AQA Physics Blad
AQA Physics Blad
Forces in equilibrium
B
O
km
grid
W
S
40 N
16 m s1
b A velocity of 16 m s1 at
45 west of due north
(Scale: 1 cm 4 m s1)
20
20
40
F1 = 8.0 kN
F2 = 8.0 kN
F2 = 8.0 kN
b Scale diagram
a Overhead view
Suppose you walk 10.0 m forward then turn through exactly 90 and
walk 7.0m. At the end, how far will you be from your starting point?
The vector diagram to add the two displacements is shown in Figure 5,
drawn to a scale of 1cm to 2.0m. The two displacements form the two
shorter sides of a right-angled triangle with the overall displacement,
the resultant, as the hypotenuse. Using a ruler and a protractor, the
resultant displacement can be shown to be a distance of 12.2m at an
angle of 35 to the initial direction. You can check this using
OB = OA + AB
Study tip
Drawing vector diagrams requires
a ruler and careful drawing.
7.0 m
10.0 m
scale:
1 cm 2.0 m
(scale: 1 cm 4 N)
F1 = 10.0 N
Figure 3
(Scale: 1 cm 1 km)
F1 = 8.0 kN
Draft pages
A scalar is any physical quantity that is not directional.
Any two vectors of the same type can be added together using a scale
diagram. For example, Figure 4a shows a ship pulled via cables by two
tugboats. The two pull forces F1 and F2 acting on the ship are at 40 to
each other. Suppose the forces are both 8.0 kN. Figure 4b shows how
you can find the resultant (combined effect) of the two forces using a
scale diagram.
an
Hint
ult
Representing a vector
OB = OA + AB
res
Learning objectives:
96
Forces in equilibrium
F1 = 10.0 N
F2 = 7.0 N
resultant force F
object O
F2 = 7.0 N
a An object acted on by two
perpendicular forces
Figure 6
97
object
The vector diagram drawn to scale can therefore be used to find the
resultant if the magnitudes of F1 and F2 are given. For example, the
resultant of a force of 10.0N acting at right angles to a force of 7.0N
has a magnitude of 12.2N in a direction of 35 to the direction of the
force of 10.0N. You could check this using Pythagorass theorem and
the appropriate trigonometry equation. You might, however, recognise
that you have already done this! See addition of displacement vectors
on the previous page.
4.0 N
6.0 N
a Forces acting
resultant = 10.0 N
6.0 N
4.0 N
b Vector diagram
4.0 N
6.0 N
a Forces acting
6.0 N
resultant = 2.0 N
b Vector diagram
Note:
F1
The resultant of two vectors that act along the same line has a
magnitude that is
5.
0
km
53
5.0 cos 53
east
OP cos q
OP sin q
98
OP
35
Figure 12
Summary questions
1 Figure 13 shows three situations ac where two
or more known forces act on an object. For each
situation, calculate the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force.
2.0 N
F = Fx2 + Fy2
line
F
Fy = F sin q
q
Fx = F cos q
20
6.5 kN
3.1 N
object
gride
object
16.0 N
6.0 N
Figure 14
4 A yacht is moving due north as a result of a force,
due to the wind, of 350N in a horizontal direction of
40 east of due north, as shown in Figure 15.
direction of motion
2.0 N
object
3.0 N
40
Solution
Draft pages
north
F2
Worked example
5.0 sin 53
The sum, if the two vectors are in the same direction. For example,
if an object is acted on by a force of 6.0N and a force of 4.0N both
acting in the same direction, the resultant force is 10.0N (Figure 7).
object
4.0 N
Forces in equilibrium
1.0 N
Figure 13
2 Calculate the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force on an object which is acted on by a
force of 4.0N and a force of 10N that are
i in the same direction
ii in opposite directions
iii at right angles to each other.
Figure 15
99
Forces in equilibrium
support force S
(i.e., force on block
due to floor)
Study tip
Forces can often be calculated
using several different methods,
for example, using trigonometric
functions or Pythagoras theorem.
You will meet another method of
solving these problems, by using
the triangle of forces, later on in
this chapter.
100
friction F
weight
W
W2
F2
Figure 3
S2
F
Also, because tan = sin , then = Wsin = tan
cos
S Wcos
F
\ tan =
S
Draft pages
Worked example 3
Solution
Synoptic link
support S
resolve each force along the same parallel and perpendicular lines
Worked example 1
weight W
(i.e., force on block
due to gravity)
pullpull
force
force
F1 F1
a On
a On
a swing
a swing
Figure 2
F
sin
Tsin
, then 1 =
= tan
W Tcos
cos
T2
Study tip
resultant
F2
F1
q q
F2
P
q1
T sinq
T sinq
F1
q2
F3
W W
b Force
b Force
diagram
diagram
q1 q2
T T
child
child
T1
At the point P where the strings meet, the forces T1, T2, and W
are in equilibrium.
a Using pulleys
T cosq
T cosq
F1 F1
W1
W3
W2
P
F3
101
The three forces F1, F2, and F3 acting on P are in equilibrium, so any
two should give a resultant equal and opposite to the third force. For
example, the resultant of F1 and F2 is equal and opposite to F3. You
can test this by measuring the angle between each of the upper strings
and the lower string which is vertical. A scale diagram can then be
constructed using the fact that the magnitudes of F1, F2, and F3 are
equal to W1, W2, and W3 respectively. Your diagram should show that
the resultant of F1 and F2 is equal and opposite to F3.
Note:
Greater accuracy can be obtained by drawing a parallelogram, using
the two force vectors F1 and F2 as adjacent sides. The resultant is
the diagonal of the parallelogram between the two force vectors.
This should be equal and opposite to F3.
Summary questions
Hint
Remember that rough means
friction is involved.
Draft pages
Notes:
d
force F
102
Learning objectives:
Turning effects
pivot
d2
W1d1 = W2d2
W2
Study tip
When there are several unknown
forces, take moments about a
point through which one of the
unknown forces acts. This point,
the pivot, will give the force
which acts through it a moment
of zero, thereby simplifying your
calculations.
103
Note:
If a third weight W3 is suspended from the rule on the same side of the
pivot as W2 at distance d3 from the pivot, then the rule can be rebalanced
by increasing distance d1.
thread of
plumb line
Summary questions
1 A child of weight 200 N sits
on a seesaw at a distance
of 1.2 m from the pivot at
the centre. The seesaw is
balanced by a second child
sitting on it at a distance
of 0.8 m from the centre.
Calculate the weight of the
second child.
2 A metre rule, pivoted at its centre
of mass, supports a 3.0 N weight
at its 5.0 cm mark, a 2.0 N
weight at its 25 cm mark, and
a weight W at its 80 cm mark.
a Sketch a diagram to
represent this situation.
b Calculate the weight W.
3 In 2, the 3.0 N weight and
the 2.0 N weight are swapped
with each other. Sketch
the new arrangement and
calculate the new distance
of weight W from the pivot to
balance the metre rule.
4 A uniform metre rule
supports a 4.5 N weight at
its 100 mm mark. The rule is
balanced horizontally on a
horizontal knife-edge at its
340 mm mark. Sketch the
arrangement and calculate the
weight of the rule.
104
Centre of mass
Support forces
Learning objectives:
Single-support problems
Note:
1 Balance a ruler at its centre on the end of your finger. The centre
of mass of the ruler is directly above the point of support. Tip the
ruler too much and it falls off because the centre of mass is no
longer above the point of support.
2 To find the centre of mass of a triangular card, suspend the piece
of card on a clamp stand as shown in Figure 3. Draw pencil lines
along the plumb line. The centre of mass is where the lines drawn
on the card cross.
known
weight
W1
d0
pivot
d2
pivot
W1
W0
W2
Two-support problems
Sy
Sx
beam
pillar
X
dx
dy
pillar
Y
W0d0 = W1d1
d1
d1
Draft pages
hence W0 =
W1d1
d0
Wdx
D
2 where Y is in contact with the beam,
SxD = Wdy, where Sy is the support force from pillar
gives Sy =
Wdy
.
D
Therefore, if the centre of mass is closer to X than to Y, dx < dy so Sy < Sx.
gives Sx =
Study tip
In calculations, you can always
eliminate the turning effect of a
force by taking moments about
a point through which it acts.
105
6.5 Stability
Couples
A couple is a pair of equal and opposite forces acting on a body, but
not along the same line. Figure 3 shows a couple acting on a beam.
The couple turns or tries to turn the beam.
The moment of a couple = force perpendicular distance between the
lines of action of the forces.
To prove this, consider the couple in Figure 3. Taking moments about
an arbitrary point P between the ends at distance x along the beam
from one end,
x
dx
P
d
The total moment is the same, regardless of the point about which the
moments are taken.
Figure 3 A couple
Summary questions
8.5 m
0.5 m
Figure 4
Calculate:
a the support force of each wall on the beam
b the force of the beam on each wall.
106
Learning objectives:
Explain the difference
between stable and unstable
equilibrium.
Assess when a tilted object
will topple over.
Explain why a vehicle is more
stable when its centre of
mass is lower.
Specification reference: 3.4.1.1;
3.4.1.2
Draft pages
centre
of mass
15.0 m
weight of
basket
Figure 5
support on beam
beam
weight of beam
Skittles at a bowling alley are easy to knock over because they are tall,
so their centre of mass is high and the base is narrow. Aslight nudge
from a ball causes a skittle to tilt then tip over.
107
Forces in equilibrium
6.5 Stability
line of
action
of F
force F
applied
here
Tilting
This is where an object at rest on a surface is acted on by a force that
raises it up on one side. For example, if a horizontal force F is applied
to the top of a tall free-standing bookcase, the force can make the
bookcase tilt about its base along one edge.
In Figure 3, to make the bookcase tilt, the force must turn it clockwise
about point P. The entire support from the floor acts at point P. The
weight of the bookcase provides an anticlockwise moment about P.
b
W
Figure 3 Tilting
Toppling
A tilted object will topple over if it is tilted too far. If an object on a flat
surface is tilted more and more, the line of action of its weight (which
is through its centre of mass) passes closer and closer to the pivot. If the
object is tilted so much that the line of action of its weight passes beyond
the pivot, the object will topple over if allowed to. The position where
the line of action of the weight passes through the pivot is the furthest
it can be tilted without toppling. Beyond this position, it topples over
ifit is released.
Figure 4 Toppling
Summary questions
1 Explain why a bookcase with books on its top shelf only is less stable
than if the books were on the bottom shelf.
2 An empty wardrobe of weight 400N has a square base 0.8m 0.8m
and a height of 1.8m. A horizontal force is applied to the top edge of the
wardrobe to make it tilt. Calculate the force needed to lift the wardrobe
base off the floor along one side.
force
applied
here
Draft pages
1.8 m
On a slope
A tall object on a slope will topple over if the slope is too great. For
example, a high-sided vehicle on a road with a sideways slope will topple
over if the slope is too great. This will happen if the line of action of the
weight (passing through the centre of mass of the object) lies outside the
wheelbase of the vehicle. In Figure 5, the vehicle will not topple over
because the line of action of the weight lies within the wheelbase.
0.8 m
Figure 6
Sy
Sx
0.8
friction F
Hint
The lower the centre of mass of an
object, the more stable it is.
1.8
X
pe
slo
q
W
108
Figure 7
109
Forces in equilibrium
F3
F1
When two objects interact, they always exert equal and opposite forces
on one another. A diagram showing the forces acting on an object can
become very complicated, if it also shows the forces the object exerts on
other objects as well. A free body force diagram shows only the forces
acting on the object.
S
support forces S
friction F
centre of mass
friction F
weight W
F
W
Draft pages
weight W
support forces S
friction F
a At rest
F
b The triangle of forces
F2sin3 = F3sin2
F
centre
of mass
weight W
As explained in Topic 6.1, any two of the forces give a resultant that
isequal and opposite to the third force. For example, the resultant of
F1 + F2 is equal and opposite to F3 (F1 + F2 = F3).
support S
110
F2
2 Use a protractor and ruler to draw the other known force (e.g., F2) at
the correct angle to F1 as the second side of the triangle. The third side
of the triangle can then be drawn in to give the unknown force (F3).
The support force S on the block due to the slope acts normal to the
slope through the point where the lines of action of W and F act.
Figure 3 also shows the triangle of forces for the three forces W, F,
and S acting on the block.
We can draw a scale diagram of the triangle of forces to find an unknown
force or angle, given the other forces and angles in the triangle. For
example, to find the unknown force, F3, in the triangle of forces in
Figure 4:
1 Draw one of the known force vectors, F1, to scale, as one side of
the force triangle.
1 The resultant force must be zero. If there are only three forces,
they must form a closed triangle.
2 The principle of moments must apply (i.e., the moments of the
forces about the same point must balance out).
q1
F3
F2
q3
q2
F1
Study tip
Rearranging the equation
F2sin3 = F3sin2 gives
F2
F
= 3
sin2 sin3
By applying the same theory to
F1 and either F2 or F3, it can be
shown that
F1
F
F
= 2 = 3
sin1 sin2 sin3
This rule, known as the sine rule,
will be useful if you study A level
Maths.
Worked example
cord
0.4 m
Solution
a Let the angle between each cord and the shelf = .
0.4
From Figure 5, tan =
, so = 34.
0.6
b
Taking moments about the hinge eliminates the force at the
hinge (as its moment is zero) to give:
d
0.6 m
shelf
centre of mass
of shelf
Figure 5
1
The sum of the clockwise moments = weight of shelf
distance from hinge to the centre of mass of the shelf
= 12 0.3 = 3.6 Nm.
2
The sum of the anticlockwise moments = 2Td, where
T is the tension in each cord and d is the perpendicular
distance from the hinge to either cord.
From Figure 5 it can be seen that d = 0.6 sin = 0.6 sin34 = 0.34 m.
Applying the principle of moments gives:
2 0.34 T = 3.6
T = 5.3 N
111
Summary questions
q
a
W0
z
d0
pivot
d
a Lifting a suitcase
crane
cable
10
Questions
1 Estimate the compressive force in the spine
of a person leaning forward at angle equal to
a 30, b 60 just before lifting a 20 kg suitcase off
the ground. Assume W0 = 400 N.
2 Estimate the total compressive force in the
spine in 1a and b when the suitcase is lifted off
the ground.
3 Figure 7 shows a suitcase being lifted by a person
who is not leaning over. Explain why the compressive
force in the spine is considerably less than if the
person had leaned forward to lift the suitcase.
6.0 m
Figure 10
1.0 m
beam
60
40
camera
1.2 m
toy
Figure 8
Draft pages
112
Forces in equilibrium
2.8 N
Figure 9
Figure 11
Figure 7
113
1
A student set up a model bridge crane to nd out how the support forces
change withtheposition of a load of weight W on the horizontal beam of the crane.
With the loadat different measured distances d from the xed support at X, she
used a newtonmeter to measure the support force S at Y near the other end, when
the beamwashorizontal. She repeated the measurements and also measured the
distanceDfrom X to Y.
newtonmeter used to
measure support force S
42
Figure 2
Y
AQA, 2005
load
Figure 1
42
(1 mark)
0.25 m
pedal
(2 marks)
Draft pages
Distance d / mm
Support force S / N
1st set
2nd set
mean
40
1.4
1.2
120
2.6
2.9
200
4.4
4.3
280
5.6
5.9
360
7.3
7.0
440
8.6
8.8
(a) An object is acted upon by forces of 9.6N and 4.8N, with an angle of 40
betweenthem. Draw a vector diagram of these forces, using a scale of 1cm
representing 1N. Complete the vector diagram to determine the magnitude
oftheresultant force acting on the object. Measure the angle between the
resultantforce and the 9.6N force.
(3 marks)
(b) Calculate the magnitude of the resultant force when the same two forces act
at right angles to each other.
You must not use a scale diagram for this part.(2 marks)
AQA, 2007
3 Figure 2 shows a uniform steel girder being held horizontally by a crane. Two cables are
attached to the ends of the girder and the tension in each of these cables is T.
(a) If the tension, T, in each cable is 850N, calculate:
(i) the horizontal component of the tension in each cable,
(ii) the vertical component of the tension in each cable,
(iii) the weight of the girder.
(4 marks)
(i)
The moment of the force about O is 46Nm in the position shown. Calculate
thevalue of the force, F.
(ii) Force F is constant in magnitude and direction while the pedal is moving
downwards. State and explain how the moment of F changes as the
pedal moves through 80, from the position shown.
(4 marks)
AQA, 2007
5 Figure 4 shows a student standing on a plank that pivots on a log. The student
intends to cross the stream.
3.0 m
0.50 m
ground
plank
load
stream
ground
log
Figure 4
(a) The plank has a mass of 25kg and is 3.0m long with a uniform cross section.
The log pivot is 0.50m from the end of the plank. The student has a mass of
65kg and stands at the end of the plank. A load is placed on the far end in
order to balance the plank horizontally.
Draw on a copy of Figure 4 the forces that act on the plank.
(3 marks)
(b) By taking moments about the log pivot, calculate the load, in N,
needed on the right-hand end of the plank in order to balance the
plank horizontally.
(3 marks)
(c) Explain why the load will eventually touch the ground as the student
walks toward the log.
(2 marks)
116
Figure 3
40
AQA, 2003
117