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Principles of Exercise Physiology
Principles of Exercise Physiology
INTRODUCTION
For decades, exercise has been used by physiologists as a research tool to understand the
workings of several body systems, particularly the skeletal muscle, metabolism, the heart,
and the peripheral circulation. More recently, physiologists have focused on understanding
exercise itself, because regular physical activity has been shown to be important for disease
prevention and health promotion. The purpose of this focused review is to discuss our
current understanding of the human bodys response to an acute bout of exercise. We will
use endurance exercise as an example of this response. For more detailed discussions of
other types of exercise, the reader is referred to several alternative sources. In the second part
of the review, we also comment on the long-term adaptations induced by endurance
exercise in some physiological systems.
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Shortening
Velocity
Metabolic
Profile
Fatigability
Sports Predominance*
I
IIa
IIx
Slow
Fast
Faster
Oxidative
Intermediate
Glycolytic
Resistant
Intermediate
Fatigable
I
IIa
IIx
*Fiber-type distribution is highly variable in humans; this classification is only intended to illustrate the relationship between the metabolic demands of a particular
sport and the predominant fiber-type distribution.
MUSCLE-FIBER TYPES
Human skeletal muscle is a heterogeneous tissue in the sense
that muscle fibers vary in terms of their mechanical, physiological, and biochemical properties (Table 1). Different
methods have been used to classify skeletal muscle fibers,
including histochemical techniques, such as ATPase and
oxidative enzyme stains, measurements of contraction
(twitch) or fiber-shortening velocity, and the identification of
the myosin heavy chain isoform by using protein electrophoresis. In general, human skeletal muscles may contain 3 types
of fibers in varying proportions: fiber types I, IIa, and IIx [4].
Fibers that express type I myosin heavy chain isoform are the
slow, oxidative, fatigue-resistant fibers. Type IIx fibers,
however, are very fast contracting, glycolytic, and fatigable
fibers. Type IIa fibers have intermediate properties, that is,
fast contracting but with an oxidative metabolic profile. It
is important to note that human muscle fibers can express
more than one type of myosin heavy chain isoform simultaneously [4]. These fibers are known as hybrid fibers and
various combinations (I/IIa, IIa/IIx, I/IIa/IIx) have been
reported. These hybrid fibers may be more prevalent in
muscles recovering from injury, aging, and undergoing
strength training.
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AEROBIC METABOLISM
If exercise intensity is low and there is a steady supply of
oxygen to the cells, then energy is produced via oxidative
phosphorylation [7]. The oxidative system has a high-energy
yield and is the most important pathway for energy production during prolonged exercise. This aerobic process takes
place in the mitochondria of active muscles and uses the
Krebs cycle and the respiratory chain. The energy yield of
aerobic metabolism is much higher than that obtained
through anaerobic glycolysis: 36-39 mol of ATP can be
generated per mmol of glycogen. Fats also enter the Krebs
cycle and the respiratory chain after being broken down in a
metabolic process known as -oxidation. Amino acids can be
converted to glucose or to various intermediates of oxidative
metabolism, but in general, they contribute little to energy
production.
Figure 4. The energy needed to perform a high jump is
derived from the adenosine triphosphate and creatine phosphate that is stored in muscle cells. Printed with permission.
ANAEROBIC METABOLISM
Stored ATP and CP
Energy at the onset of exercise and for muscle actions of
very-high intensity (85%-100% of maximal capacity) and,
therefore, of short duration (up to 10 seconds) is derived
from a small amount of ATP and CP that is stored in muscle
cells [5-7]. The total energy available in stored ATP-CP is
enough for short-duration exercise, such as a weight lifting,
high jump (Figure 4), or a 10-second sprint.
Anaerobic Glycolysis
During high-intensity exercise, the cardiovascular system is
unable to supply the cells with oxygen quickly enough. If
activity is to continue, once the ATP-CP stores are exhausted,
the muscles resort to the rapid breakdown of stored glycogen-glucose for ATP regeneration via the glycolytic pathway
[6]. Anaerobic glycolysis can provide energy for events such
as the 400-800-m sprints and during the beginning of lowintensity exercise when muscle energy needs are high and the
oxygen transport system is not yet fully activated. Unfortunately, this may result in the production and accumulation of
lactic acid, which leads to fatigue because muscle acidification impairs enzyme function, decreases the calcium-binding
capacity of muscle fibers, and impairs the muscle fibers
ability to generate force. The fuel used in anaerobic glycolysis
is carbohydrates. Each mmol of glucose or glycogen provides
3 mmol of ATP. Patients with certain types of metabolic
myopathies may have limited capacity to generate ATP and
perform exercise due to enzymatic abnormalities in the glycolytic pathway.
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Cardiac Output
Cardiac output is the product of stroke volume and heart
rate. In general, cardiac output increases linearly with exercise intensity, from a resting value of approximately 5 L/min
to 20-40 L/min, depending on the level of conditioning.
During exercise, there is a redistribution of blood flow so that
approximately 95% of the CO is diverted to the heart and
active skeletal muscles. In healthy individuals, stroke volume
increases with increasing power output up to approximately
40%-60% of the VO2 max and then levels off [12]. The rest of
the increase in CO with increasing exercise intensity is primarily mediated by increasing heart rate. During maximal
exercise in the upright position, stroke volume can increase
from 50 mL at rest to 120 mL. In the supine position, blood
does not pool in the lower extremities and venous return is
enhanced. Thus, resting stroke volume values are higher in
the supine position, and the increase in stroke volume during
exercise, such as in swimming, is only approximately 20%40% of the resting value.
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Blood Pressure
Gender
In healthy individuals, both systolic and mean blood pressure increase with exercise intensity while diastolic blood
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Type of Exercise
Frequency, d/wk
Intensity
Duration
3-4
8-12 reps; 3
sets
3-5
At least 30
min
Cardiorespiratory
endurance
RM repetition maximum; reps repetitions; HRR heart rate reserve; HRmax heart rate maximum.; VO2R oxygen uptake reserve.
Age
With increasing age, there is a decline in aerobic capacity
partially due to a reduction in habitual physical activity.
Aerobic capacity decreases by approximately 10% per decade
in men and women [19-21]. In athletes who maintain a high
level of endurance training, the decline in VO2 max is approximately half that of sedentary men (approximately 5%
per decade). The primary factor that causes the reduction of
VO2 max with age is a reduction in cardiac output due to
increased peripheral resistance and lower stroke volume.
Genetics
Studies on identical and fraternal twins have suggested that
genetics account for 20%-30% of VO2 max values [15,22]. It
appears that elite endurance athletes are born with exceptional genetic potential for the development of a very high
level of cardiorespiratory fitness.
LONG-TERM PHYSIOLOGICAL
ADAPTATIONS TO ENDURANCE EXERCISE
TRAINING
Exercise training is associated with significant adaptations in
many physiological systems that are specific to the type of
training. This section will briefly summarize the main adaptations to one type of exercise training that emphasizes endurance. Other sources present a more detailed discussion of
these adaptations [6,11,16].
Endurance training elicits many adaptations in skeletal
muscles and in the metabolic and cardiorespiratory systems
(Table 3). Together, these adaptations improve the ability to
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Rest
Submaximal
Exercise
Maximal
Exercise
Stroke volume
Heart rate
Cardiac output
a-vO2 difference
VO2
Systolic blood pressure
Diastolic blood pressure
Blood volume
Capillary density
Mitochondrial density
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2 or
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
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SUMMARY
Metabolic Adaptations in Skeletal Muscle
Endurance training causes an increase in the number of
capillaries per muscle fiber and in the number and size of
mitochondria in skeletal muscles [30-32]. The new capillaries that form in trained muscles result in an increase in blood
flow to active muscles and provide a greater surface area for
the exchange of gases during exercise. The increase in mitochondrial content and concentration of enzymes involved in
carbohydrate and lipid metabolism enhances the muscles
oxidative capacity and ability to extract and utilize oxygen
from arterial blood. As a result, glycogen stores are spared
and lactate production at a given exercise intensity is less. The
increase in mitochondria in the subsarcolemmal region of the
muscle fibers shortens the diffusion distance for oxygen.
Regular exercise is important to improve physiological function, physical fitness, and health. Physical activity and fitness
are associated with a lower prevalence of many chronic
diseases such as heart disease, cancer, high blood pressure,
and diabetes. Exercise activities can be categorized in terms
of the major metabolic pathway involved in energy contribution: predominantly aerobic or predominantly anaerobic.
Repeated bouts of exercise result in significant adaptations in
many physiological systems of the body. Further, regular
aerobic exercise leads to an improvement in VO2 max that
reflects several cardiovascular and metabolic adaptations.
Although the VO2 max has a significant genetic component
and it is affected by the aging process, it can improve significantly with training at any age and in both genders. Exercise
training should include exercises to increase strength and
endurance.
Cardiovascular Adaptations
Endurance training increases plasma and total blood volume.
Of importance is the fact that this effect is noted within the
first 7-10 days of training. The increase in plasma volume
also results in relative hemodilution and a lower hemoglobin
concentration (runners pseudoanemia). The low blood viscosity enhances the movement of blood through the capillaries and may improve oxygen delivery to the active muscles.
At the level of the heart, the increase in plasma volume causes
an increase in end-diastolic volume and in the elastic recoil of
the left ventricle [33]. Endurance training also leads to an
increase in left ventricular muscle mass and dilatation that
results in a more forceful contraction. Both of these adapta-
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