King
Kochhar
Whalen
Mavris
Baer

100
101
101
101

1
2
3
3
3

King

Kochnar

Whalen

Mavris

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Baer

HIERARCHICAL QUERIES
If a table contains hierarchical data, then you can select rows in a
hierarchical order using the hierarchical query clause
Syntax:
SELECT FROM WHERE
START WITH <condition>
Specifies the starting point of the hierarchy (tree)
CONNECT BY PRIOR child_row = parent_row (TOP-DOWN)
parent_row = child_row (BOTTOM-UP)
relationship between parent row and child rows of the hierarchy

Pseudo-column LEVEL is the hierarchy level

SELECT empid, last_name, mgrid, LEVEL
FROM employees
START WITH employee_id = 204
CONNECT BY PRIOR
manager_id = employee_id;
EMPID LAST_NAM MGR_ID

LEVEL
----- -------- ------ -----204 Baer
101
1
101 Kochhar
100
2
100 King
3

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King

Kochnar

Baer

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ANALYTICAL FUNCTIONS
General syntax of analytical function:

TABLE

SELECT analytical-function(col-expr)
OVER (window-spec) [AS col-alias]
FROM [TABLE];

Window specification syntax

WINDOW
EWWEQEWQEQ

CURRENT ROW

ASDASSDA

[PARTITION BY [expr list]]

ORDER BY [sort spec] [range spec]

Example for range specification (for more check oracle docs)

ROWS UNBOUNDED PRECEDING AND CURRENT ROW (default)
ROWS BETWEEN CURRENT ROW AND UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING
RANGE BETWEEN 2 PRECEDING AND 2 FOLLOWING
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ORDERRED ANALYTICAL WINDOW

Analytical functions applied to all window rows
Remember about ordering inside the window
SQL>

select employee_id, last_name, manager_id, salary

sum(salary) over (order by employee_id, last_name, salary)
as cumulative from employees;

EMPLOYEE_ID
----------100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
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LAST_NAME MANAGER_ID SALARY CUMULATIVE

--------- ---------- ------ ---------King
24000
24000
Kochhar
100 17000
41000
De Haan
100 17000
58000 = 24000+17000+17000
Hunold
102
9000
67000
Ernst
103
6000
73000
Austin
103
4800
77800
Pataballa
103
4800
82600
Lorentz
103
4200
86800
Greenberg
101 12000
98800
Faviet
108
9000
107800
Chen
108
8200
116000
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RANGE SPECIFICATION (1/2)

RANGE BETWEEN 2 PRECEDING AND 2 FOLLOWING
SQL> select manager_id, last_name, salary, sum(salary) over (order by
last_name, salary rows between 2 preceding and 1 following) as
cumulative from employees;
MANAGER_ID
---------103
103
101
102

LAST_NAME SALARY CUMULATIVE

--------- ------ ---------Austin
4800
10800
Ernst
6000
22800
Greenberg 12000
31800
Hunold
9000
51000 = 6000 + 12000 + 9000 + 24000
King
24000
62000
100 Kochhar
17000
54200
103 Lorentz
4200
45200

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RANGE SPECIFICATION (2/2)

ROWS BETWEEN CURRENT ROW AND UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING
SQL> select manager_id, last_name, salary, sum(salary) over (order by
last_name, salary rows between current row and unbounded following)
as cumulative from emp_part;
MANAGER_ID
---------103
103
101
102

LAST_NAME SALARY CUMULATIVE

--------- ------ ---------Austin
4800
77000
Ernst
6000
72200
Greenberg 12000
66200
Hunold
9000
54200 = 9000 + 24000 + 17000 + 4200
King
24000
45200
100 Kochhar
17000
21200
103 Lorentz
4200
4200

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PARTITIONED ANALYTICAL WINDOW

Analytical functions start again for each partition
SQL> break on manager_id
SQL> SELECT manager_id, last_name, employee_id, salary,
sum(salary) over (PARTITION BY manager_id order by employee_id)
as cumulative
FROM employees order by manager_id, employee_id, last_name;
MANAGER_ID LAST_NAME
EMPLOYEE_ID SALARY CUMULATIVE
---------- --------------- ----------- ------ ---------100 Kochhar
101 17000
17000
De Haan
102 17000
34000
Raphaely
114 11000
45000
Weiss
120
8000
53000
101 Greenberg
108 12000
12000
Whalen
200
4400
16400
Mavris
203
6500
22900
Baer
204 10000
32900
102 Hunold
103
9000
9000
103 Ernst
104
6000
6000
Austin
105
4800
10800
Pataballa
106
4800
15600
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ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
For analytic functions, you can use all of the regular group
functions

SUM
MAX
MIN
AVG
COUNT

Plus list of additional analytical functions that can be used only for
window queries.

LAG
LEAD
FIRST
LAST
FIRST VALUE
LAST VALUE
ROW_NUMBER
DENSE_RANK

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ANALYTICAL FUNCTION EXAMPLE

LAG function example
SQL> select * from currency order by 1;

SQL> select day, EURCHF,

lag(EURCHF,1) over (order by day)
as prev_eurchf from currency;

DAY
EURCHF
-------------------- -----01-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.240
02-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.223
03-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.228
04-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.217
05-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.255
06-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.289
07-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.291
08-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.247
09-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.217
10-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.265

DAY
EURCHF
PREV_EURCHF
-------------------- ------ -------------01-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.240
02-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.223
1.240
03-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.228
1.223
04-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.217
1.228
05-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.255
1.217
06-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.289
1.255
07-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.291
1.289
08-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.247
1.291
09-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.217
1.247
10-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.265
1.217

SQL> select day, EURCHF, ((EURCHF - prev_eurchf) / prev_eurchf )*100 as pct_change from (
select day, EURCHF, LAG(EURCHF,1) over (order by day) as prev_eurchf from currency);
DAY
EURCHF PCT_CHANGE
-------------------- ------ ---------01-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.240
02-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.223
-1.37
03-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.228
0.41
04-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.217
-0.90
05-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.255
3.12
06-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.289
2.71
07-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.291
0.16
08-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.247
-3.41
09-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.217
-2.41
10-JUN-2012 00:00:00 1.265
3.94

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6
4
2

0.41

0
-2
-4

3.94

3.12 2.71

-1.37

0.16
-0.9
-3.41

-2.41

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SET OPERATORS
Combine multiple queries
Union without duplicates
SELECT name, email FROM employees
UNION
SELECT name, email FROM visitors;

Union with the duplicates

SELECT cit_id FROM employees
UNION ALL
SELECT cit_id FROM visitors;

Intersect
SELECT name FROM employees
INTERSECT
SELECT name FROM visitors;

Minus
SELECT
MINUS
SELECT

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name FROM employees

name FROM visitors;

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SEQUENCES
A database object that generates (in/de)creasing unique
integer numbers
Very efficient thanks to caching
Transaction safe

It is typically used to generate Primary Key values

No guarantee that ID will be continuous
rollback, use in >1 tables, concurrent sessions
Gaps less likely if caching switched off

The use of application-side generation of numbers is not

recommended. Highly prone to locks, errors.
SQL> CREATE SEQUENCE seq_dept
INCREMENT BY 10
MAXVALUE 1000
NOCACHE;

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SELECT seq_dept.NEXTVAL FROM DUAL;

SELECT seq_dept.CURRVAL FROM DUAL;
INSERT INTO dept VALUES
(seq_dept.NEXTVAL,HR,4);
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DATABASE LINKS & SYNONYMS

object in the local database that allows you to access objects
on a remote database
CREATE DATABASE LINK devdb
CONNECT TO scott IDENTIFIED BY tiger USING devdb;
How to access to tables over a database link?
SELECT * FROM emp@devdb;

Solution: Use synonyms to hide the fact that a table is

remote:
CREATE SYNONYM emp_syn for emp@devdb;
SELECT * FROM emp_syn;

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TEMPORARY TABLES
Special type of table for storing temporary data
Volatile no statistics are gathered
Session or transaction

ON COMMIT PRESERVE | DELETE ROWS

indexes, views can be created on temporary tables

SQL> CREATE GLOBAL TEMPORARY TABLE temp_table_session (id number) ON COMMIT
PRESERVE ROWS;
SQL> CREATE GLOBAL TEMPORARY TABLE temp_table_transaction (id number) ON COMMIT
DELETE ROWS;
SQL> INSERT INTO temp_table_session values(2);
SQL> INSERT INTO temp_table_transaction values(2);
SQL> COMMIT;
SQL> SELECT * FROM temp_table_session;
ID
-------------2
SQL> SELECT * FROM temp_table_transaction;
no rows selected

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VIEWS
Its a stored SQL statement that defines a virtual table. It
takes the output of a query and makes it appear as a virtual
table
Advantages:
To hide the complexity of a query

Provide different representations of same data

To ensure that exactly the same SQL is used throughout your application

To improve security by restricting access to data

Restrict the columns/rows which can be queried

Restrict the rows and columns that may be modified

To isolate and application from any future change to the base table
definition

Users formulate their queries on the views (virtual tables)

Views are updatable! Use WITH READ ONLY to make

view nonupdatable
Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

DATA DICTIONARY VIEWS

Data dictionary? Read-only set of tables that provides
information about the database
These predefined views provided by oracle are a source of
valuable information for developers and dbusers

Oracle Tutorials

user_ts_quotas

user quotas per tablespace

user_objects,
user_tables,
user_views,
user_mviews
user_indexes
user_constraints

objects created in the users schema

user_sys_privs,
user_role_privs,
user_tab_privs

system privileges
roles granted to the user
privileges granted on the users objects

user_segments,
user_extents

storage of the users objects

session_privs

all privileges available for current session

5th of May 2012

MATERIALIZED VIEWS (1/2)

A database object that stores the result of a query
A hybrid of view and table

Advantages
Useful for summarizing, pre-computing, replicating and
distributing data
Faster access for expensive and complex joins
Transparent to end-users
Especially useful for heavy queries and big tables

Disadvantages
Storage costs of maintaining the views

configuration for refresh

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

MATERIALIZED VIEWS (2/2)

Syntax of materialized views:
CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW mv
BUILD IMMEDIATE | DEFFERED | ON PREBUILT TABLE
REFRESH COMPLETE | FAST | FORCE
ON COMMIT | ON DEMAND | START WITH
ENABLE QUERY REWRITE
AS (SELECT FROM tab1e);
The query rewrite feature the ability of database engine to
silently rewrites the query and executes it against MV.
Controlled by following Oracle parameters:

QUERY_REWRITE_ENABLED

QUERY_REWRITE_INTEGRITY

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

B-TREE INDEX
Index with a balanced tree
When to use?
1.

OLTP systems

2.

High cardinality columns (primary key columns)

3.

Size: B-tree index will be signifficantly smaller than Bitmap index for high
cardinality column.

CREATE INDEX
i_employee_id ON
employee (empid);

SELECT *
FROM employee
WHERE empid < 73

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

BITMAP INDEX
Index with a bitmap of the column values
When to use?
1. DSS systems (bitmap indexes can cause a serious locking problem in systems
where data is frequently updated by many concurrent systems)

2. Low cardinality columns (columns with few discrete values)

3. Size: Bitmap index will be signifficantly smaller than B-tree index on low
cardinality column
CREATE BITMAP INDEX
i_employee_sex ON
employee (sex);
SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE sex=F;

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

COMPOSITE & FUNCTION BASED IND

Composite index: Index over multiple columns in a table
When to use?
When WHERE clause uses more than one column
To increase selectivity joining columns of low selectivity
CREATE INDEX mgr_deptno_idx ON emp(mgr, deptno);

Function-based index: Is an index created on a function that

involves columns in the table being indexed (b-tree or bitmap)
They speed up queries that evaluate those functions to select
data because they pre-compute the result and stores it in an
index
CREATE INDEX emp_name_idx ON employee (UPPER(ename));
Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

INDEX ORGANIZED TABLES

IOT stores all of the tables data in the B-tree index structure

CREATE TABLE orders (

order_id NUMBER(10),
, ,
CONSTRAINT pk_orders PRIMARY KEY
(order_id)
)
ORGANIZATION INDEX;
Efficient when:
table is usually accessed by the primary key

Inefficient when:
theres a heavy DML activity especially not primary key based
access to tables data not via primary key is slower comparing to a cheap table
Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

ORACLE PARTITIONING
Tables and indexes can be divided into smaller and more
manageable physical pieces called partitions which are
treated as a single logical unit

Advantages:
Manageability: data management operations at the
partition level (data load, index creation,
backup/recovery, etc)
Performance: Improves query performance, possibility of
concurrent maintenance operations on different partitions
of the same table/index.
Partitioning can be implemented without requiring any
modifications to your applications.

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

PARTITIONING TYPES
There are different criteria to split the data:
List: partition by lists of predefined discrete values
Range: partition by predefined ranges of continuous values
Hash: partition according to hashing algorithm applied by Oracle
Composite: e.g. range-partition by key1, hash-subpartition by key2
CREATE TABLE SALES_2010
(
salesman_id NUMBER(5),
salesman_name VARCHAR2(30),
region VARCHAR2(1),
sales_amount NUMBER(10),
sale_date
DATE
)
PARTITION BY RANGE(sale_date) (
PARTITION p_jan2010 VALUES LESS THAN(TO_DATE('01/01/2010','DD/MM/YYYY')),
PARTITION p_feb2010 VALUES LESS THAN(TO_DATE('02/01/2010','DD/MM/YYYY')),
PARTITION p_mar2010 VALUES LESS THAN(TO_DATE('03/01/2010','DD/MM/YYYY')),
PARTITION p_apr2010 VALUES LESS THAN(TO_DATE('04/01/2010','DD/MM/YYYY')),
()
PARTITION p_aug2010 VALUES LESS THAN(TO_DATE('08/01/2010','DD/MM/YYYY')),
PARTITION p_sep2010 VALUES LESS THAN(TO_DATE('09/01/2010','DD/MM/YYYY')),
PARTITION p_oct2010 VALUES LESS THAN(TO_DATE('10/01/2010','DD/MM/YYYY')),
PARTITION p_nov2010 VALUES LESS THAN(TO_DATE('11/01/2010','DD/MM/YYYY')),
PARTITION p_dec2010 VALUES LESS THAN(TO_DATE('12/01/2010','DD/MM/YYYY')),
PARTITION p_others VALUES LESS THAN (MAXVALUE));

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

PARTITIONING TYPES
There are different criteria to split the data:
List: partition by lists of predefined discrete values
Range: partition by predefined ranges of continuous values
Hash: partition according to hashing algorithm applied by Oracle
Composite: e.g. range-partition by key1, hash-subpartition by key2
CREATE TABLE SALES_REGIONS_2010
(
salesman_id NUMBER(5),
salesman_name VARCHAR2(30),
region VARCHAR2(1),
sales_amount NUMBER(10),
sale_date
DATE
)
PARTITION BY RANGE(sale_date)
SUBPARTITION BY LIST(region)
SUBPARTITION TEMPLATE (
SUBPARTITION p_emea VALUES ('E'),
SUBPARTITION p_asia VALUES ('A'),
SUBPARTITION p_nala VALUES ('N')) (
PARTITION p_jan2010 VALUES LESS THAN(TO_DATE('01/01/2010','DD/MM/YYYY')),
PARTITION p_feb2010 VALUES LESS THAN(TO_DATE('02/01/2010','DD/MM/YYYY')),
PARTITION p_mar2010 VALUES LESS THAN(TO_DATE('03/01/2010','DD/MM/YYYY')),
()
PARTITION p_nov2010 VALUES LESS THAN(TO_DATE('11/01/2010','DD/MM/YYYY')),
PARTITION p_dec2010 VALUES LESS THAN(TO_DATE('12/01/2010','DD/MM/YYYY')),
PARTITION p_others VALUES LESS THAN (MAXVALUE));

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

PARTITION PRUNNING
Table partitioned by date
INSERT INTO table VALUES(MAR 2010);

JAN2010

FEB2010

MAR2010

DEC2010

SELECT * FROM table WHERE key = (DEC 2010);

JAN2010

Oracle Tutorials

FEB2010

MAR2010

DEC2010

5th of May 2012

PARTITION WISE JOINS

SELECT FROM tab1, tab2 WHERE tab1.key = tab2.key
Without partitioning: global join (query time ~ N x N)
JAN2010

JAN2010

FEB2010

FEB2010

MAR2010

MAR2010

DEC2010

tab1

join
DEC2010

tab2

DEC2010

tab1

With partitioning: local joins (query time ~ N)

JAN2010

JAN2010

Oracle Tutorials

FEB2010

FEB2010

MAR2010

MAR2010

join
DEC2010

tab2

5th of May 2012

PARTITIONED INDEXES
Local index: partitioned on the same key as table
CREATE INDEX day_idx ON table (day) LOCAL;

Global index: not partitioned on the same key as table

CREATE INDEX day_idx ON table (day) GLOBAL;

Combine the advantages of partitioning and indexing:

Partitioning improves query performance by pruning
Local index improves performance on full scan of partition

Bitmap indexes on partitioned tables are always local

The concept of global index only applies to B*-tree indexes

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

FLASHBACK TECHNOLOGIES
For COMMITED data
Flashback technologies support recovery at all levels:
Row

Table
Transaction (this is not in the scope of this tutorial)
Entire Database (this is not in the scope of this tutorial)

We DO NOT GUARANTEE that past data will be always

accessible (UNDO is a circular buffer)
SCN System Change Number - is an ever-increasing value
that uniquely identifies a committed version of the database.
In simple words: its an Oracle's clock - every time we commit,
the clock increments. Tom Kyte
Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

FLASHBACK TECHS (2)

For error analysis
Flashback Query
Flashback Version query

Flashback Transaction query (not part of this tutorial)

For error recovery

Flashback Transaction Backout (not part of this tutorial) new 11g!

Flashback Table
Flashback Drop
Flashback Database (not part of this tutorial)

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

FLASHBACK QUERY
For analysis
To perform queries as of a certain time
SELECT *
FROM <TABLE>
AS OF TIMESTAMP | SCN;
SQL> select
DBMS_FLASHBACK.GET_SYSTEM_CHANGE_NUMBER from dual;
GET_SYSTEM_CHANGE_NUMBER
-----------------------6268302650456

SQL> SELECT * FROM test;

no rows selected
SQL> SELECT * FROM test
AS OF SCN 6268302650456;

SQL> delete from test;

3 rows deleted.
SQL> commit;
Commit complete.

Oracle Tutorials

ID STR_VAL
-------------- ---------1 one
2 two
3 three

5th of May 2012

FLASHBACK VERSION QUERY

For analysis
To retrieve all the versions of the rows that exist between two points in
time or two SCNs
Pseudocolumns:

VERSIONS_STARTTIME (start timestamp of version)

VERSIONS_ENDTIME (end timestamp of version)
VERSIONS_STARTSCN (start SCN of version)
VERSIONS_ENDSCN (end SCN of version)
VERSIONS_XID (transaction ID of version)
VERSIONS_OPERATION (DML operation of version)

The VERSIONS clause cannot span DDL commands

SELECT versions_xid, versions_operation, salary
FROM employees

VERSIONS BEETWEN TIMESTAMP | SCN <t1> and <t2>;

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

FLASHBACK TABLE
For error correction
Flashback Table provides a way for users to easily and quickly
recover from accidental modifications without a database
administrators involvement
FLASHBACK TABLE employees
TO TIMESTAMP | SCN <t1>;
SQL> SELECT * FROM test;

SQL> SELECT * FROM test

no rows selected

ID STR_VAL
-------------- ---------1 one
2 two
3 three

SQL> ALTER TABLE test ENABLE ROW MOVEMENT;

Table altered.
SQL> FLASHBACK ATBLE test TO SCN 6268302650456;

Flashback complete.
Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

FLASHBACK DROP
For error correction
The RECYCLEBIN initialization parameter is used to
control whether the Flashback Drop capability is turned ON
or OFF.
Its RECYCLEBIN is set to ON for CERN Physics
databases

FLASHBACK TABLE employees

TO BEFORE DROP;

SQL> DROP TABLE test;

Table dropped.

SQL> FLASHBACK TABLE test TO BEFORE DROP;

Flashback complete.

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

FLASHBACK
select versions_xid, versions_operation, versions_startscn,
versions_endscn, id, str_val
from test versions between
timestamp minvalue and maxvalue order by
VERSIONS_STARTSCN;
VERSIONS_XID V VERSIONS_STARTSCN VERSIONS_ENDSCN ID STR_VAL
---------------- - ----------------- --------------- --- ---------21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869
1 one
21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869 6268303136686 3 three
21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869 6268303136686 2 two
23000600BAFB0D00 U 6268303136686
9 nine
23000600BAFB0D00 D 6268303136686
3 three
23000400B9FC0D00 I 6268303136698
11 eleven
23000400B9FC0D00 I 6268303136698
10 ten
select * from test;
(as of scn 6268303136698)
ID STR_VAL
--- ---------1 one
9 nine
10 ten
11 eleven

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

FLASHBACK
select versions_xid, versions_operation, versions_startscn,
versions_endscn, id, str_val
from test versions between
timestamp minvalue and maxvalue order by
VERSIONS_STARTSCN;
VERSIONS_XID V VERSIONS_STARTSCN VERSIONS_ENDSCN ID STR_VAL
---------------- - ----------------- --------------- --- ---------21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869
1 one
21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869 6268303136686 3 three
21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869 6268303136686 2 two
23000600BAFB0D00 U 6268303136686
9 nine
23000600BAFB0D00 D 6268303136686
3 three
23000400B9FC0D00 I 6268303136698
11 eleven
23000400B9FC0D00 I 6268303136698
10 ten
select * from test;
(as of scn 6268303136698)

select * from test as of scn

6268303136686;

ID STR_VAL
--- ---------1 one
9 nine
10 ten
11 eleven

ID STR_VAL
--- ---------1 one
9 nine

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

FLASHBACK
select versions_xid, versions_operation, versions_startscn,
versions_endscn, id, str_val
from test versions between
timestamp minvalue and maxvalue order by
VERSIONS_STARTSCN;
VERSIONS_XID V VERSIONS_STARTSCN VERSIONS_ENDSCN ID STR_VAL
---------------- - ----------------- --------------- --- ---------21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869
1 one
21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869 6268303136686 3 three
21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869 6268303136686 2 two
23000600BAFB0D00 U 6268303136686
9 nine
23000600BAFB0D00 D 6268303136686
3 three
23000400B9FC0D00 I 6268303136698
11 eleven
23000400B9FC0D00 I 6268303136698
10 ten
select * from test;
(as of scn 6268303136698)

select * from test as of scn

6268303136686;

select * from test

as of scn 6268303135869;

ID STR_VAL
--- ---------1 one
9 nine
10 ten
11 eleven

ID STR_VAL
--- ---------1 one
9 nine

ID STR_VAL
--- ---------1 one
2 two
3 three

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

FLASHBACK
select versions_xid, versions_operation, versions_startscn,
versions_endscn, id, str_val
from test versions between
timestamp minvalue and maxvalue order by
VERSIONS_STARTSCN;
VERSIONS_XID V VERSIONS_STARTSCN VERSIONS_ENDSCN ID STR_VAL
---------------- - ----------------- --------------- --- ---------21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869
1 one
21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869 6268303136686 3 three
21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869 6268303136686 2 two
23000600BAFB0D00 U 6268303136686
9 nine
23000600BAFB0D00 D 6268303136686
3 three
23000400B9FC0D00 I 6268303136698
11 eleven
23000400B9FC0D00 I 6268303136698
10 ten

create table test

(id number(5), str_val varchar2(10));
insert into test values(1, 'one');
insert into test values(2, 'two');
insert into test values(3, 'three');
commit;

Oracle Tutorials

select * from test

as of scn 6268303135869;
ID STR_VAL
--- ---------1 one
2 two
3 three

5th of May 2012

FLASHBACK
select versions_xid, versions_operation, versions_startscn,
versions_endscn, id, str_val
from test versions between
timestamp minvalue and maxvalue order by
VERSIONS_STARTSCN;
VERSIONS_XID V VERSIONS_STARTSCN VERSIONS_ENDSCN ID STR_VAL
---------------- - ----------------- --------------- --- ---------21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869
1 one
21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869 6268303136686 3 three
21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869 6268303136686 2 two
23000600BAFB0D00 U 6268303136686
9 nine
23000600BAFB0D00 D 6268303136686
3 three
23000400B9FC0D00 I 6268303136698
11 eleven
23000400B9FC0D00 I 6268303136698
10 ten

update test set id = 9, str_val = 'nine'

where id =2;
delete from test where id = 3;
commit;

Oracle Tutorials

select * from test as of scn

6268303136686;
ID STR_VAL
--- ---------1 one
9 nine

5th of May 2012

FLASHBACK
select versions_xid, versions_operation, versions_startscn,
versions_endscn, id, str_val
from test versions between
timestamp minvalue and maxvalue order by
VERSIONS_STARTSCN;
VERSIONS_XID V VERSIONS_STARTSCN VERSIONS_ENDSCN ID STR_VAL
---------------- - ----------------- --------------- --- ---------21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869
1 one
21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869 6268303136686 3 three
21001D00F8B50F00 I 6268303135869 6268303136686 2 two
23000600BAFB0D00 U 6268303136686
9 nine
23000600BAFB0D00 D 6268303136686
3 three
23000400B9FC0D00 I 6268303136698
11 eleven
23000400B9FC0D00 I 6268303136698
10 ten

insert into test values(10, 'ten');

insert into test values(11, 'eleven');
commit;

select * from test;

(as of scn 6268303136698)
ID STR_VAL
--- ---------1 one
9 nine
10 ten
11 eleven

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

REFERENCES
Oracle Documentation
http://www.oracle.com/pls/db112/homepage

SQL language reference

http://docs.oracle.com/cd/E11882_01/server.112/e26088/toc.htm

Mastering Oracle SQL and SQL*Plus, Lex De Haan

Oracle SQL Recipes, Allen Grant
Mastering Oracle SQL, Mishra Sanjay
Expert One on One Oracle, Thomas Kyte (more advanced
topics than SQL)

Oracle Tutorials

5th of May 2012

QUESTIONS?
THANK YOU!
[email protected]