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Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan
For the mosque in Calcutta, India, see Tipu Sultan tans image in India is complex; he is regarded both as a
Mosque. For the ships of the Pakistan Navy, see PNS secular ruler who fought against British colonialism, on
Tippu Sultan. the other hand, he is controversial for his suppression of
political dissent in Hindus, Christians and Mappla Mus-
lims. He is said to force Manglore Catholics to convert
Tipu Sultan (Urdu: , Kannada :
; 20 November 1750 4 May 1799), (Sayyid into Muslim. Also during his reign only threes temples
[2] of his kingdom were able to oer daily Pooja.[10]
walShareef Sultan Fateh Ali Khan Sahab Tipu )
also known as the Tiger of Mysore, and Tipu Sahib,[3]
was a ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. He was the eldest
son of Sultan Hyder Ali of Mysore.[4] Tipu introduced a 1 Early years
number of administrative innovations during his rule, in-
cluding his coinage, a new Mauludi lunisolar calendar,[5]
and a new land revenue system which initiated the growth 1.1 Childhood
of Mysore silk industry.[6] Tipu expanded the iron-cased
Mysorean rockets and commissioned the military man-
ual Fathul Mujahidin. He is considered a pioneer in the
use of rocket artillery.[7] Tipu Sultan deployed the rock-
ets against advances of British forces and their allies in
their 1792 and 1799 Siege of Srirangapatna.
Napoleon, the French commander-in-chief who later be-
came emperor, sought an alliance with Tipu. In al-
liance with the French in their struggle with the British,
and in Mysores struggles with other surrounding pow-
ers, both Tipu and his father used their French trained
army[8] against the Marathas, Sira, and rulers of Malabar,
Kodagu, Bednore, Carnatic, and Travancore. During
Tipus childhood, his father rose to take power in Mysore,
and upon his fathers death in 1782, Tipu succeeded to a
large kingdom bordered by the Krishna River in the north,
the Eastern Ghats in the east, and the Arabian Sea in the
west.[9] He won important victories against the British in
the Second Anglo-Mysore War, and negotiated the 1784
Treaty of Mangalore with them after his father Hyder Ali
suddenly died from cancer in December 1782 during the
Second Anglo-Mysore War.
Tipu engaged in expansionist attacks against his neigh-
bours. He remained an implacable enemy of the British
East India Company, bringing them into renewed conict
with his attack on British-allied Travancore in 1789. In
the Third Anglo-Mysore War, Tipu was forced into the Tipu Sultan confronts his opponents during the Siege of Sriran-
humiliating Treaty of Seringapatam, losing a number of gapatna.
previously conquered territories, including Malabar and
Mangalore. He sent emissaries to foreign states, includ- Tipu Sultan was born on 20 November 1750 (Friday,
ing the Ottoman Turkey, Afghanistan, and France, in an 20th Dhu al-Hijjah, 1163 AH) at Devanahalli,[1] in
attempt to rally opposition to the British. In the Fourth present-day Bengaluru Rural district, about 33 km (21
Anglo-Mysore War, the forces of the British East India mi) north of Bengaluru city. He was named Tipu Sul-
Company, supported by the Marathas and the Nizam of tan after the saint Tipu Mastan Aulia of Arcot. Tipu
Hyderabad, defeated Tipu and he was killed on 4 May was also called Sultan Sayyid walShareef Fateh Ali Khan
1799 while defending his fort of Srirangapatna. Tipu Sul- Tipu " after his grandfather Fateh Muhammad. Tipu was
1
2 1 EARLY YEARS
born at Devanhalli in a Najeeb AlTarfayn Sayyid fam- 1.3 Second Anglo-Mysore War
ily meaning having ancestry to both Imams Hassan and
Hussain, as the son of Hyder Ali. Being illiterate, Hyder Main article: Second Anglo-Mysore War
was very particular in giving his eldest son a princes edu-
cation and a very early exposure to military and political
In 1779, the British captured the French-controlled port
aairs. From the age of 17 Tipu was given independent
of Mah, which Tipu had placed under his protection,
charge of important diplomatic and military missions. He
providing some troops for its defence. In response, Hy-
was his fathers right arm in the wars from which Hyder
der launched an invasion of the Carnatic, with the aim of
emerged as the most powerful ruler of southern India.
driving the British out of Madras.[14] During this cam-
Tipus father, Hyder Ali, was a military ocer in ser- paign in September 1780, Tipu Sultan was dispatched
vice to the Kingdom of Mysore; he rapidly rose in power, by Hyder Ali with 10,000 men and 18 guns to intercept
and became the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761. Hy- Colonel Baillie who was on his way to join Sir Hector
der himself claimed descent from the Banu Hashim clan Munro. In the Battle of Pollilur, Tipu decisively defeated
of the Quraysh tribe of Arabs, the tribe of the Islamic Baillie. Out of 360 Europeans, about 200 were captured
prophet, Muhammad. Hyders father, Fateh Muhammad, alive, and the sepoys, who were about 3800 men, suered
was born in Kolar, and served as a commander of 50 men very high casualties. Munro was moving south with a sep-
in the bamboo rocket artillery (mainly used for signalling) arate force to join Baillie, but on hearing the news of the
in the army of the Nawab of Carnatic. Fateh Muhammad defeat he was forced to retreat to Madras, abandoning his
eventually entered the service of the Wodeyar Rajas of artillery in a water tank at Kanchipuram.[15]
the Kingdom of Mysore. Tipus mother Fatima Fakhr-
un-Nisa was the daughter of Mir Muin-ud-Din, the gov-
ernor of the fort of Kadapa. Hyder Ali appointed able
teachers to give Tipu an early education in subjects like
Hindustani language (Hindi-Urdu), Persian, Arabic, Kan-
nada, Quran, Islamic jurisprudence, riding, shooting and
fencing.[1]
Tipu Sultan unlike his father before him, opposed the existence
of the Maratha Confederacy.
General Lord Cornwallis, receiving two of Tipu Sultans sons as Louis XVI receives the ambassadors of Tipu Sultan in 1788.
hostages in the year 1793. Tipu Sultan is known to have sent many diplomatic missions to
France, the Ottoman Empire, Sultanate of Oman, Zand Dynasty
and Durrani Empire.[31]
In 1791 his opponents advanced on all fronts, with the
main British force under Cornwallis taking Bangalore and
threatening Srirangapatna. Tipu harassed the British sup- a 13 February 1798 report by Talleyrand: Having occu-
ply and communication and embarked on a scorched pied and fortied Egypt, we shall send a force of 15,000
earth policy of denying local resources to the invaders. men from Suez to India, to join the forces of Tipu-Sahib
In this last eort he was successful, as the lack of provi- and drive away the English.[34] Napoleon was unsuccess-
sions forced Cornwallis to withdraw to Bangalore rather ful in this strategy, losing the Siege of Acre in 1799, and
than attempt a siege of Srirangapatna. Following the at the Battle of Abukir in 1801.[35]
withdrawal, Tipu sent forces to Coimbatore, which they
retook after a lengthy siege.
The 1792 campaign was a failure for Tipu. The allied 3 Death
army was well-supplied, and Tipu was unable to pre-
vent the junction of forces from Bangalore and Bombay
3.1 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
before Srirangapatna. After about two weeks of siege,
Tipu opened negotiations for terms of surrender. In the
Main article: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
ensuing treaty, he was forced to cede half his territories to
After Horatio Nelson had defeated Franois-Paul Brueys
the allies,[12] and deliver two of his sons as hostages until
D'Aigalliers at the Battle of the Nile in Egypt in 1798,
he paid in full three crores and thirty lakhs rupees xed
three armies, one from Bombay, and two British (one of
as war indemnity to the British for the campaign against
which included Arthur Wellesley), marched into Mysore
him. He paid the amount in two instalments and got back
in 1799 and besieged the capital Srirangapatna in the
his sons from Madras.
Fourth Mysore War.[36]
There were over 26,000 soldiers of the British East India
2.5 Napoleons attempt at a junction Company comprising about 4000 Europeans and the rest
Indians. A column was supplied by the Nizam of Hy-
Main article: Franco-Indian alliances derabad consisting of ten battalions and over 16,000 cav-
alry, and many soldiers were sent by the Marathas. Thus
the soldiers in the British force numbered over 50,000
In 1794, with the support of French Republican o- soldiers whereas Tipu Sultan had only about 30,000 sol-
cers, Tipu helped found the Jacobin Club of Mysore for diers. The British broke through the city walls, French
'framing laws comfortable with the laws of the Republic' Military advisers advised Tipu Sultan to escape from se-
He planted a Liberty Tree and declared himself Citizen cret passages and live to ght another day but to their as-
Tipoo.[32] tonishment Tipu replied One day of life as a Tiger is far
One of the motivations of Napoleons Invasion of Egypt better than thousand years of living as a Sheep. Tipu
was to establish a junction with India against the British. Sultan died defending his capital on 4 May. When the
Bonaparte wished to establish a French presence in the fallen Tipu was identied, Wellesley felt his pulse and
Middle East, with the ultimate dream of linking with Tip- conrmed that he was dead. Next to him, underneath
poo Sahib.[33] Napoleon assured to the French Directory his palankeen, was one of his most condential servants,
that as soon as he had conquered Egypt, he will establish Rajah Cawn. Rajah was able to identify Tipu for the sol-
relations with the Indian princes and, together with them, diers. Tipu Sultan was killed at the Hoally (Diddy) Gate-
attack the English in their possessions.[34] According to way, which was located 300 yards (270 m) from the N.E.
7
angle calculated from the diameter of the cylinder and the Muslim accused of collaboration with the British East In-
distance to the target. The rockets had twin side sharp- dia Company or the Maratha.[41]
ened blades mounted on them, and when red en masse
,spun and wreaked signicant damage against a large
army. Tipu greatly expanded the use of rockets after Hy- 5.1 Attitude towards Hindus
ders death, deploying as many as 5,000 rocketeers at a
time. The rockets deployed by Tipu during the Battle of 5.1.1 Conversions of Hindus outside Mysore to Is-
Pollilur were much more advanced than those the British lam
East India Company had previously seen, chiey because
of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this en- Main article: Captivity of Kodavas at Seringapatam
abled higher thrust and longer range for the missiles (up
to 2 km range).[7]
British accounts describe the use of the rockets during
the third and fourth wars. During the climactic battle Kodagu (Coorg) The battles between Kodavas and
at Srirangapatna in 1799, British shells struck a maga- Tippu Sultan is one of the most bitter rivalries in South
zine containing rockets, causing it to explode and send India. There were repeated attempts to capture Kodagu
a towering cloud of black smoke with cascades of ex- by the sultan and his father Hyder Ali before him. The
ploding white light rising up from the battlements. Af- primary reason for sultans interest in Kodagu because an-
ter Tipus defeat in the fourth war the British captured a nexing Kodagu would provide access to Mangalore port.
number of the Mysorean rockets. These became inuen- The Kodavas knew their lands and mountains very well
tial in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve which made them excellent at guerrilla warfare. Ko-
rocket, which was soon put into use in the Napoleonic davas were outnumbered 3 to 1 in most of Tippus at-
Wars.[7] tempts to annex Kodagu but they managed to beat back
Tippu most of the times by drawing his army towards
hilly regions of their land. On few occasions Tippus army
4.2 Mysorean Navy managed to reach Madikeri (Capital of Kodagu) but the
Kodavas always ambushed the contingent left behind by
In 1786 Tipu Sultan, again following the lead of his fa- Tippu. Kodavas refusal to bow to the sultan was primar-
ther, decided to build a navy consisting of 20 battleships ily because throughout their history they enjoyed inde-
of 72 cannons and 20 frigates of 62 cannons. In the year pendence, though there were Rajahs ruling over them,
1790 he appointed Kamaluddin as his Mir Bahar and governance of the land mainly rested with Kodavas. Af-
established massive dockyards at Jamalabad and Majid- ter capturing Kodagu on another occasion, Tippu pro-
abad. Tipu Sultans board of admiralty consisted of 11 claimed, If you ever dare to ambush my men again, I
commanders in service of a Mir Yam. A Mir Yam led 30 will honor everyone of you with Islam, undeterred, the
admirals and each one of them had two ships. By the year resilient Kodavas ambushed his men yet again and drove
1789 most of Tipu Sultans ships had copper-bottoms, an them back to Mysore. By now Tippu realized conven-
idea that increased the longevity of the ships and was in- tional warfare would never yield him Kodagu. He devised
troduced to Tipu by Admiral Suren.[38] a plan to annex Kodagu by oering his friendship. His
oer of friendship was welcomed by Kodavas as the bat-
tles with the Sultan over the years had cost them dearly.
When Kodavas welcomed Sultan to their land in the name
5 Religious policy of friendship, the Sultan and his men attacked them and
took thousands as prisoners. Tipu got Runmust Khan,
As a Muslim ruler in a largely Hindu domain, Tipu Sul- the Nawab of Kurnool, to launch a surprise attack upon
tan faced problems in establishing the legitimacy of his the Kodava Hindus who were besieged by the invading
rule, and in reconciling his desire to be seen as a devout Muslim army. 500 were killed and over 40,000 Ko-
Islamic ruler with the need to be pragmatic to avoid antag- davas ed to the woods and concealed themselves in the
onising the majority of his subjects. His religious legacy mountains.[42] Thousands of Kodavas were seized along
has become a source of considerable controversy in the with the Raja and held captive at Seringapatam. Aguably,
subcontinent. Some groups proclaim him a great warrior they were thought to be subjected to forcible conversions
for the faith or Ghazi, while others revile him as a bigot to Islam, death, and torture.[43]
who massacred Hindus.[39][40][41] In Seringapatam, the young men were all forcibly cir-
In 1780, he was declared the Badshah or Emperor of cumcised and incorporated into the Ahmedy Corps, and
Mysore, and struck coinage. His alliance with the French were formed into eight Risalas or regiments.[42] The ac-
was supposedly aimed at achieving this goal by driving tual number of Kodavas that were captured in the oper-
his main rivals, the British, out of the subcontinent. Dur- ation is unclear. The British administrator Mark Wilks
ing the early period of Tipu Sultans reign in particular, he gives it as 70,000, Historian Lewis Rice arrives at the g-
appears to have been as strict as his father against any non- ure of 85,000, while Mir Kirmanis score for the Coorg
5.1 Attitude towards Hindus 9
campaign is 80,000 men, women and child prisoners.[42] Inscriptions On the handle of the sword presented
Mohibbul Hasan, Prof. Sheikh Ali, and other histori- by Tipu to[49]Marquess Wellesley was the following
ans cast great doubt on the scale of the deportations and inscription:
forced conversions in Coorg in particular. Hassan says
that it is dicult to estimate the real number of Coorgs My victorious sabre is lightning for the
captured by Tipu.[44] destruction of the unbelievers. Ali, the Emir
of the Faithful, is victorious for my advan-
In a letter to Runmust Khan, Tipu himself stated:[45]
tage, and moreover, he destroyed the wicked
race who were unbelievers. Praise be to him
We proceeded with the utmost speed, and, (God), who is the Lord of the Worlds! Thou
at once, made prisoners of 40,000 occasion- art our Lord, support us against the people who
seeking and sedition-exciting Coorgis, who are unbelievers. He to whom the Lord giveth
alarmed at the approach of our victorious victory prevails over all (mankind). Oh Lord,
army, had slunk into woods, and concealed make him victorious, who promoteth the faith
themselves in lofty mountains, inaccessible of Muhammad. Confound him, who refuseth
even to birds. Then carrying them away from the faith of Muhammad; and withhold us from
their native country (the native place of sedi- those who are so inclined from the true faith.
tion) we raised them to the honour of Is- The Lord is predominant over his own works.
lam, and incorporated them into our Ahmedy Victory and conquest are from the Almighty.
corps. Bring happy tidings, Oh Muhammad, to the
faithful; for God is the kind protector and is the
[46] most merciful of the merciful. If God assists
thee, thou will prosper. May the Lord God as-
sist thee, Oh Muhammad, with a mighty great
Kasaragod (near Mangalore) Tipu sent a letter on 19 victory.
January 1790 to the Governor of Bekal (near Kasaragod),
Budruz Zuman Khan. It says: During a search of his palace in 1795, some gold medals
were found in the palace, on which the following was in-
Don't you know I have achieved a great scribed on one side in Persian: Of God the bestower of
victory recently in Malabar and over four lakh blessings, and the other: victory and conquest are from
Hindus were converted to Islam? I am de- the Almighty. These were carved in commemoration
termined to march against that cursed Raman of a victory after the war of 1780.[50] The following is a
Nair (Rajah of Travancore) very soon. Since translation of an inscription on the stone found at Seringa-
I am overjoyed at the prospect of converting patam, which was situated in a conspicuous place in the
him and his subjects to Islam, I have happily fort:[49]
abandoned the idea of going back to Sriranga-
patanam now.[47] Oh Almighty God! dispose the whole
body of indels! Scatter their tribe, cause
their feet to stagger! Overthrow their coun-
Malabar Main article: Captivity of Nairs at Seringap- cils, change their state, destroy their very root!
atam Cause death to be near them, cut o from them
the means of sustenance! Shorten their days!
Be their bodies the constant object of their
cares (i.e., infest them with diseases), deprive
North Malabar In 1788, Tipu entered into Malabar to their eyes of sight, make black their faces (i.e.,
quell a rebellion. Nairs were surrounded with oers of bring shame).
death or circumcision. Chirakkal's Nair Raja who was re-
ceived with distinctions for surrendering voluntarily was
later hanged. Tipu then divided Malabar into districts, 5.1.2 Temples and ocers in Mysore
with three ocers in each district given the task of num-
bering productive trees, collecting revenue and giving re- Tipu Sultans treasurer was Krishna Rao, Shamaiya Iyen-
ligious orders to Nairs. gar was his Minister of Post and Police, his brother Ranga
Iyengar was also an ocer, and Purnaiya held the very
important post of Mir Asaf. Moolchand and Sujan
Calicut (Kozhikode) In 1788, Tipu ordered his gover- Rai were his chief agents at the Mughal court, and his
nor in Calicut Sher Khan to begin the process of convert- chief Peshkar, Suba Rao, was also a Hindu.[51] Edi-
ing Hindus to Islam, and in July of that year, 200 Brah- tor of Mysore Gazettes Srikantaiah has listed 156 tem-
mins were forcibly converted.[48] ples to which Tipu regularly paid annual grants. There
10 5 RELIGIOUS POLICY
is such evidence as grant deeds, and correspondence be- new territory. The portrayal of Tipu Sultan as a secular
tween his court and temples, and his having donated jew- leader is disputed, and some sources, largely left-leaning
ellery and deeded land grants to several temples, which scholars from the 20th century, suggest that he in fact of-
some claim he was compelled to do to make alliances ten embraced religious pluralism.
with Hindu rulers. Between 1782 and 1799 Tipu Sul- Historian C. Hayavadana Rao wrote about Tipu in his en-
tan issued 34 Sanads (deeds) of endowment to tem- cyclopaedic court history of Mysore. He asserted that
ples in his domain, while also presenting many of them Tipus religious fanaticism and the excesses commit-
with gifts of silver and gold plate. The Srikanteswara ted in the name of religion, both in Mysore and in the
Temple in Nanjangud still possesses a jewelled cup pre-
provinces, stand condemned for all time. His bigotry, in-
sented by the Sultan.[52] He also gave a greenish linga; deed, was so great that it precluded all ideas of toleration.
to Ranganatha temple at Srirangapatna he donated seven
He further asserts that the acts of Tipu that were con-
silver cups and a silver camphor burner. This temple structive towards Hindus were largely political and osten-
was hardly a stones throw from his palace from where
tatious rather than an indication of genuine tolerance.[60]
he would listen with equal respect to the ringing of tem-
ple bells and the muezzin's call from the mosque;[53] to
the Lakshmikanta Temple at Kalale he gifted four cups, 5.2 Attitude towards Christians
a plate and Spitoon in silver.[54][55]
Main article: Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at
Sringeri incident In 1791, Maratha army raided the Seringapatam
temple and matha of Sringeri Shankaracharya, killing Tipu is regarded to be anti-Christian by some
and wounding many, and plundering the monastery historians.[61][62][63] While Alan Machado in his book
of all its valuable possessions.[56] The incumbent 'Slaves of Sultans, argues that by expelling Christian
Shankaracharya petitioned Tipu Sultan for help. A priests, Tipu was only following precedent set by Euro-
bunch of about 30 letters written in Kannada, which were pean rivals.[64][65] Historian J. B. Prashant More in his
exchanged between Tipu Sultans court and the Sringeri paper 'Tipu Sultan and the Christians argues that Tipus
Shankaracharya were discovered in 1916 by the Direc- encounters and dealings with the Christians of both Eu-
tor of Archaeology in Mysore. Tipu Sultan expressed his ropean and Indian origin were in accordance with the
indignation and grief at the news of the raid: spirit of his times and also had a political dimension.[66]
The captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam,
which began on 24 February 1784 and ended on 4 May
People who have sinned against such a
1799, remains the most disconsolate memory in their
holy place are sure to suer the consequences
history.[67]
of their misdeeds at no distant date in this Kali
age in accordance with the verse: Hasadbhih The Barcoor Manuscript reports him as having said: All
kriyate karma rudadbhir-anubhuyate (People Musalmans should unite together, and considering the an-
do [evil] deeds smilingly but suer the conse- nihilation of indels as a sacred duty, labour to the utmost
quences crying).[57] of their power, to accomplish that subject.[68] Soon af-
ter the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784, Tipu gained control
He immediately ordered the Asaf of Bednur to supply the of Canara.[69] He issued orders to seize the Christians
Swami with 200 rahatis (fanams) in cash and other gifts in Canara, conscate their estates,[70] and deport them
and articles. Tipu Sultans interest in the Sringeri temple to Seringapatam, the capital of his empire, through the
continued for many years, and he was still writing to the Jamalabad fort route.[71] However, there were no priests
Swami in the 1790s CE.[58] among the captives. Together with Fr. Miranda, all
the 21 arrested priests were issued orders of expulsion
to Goa, ned Rupees 200,000, and threatened death by
Controversial gure In light of this and other events, hanging if they ever returned.[68]
B.A. Saletare has described Tipu Sultan as a defender
of the Hindu dharma, who also patronised other tem- Tipu ordered the destruction of 27 Catholic churches.
ples including one at Melkote, for which he issued a Among them included the Church of Nossa Senhora de
Kannada decree that the Shrivaishnava invocatory verses Rosario Milagres at Mangalore, Fr Mirandas Seminary at
there should be recited in the traditional form. The tem- Monte Mariano, Church of Jesu Marie Jose at Omzoor,
ple at Melkote still has gold and silver vessels with inscrip- Chapel at Bolar, Church of Merces at Ullal, Imaculata
tions indicating that they were presented by the Sultan. Conceico at Mulki, San Jose at Perar, Nossa Senhora
Tipu Sultan also presented four silver cups to the Lak- dos Remedios at Kirem, Sao Lawrence at Karkal, Rosario
shmikanta Temple at Kalale.[59] Tipu Sultan does seem at Barkur, Immaculata Conceio at Baidnur.[68] All were
to have repossessed unauthorised grants of land made razed to the ground, with the exception of The Church of
to Brahmins and temples, but those which had proper Holy Cross at Hospet, owing to the friendly oces of the
sanads were not. It was a normal practice for any ruler, Chauta Raja of Moodbidri.[72]
Muslim or Hindu, on his accession or on the conquest of According to Thomas Munro, a Scottish soldier and
5.3 Criticism of British accounts 11
the rst collector of Canara, around 60,000 people,[73] Tipu Sultans invasion of the Malabar had an adverse
nearly 92 percent of the entire Mangalorean Catholic impact on the Syrian Malabar Nasrani community of
community, were captured; only 7,000 escaped. Francis the Malabar coast. Many churches in the Malabar and
Buchanan gives the numbers as 70,000 captured, from a Cochin were damaged. The old Syrian Nasrani seminary
population of 80,000, with 10,000 escaping. They were at Angamaly which had been the center of Catholic re-
forced to climb nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 m) through the ligious education for several centuries was razed to the
jungles of the Western Ghat mountain ranges. It was ground by Tipus soldiers. A lot of centuries old reli-
210 miles (340 km) from Mangalore to Seringapatam, gious manuscripts were lost forever. The church was
and the journey took six weeks. According to British later relocated to Kottayam where it still exists to this
Government records, 20,000 of them died on the march date. The Mor Sabor church at Akaparambu and the
to Seringapatam. According to James Scurry, a British Martha Mariam Church attached to the seminary were
ocer, who was held captive along with Mangalorean destroyed as well. Tipus army set re to the church at
Catholics, 30,000 of them were forcibly converted to Is- Palayoor and attacked the Ollur Church in 1790. Furth-
lam. The young women and girls were forcibly made ernmore, the Arthat church and the Ambazhakkad semi-
wives of the Muslims living there.[74] The young men nary was also destroyed. Over the course of this invasion,
who oered resistance were disgured by cutting their many Syrian Malabar Nasrani were killed or forcibly con-
noses, upper lips, and ears.[75] According to Mr. Silva verted to Islam. Most of the coconut, arecanut, pepper
of Gangolim, a survivor of the captivity, if a person who and cashew plantations held by the Syrian Malabar farm-
had escaped from Seringapatam was found, the punish- ers were also indiscriminately destroyed by the invading
ment under the orders of Tipu was the cutting o of the army. As a result, when Tipus army invaded Guruvayur
ears, nose, the feet and one hand.[76] Gazetteer of South and adjacent areas, the Syrian Christian community ed
India describes Tipu Sultan forcibly circumcising 30,000 Calicut and small towns like Arthat to new centres like
West Coast Christians and deporting them to Mysore[77] Kunnamkulam, Chalakudi, Ennakadu, Cheppadu, Kan-
Tipus persecution of Christians even extended to cap- nankode, Mavelikkara, etc. where there were already
tured British soldiers. For instance, there were a signi- Christians. They were given refuge by Sakthan Tambu-
cant number of forced conversions of British captives be- ran, the ruler of Cochin and Karthika Thirunal, the ruler
tween 1780 and 1784. Following their disastrous defeat of Travancore, who gave them lands, plantations and en-
at the 1780 Battle of Pollilur, 7,000 British men along couraged their businesses. Colonel Macqulay, the British
with an unknown number of women were held captive by resident of Travancore also helped them.[79]
Tipu in the fortress of Seringapatnam. Of these, over 300
were circumcised and given Muslim names and clothes
5.2.1 Treatment of prisoners
and several British regimental drummer boys were made
to wear ghagra cholis and entertain the court as nautch
According to historian Professor Sheikh Ali, Tipu took
girls or dancing girls. After the 10-year-long captivity
his stand on the bedrock of humanity, regarding all his
ended, James Scurry, one of those prisoners, recounted
subjects as equal citizen to live in peace, harmony and
that he had forgotten how to sit in a chair and use a knife
concord.[53] However, during the storming of Sriranga-
and fork. His English was broken and stilted, having lost
patna by the British in 1799, thirteen murdered British
all his vernacular idiom. His skin had darkened to the
prisoners were discovered, killed by either having their
swarthy complexion of negroes, and moreover, he had de-
necks broken or nails driven into their skulls.[80]
veloped an aversion to wearing European clothes.[78]
Tipus palace in Seringapatam had a strictly guarded
During the surrender of the Mangalore fort which was
Zenana quarters for women. Many of the women in his
delivered in an armistice by the British and their subse-
Hareem were daughters of native princes and Brahmins,
quent withdrawal, all the Mestizos and remaining non-
who had been abducted in infancy and brought up Mus-
British foreigners were killed, together with 5,600 Man-
lim. In the same palace, the legitimate Wadiyar king
galorean Catholics. Those condemned by Tipu Sultan
Chamaraja Wodeyar IX was held captive. The prince
for treachery were hanged instantly, the gibbets being
having no children had adopted his relative, who was also
weighed down by the number of bodies they carried. The
imprisoned by the Sultan. The palaces and temples raised
Netravati River was so putrid with the stench of dying
by the earlier Wadiyar kings were also pulled down by
bodies, that the local residents were forced to leave their
Tipu, on the pretext of strengthening the fortress.[81]
riverside homes.[68]
The Archbishop of Goa wrote in 1800, It is notoriously
known in all Asia and all other parts of the globe of the 5.3 Criticism of British accounts
oppression and suerings experienced by the Christians in
the Dominion of the King of Kanara, during the usurpation Brittlebank, Hasan, Chetty, Habib and Saletare, amongst
of that country by Tipu Sultan from an implacable hatred others, argue that controversial stories of Tipu Sul-
he had against them who professed Christianity. [68] tans religious persecution of Hindus and Christians are
largely derived from the work of early British authors
12 6 LEGACY
(who were very much against Tipu Sultans indepen- 5. Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Mi'raj-ud-din Ali
dence and harboured prejudice against the Sultan) such Khan Sultan (1784? ?)
as Kirkpatrick[82] and Wilks,[83] whom they do not con-
sider to be entirely reliable.[84] A. S. Chetty argues that 6. Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Mu'in-ud-din Ali
Wilks account in particular cannot be trusted,[85] Irfan Khan Sultan (1784? ?)
Habib and Mohibbul Hasan argues that these early British 7. Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Muhammad Yasin
authors had a strong vested interest in presenting Tipu Khan Sultan (1784 15 March 1849)
Sultan as a tyrant from whom the British had liberated
Mysore.[86] This assessment is echoed by Brittlebank in 8. Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Muhammad Subhan
her recent work where she writes that Wilks and Kirk- Khan Sultan (1785 27 September 1845)
patrick must be used with particular care as both authors
had taken part in the wars against Tipu Sultan and were 9. Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Muhammad Shukrul-
closely connected to the administrations of Lord Corn- lah Khan Sultan (1785 25 September 1830)
wallis and Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley.[87] 10. Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Sarwar-ud-din Khan
Sultan (1790 20 October 1833)
5.4 Promotion of the Urdu language 11. Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Muhammad Nizam-
ud-din Khan Sultan (1791 20 October 1791)
Tipu strengthened and instituted education in Urdu and
Persian among Muslims in the Mysore region. However 12. Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Muhammad Jamal-ud-
the Muslims of North Kanara speak Nawayathi, the Mus- din Khan Sultan (1795 13 November 1842)
lims of South Kanara speak Beary and the Muslims of
13. Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Munir-ud-din Khan
Kodagu speak Kodava. He made Persian the ocial lan-
Sultan (1795 1 December 1837)
guage throughout his kingdom.
14. His Highness Shahzada Sir Sayyid walShareef
Ghulam Muhammad Sultan Sahib, KCSI (March
6 Legacy 1795 11 August 1872)
Tipu was commonly known as the Tiger of Mysore and In Jules Verne's Mysterious Island, Captain Nemo is
adopted this animal as the symbol (bubri/ babri)[89] of his described as a nephew of Tipu Sultan.
rule.[90] It is said that Tipu Sultan was hunting in the forest
with a French friend. He came face to face with a tiger. Tipu Sultans life and adventures were the central
His gun did not work, and his dagger fell on the ground theme of a short-running South Indian television
as the tiger jumped on him. He reached for the dagger, series The Adventures of Tipu Sultan, and of a
picked it up, and killed the tiger with it. That earned him more popular national television series "The Sword
the name the Tiger of Mysore. He even had French en- of Tipu Sultan".
gineers build a mechanical tiger for his palace.[91] The de- Naseem Hijazi's novels Muazam Ali and Aur Tal-
vice, known as Tipus Tiger, is on display in the Victoria var Gaye (And The Sword Broke) describe Tipu
and Albert Museum, London.[92] Not only did Tipu place Sultans wars.
relics of tigers around his palace and domain, but also
had the emblem of a tiger on his banners and some arms Wilkie Collins's novel The Moonstone contains an
and weapons. Sometimes this tiger was very ornate and account of Tipu Sultan and the fall of Srirangapatna
had inscriptions within the drawing, alluding to Tipus in the prologue.
faith.[93] Historian Alexander Beatson reported that in
In The Surprising Adventures of Baron Munchausen
his palace was found a great variety of curious swords,
by Rudolf Erich Raspe, Munchausen vanquishes
daggers, fusils, pistols, and blunderbusses; some were of
Tippoo near the end of the novel.
exquisite workmanship, mounted with gold, or silver, and
beautifully inlaid and ornamented with tigers heads and Sharpes Tiger is a novel in which Napoleonic soldier
stripes, or with Persian and Arabic verses.[94] Richard Sharpe ghts at Seringapatam, later killing
The last sword used by Tipu in his last battle, at Sri Ran- Tipu Sultan.
gapatnam, and the ring worn by him were taken by the The Only King Who Died on the Battleeld: An His-
British forces as war trophies. Till April 2004, they were torical Novel Based on Truth (published in 2006),
kept on display at the British Museum London as gifts to was written by a US-Pakistani resident and a young
the museum from Maj-Gen Augustus W.H. Meyrick and college student Mohammed Faisal Iftikhar. The
Nancy Dowager.[95] novel claims that in recent history, Tipu Sultan is
At an auction in London in April 2004, Vijay Mallya pur- the only king who died on the battleeld.
chased the sword of Tipu Sultan and some other historical
Tipu Sultan appears as a Great Person in the video
artefacts, and brought them back to India.[96]
game, Sid Meiers Civilization: Revolution.
In October 2013, another sword owned by Tipu Sultan
and decorated with his babri (tiger stripe motif) surfaced In his historical novels on the Seringapatam captiv-
and was auctioned by Sothebys.[97] It was purchased for ity of Konkani Catholics by the Konkani littrateur
98,500[98] by a telephone bidder. V.J.P. Saldanha, Belthangaddicho Balthazar (Balt-
hazar of Belthangady), Devache Krupen (By the
Grace of God), Sardarachi Sinol (The sign of the
6.3 Tipu Jayanti Knights) and Infernachi Daram (The gates of Hell),
Tipu is portrayed as cunning, haughty, hard-hearted,
In 2015, Chief Minister Siddaramaiah's Karnataka de- revengeful, yet full of self-control.[102]
cision to celebrate Tipus birth anniversary witnessed
protests by the BJP and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh.
Lok Sabha Congress leader, Mallikarjuna Kharge, hit
7 Image gallery
back at the RSS, asking,
[99]
A view of the Hoally Gate-
way, Srirangapatnam, where Tipu Sultan was killed,
Seringapatam (Mysore), by Thomas Sydenham
6.4 In ction (c.1799)
Tippu Sultan used many Western craftsmen, and [7] Roddam Narasimha (1985). Rockets in Mysore and
this gun reects the most up-to-date technologies Britain, 17501850 A.D. National Aeronautical Labora-
of the time.[11] tory and Indian Institute of Science.
Cannon used by Tippu [10] Tipu Jayanti: Heres All You Need to Know About Him.
Sultan in the battle of Seringapatam 1799 News18. News18. 3 November 2016. Retrieved 5
November 2016.
[3] Cavendish, Richard (4 May 1999). Tipu Sultan killed [24] zcan, Azmi (1997). Pan-Islamism: Indian Muslims,
at Seringapatam. History Today. 49 (5). Retrieved 13 the Ottomans and Britain, 18771924. ISBN 978-90-
December 2013. 04-10632-1.
[4] Allana, Gulam (1988). Muslim political thought through [25] Bhacker, Mohmed Reda (1992). Trade and Empire in
the ages: 15621947 (2 ed.). Pennsylvania State Univer- Muscat and Zanzibar: The Roots of British Domination.
sity, Pennsylvania: Royal Book Company. p. 78. Re- ISBN 978-0-415-07997-6.
trieved 18 January 2013. [26] Roy, Kaushik (30 March 2011). War, Culture and So-
ciety in Early Modern South Asia, 17401849. ISBN
[5] Hasan, Mohibbul (2005). History of Tipu Sultan. Aakar
978-1-136-79087-4.
Books. p. 399. ISBN 81-87879-57-2. Retrieved 19 Jan-
uary 2013. [27] Naravane, M. S (1 January 2006). Battles of the Hon-
ourable East India Company: Making of the Raj. ISBN
[6] R.k.datta (2007). Global Silk Industry: A Complete Source 978-81-313-0034-3.
Book. APH Publishing. p. 17. ISBN 81-313-0087-0.
Retrieved 22 January 2013. [28] Dictionary of Indian biography. archive.org.
15
[29] A Survey of Kerala History by a Sreedhara Menon [54] Habib, Irfan (2002), p118, Confronting Colonialism: Re-
sistance and Modernization Under Haidar Ali & Tipu Sul-
[30] madur. Tipu Sultan Personalities. Karnataka.com. tan, Anthem Press, London, ISBN 1-84331-024-4
[31] Islamic Voice. islamicvoice.com. [55] Hasan, Mohibbul (1951), p360, History of Tipu Sultan,
[32] Upendrakishore Roychoudhury (101). White Mughals. Aakar Books, Delhi, ISBN 81-87879-57-2
[33] Tricolor and Crescent. google.com. [56] Vikram Sampath. Why we love to hate Tipu Sultan.
www.livemint.com/.
[34] Napoleon and Persia. google.com.
[57] Annual Report of the Mysore Archaeological Department
[35] Empires of the Sand. google.com. 1916 pp 1011, 736
[36] The Parliamentary Register; Or, History of the Proceed- [58] Hasan, History of Tipu Sultan, p. 359
ings and Debates of the [House of Lords and House of
Commons]-J. Almon, 1793 [59] B.A. Saletare Tipu Sultan as Defender of the Hindu
Dharma in Habib (Ed.) Confronting Colonialism, pp.
[37] View of the Hoally Gateway, where Tipu Sultan was 1168
killed, Seringapatam (Mysore)". British Library Online
Gallery. Retrieved 14 June 2009. [60] Rao, Hayavadana C. History of Mysore 13991799: In-
corporating the latest Epigraphical, Literary and Historical
[38] Roy, Kaushik (30 March 2011). War, Culture and So- Researches Vol. 3 pgs 104753. Bangalore Government
ciety in Early Modern South Asia, 17401849. ISBN Press.
978-1-136-79087-4.
[61] Stephen Conway, The British Isles and the War of Amer-
[39] Brittlebank, pp. 13
ican Independence, Oxford University Press, 2000, ISBN
[40] Phillip B. Wagoner Tipu Sultans Search for Legitimacy: 0-19-820659-3, M1 Google Print, p. 342.
Islam and Kingship in a Hindu Domain by Kate Brittle-
[62] N. Shyam Bhat, South Kanara, 17991860: a study in
bank (Review The Journal of Asian Studies Vol. 58, No.
colonial administration and regional response, Mittal Pub-
2 (May 1999) pp. 541543
lications, 1998, ISBN 81-7099-586-8, M1 Google Print,
[41] Valath, V. v. k. (1981). Keralathile Sthacharithrangal p. 2.
Thrissur Jilla (in Malayalam). Kerala Sahithya Academy.
pp. 7479. [63] J. B. Prashant More, Religion and society in South India:
Hindus, Muslims, and Christians, Institute for Research
[42] Prabhu 1999, p. 223 in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR, 2006,
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[43] Cariappa 1981, p. 48
[64] Machado, Alan. BOOK EXTRACT. Scroll.in. Re-
[44] Hassan, Mohibbul (1 December 2005). History of Tipu trieved 10 January 2017.
Sultan. p. 79. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
[65] Machado, Alan (August 14, 2015). Slaves of Sultans (First
[45] Sen 1930, p. 157 ed.). Goa,1556. ISBN 978-9380739939. Retrieved 10
[46] Sultan, Tipu (1811). Select letters of Tippoo Sultan to var- January 2017.
ious public functionaries:. London. p. 228.
[66] More, J. B. Prashant. Tipu Sultan and the Christians.
[47] K.M. Panicker, Bhasha Poshini, August 1923 Taylor & Francis. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
[48] Mappila Muslims of Kerala: a study in Islamic trends [67] Deportation & The Konkani Christian Captivity at
(1992), Roland E. Miller, Orient Longman, p. 93 Srirangapatna (1784 Feb. 24th Ash Wednesday)".
Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore. Retrieved 29
[49] Mysore gazetteer, Volume 2, Issue 4, Conjeeveram February 2008.
Hayavadana Rao (rao sahib), Benjamin Lewis Rice, Gov-
ernment Press, 1930, p. 2697 [68] Sarasvatis Children, Joe Lobo
[50] Mysore gazetteer, Volume 2, Issue 4, Conjeeveram [69] Forrest 1887, pp. 314316
Hayavadana Rao (Rao sahib), Benjamin Lewis Rice, Gov-
ernment Press, 1930, p. 2698 [70] The Gentlemans Magazine 1833, p. 388
[51] Hasan 1971, History of Tipu Sultan, pp. 3578 [71] Christianity in Mangalore. Diocese of Mangalore.
Archived from the original on 22 June 2008. Retrieved
[52] A. Subbaraya Chetty, 2002, Tipus endowments to Hin- 30 July 2008.
dus in Habib. 111115.
[72] John B. Monteiro. Monti Fest Originated at Farangipet
[53] Ali, Sheikh. Persian script of Tipu Sultan on the gateway 240 Years Ago!". Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore.
to Krishnaraja Sagar Dam (KRS)". Biography of Tipu Sul- Retrieved 28 April 2009.
tan. Cal-Info. Archived from the original on 13 Novem-
ber 2004. Retrieved 23 October 2013. [73] Bowring, p. 126
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[74] Scurry & Whiteway 1824, p. 103 [88] The swords of Tipu Sultan. The Hindu. 3 May 2011.
[75] Scurry & Whiteway 1824, p. 104 [89] Tipu Sultan and the tiger motif. The Seringapatnam
[76] Account of a Surviving Captive, A Mr. Silva of Gangolim Times. Toshkhana : wordpress. Retrieved 13 December
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[90] Brittlebank, K. (1995). Sakti and Barakat: The Power
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[91] James, Lawrence (12 August 2000). Raj: The Making and
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[79] K.L. Bernard, Kerala History , pp. 79
[80] Holmes, Richard (2003). Wellington: The Iron Duke. [92] Tippoos Tiger. Victoria & Albert Museum. 11 April
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[81] Corner, Julia (1840). The History of China & India, Pic- [93] Tiger Motif. Macquarie University Library. Retrieved
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needle St.,. pp. 330331. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
[94] Beatson, Alexander (1800). A View of the Origin and
[82] W. Kirkpatrick Select Letters of Tipu Sultan, London 1811 Conduct of the War with Tippoo Sultaun. London: G. &
W. Nichol.
[83] M. Wilks Report on the Interior Administration, Resources
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Historical Sketches of the South of India in an Attempt to [96] BBC NEWS South Asia Tipus sword back in Indian
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[97] Sinha, Kounteya (4 October 2013). Another Tipu Sul-
[84] C.C. Davies Review of The History of Tipu Sultan by tan sword surfaces, to be auctioned. The Times of India.
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No.266 (Jan 1953) pp 1445
[98] Nag, Ashoke (21 October 2013). Tipu Sultan memora-
[85] A. Subbaraya Chetty Tipus endowments to Hindus and
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[86] Irfan Habib War and Peace. Tipu Sultans Account
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1783-4 State and Diplomacy Under Tipu Sultan (Delhi) pares To Celebrate Tipu Sultan Jayanti, BJP Threatens
2001 p5; Mohibbul Hasan writes The reasons why Tipu Stir Karnataka. NDTV. NDTV. Retrieved 5 November
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udiced against him because they regarded him as their
[100] The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Tiger of Mysore,
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by G. A. Henty. gutenberg.org.
cause, unlike other Indian rulers, he refused to become
a tributary of the English Company. Many of the atroc- [101] The Project Gutenberg eBook of At the Point of the Bay-
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of the defeats which they had sustained at his hands, or by [102] Modern Indian literature, an anthology, Volume 2, Sahitya
the prisoners of war who had suered punishments which Akademy, p. 217
they thought they did not deserve. He was also misrepre-
sented by those who were anxious to justify the wars of
aggression which the Companys Government had waged
against him. Moreover, his achievements were deliber- 10 References
ately belittled and his character blackened in order that
the people of Mysore might forget him and rally round the This article incorporates text from a publication now
Raja, thus helping in the consolidation of the new regime in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
The History of Tipu Sultan (Delhi) 1971 p368
"Tippoo Sahib". Encyclopdia Britannica. 26 (11th
[87] Brittlebank, pp. 1012. On page 2 she writes it is per- ed.). Cambridge University Press.
haps ironic that the aggressive Hinduism of some mem-
bers of the Indian Community in the 1990s should draw Bowring, Lewin (1899), Haidar Al and Tip Sultn,
upon an image of Tipu which, as we shall see, was initially and the Struggle with the Musalmn Powers of the
constructed by the Subcontinents colonisers. South, Oxford: Clarendon Press, OCLC 11827326
17
Brittlebank, Kate (1999), Tipu Sultans Search for Mohibbul Hasan. Tipu Sultans Mission to Con-
Legitimacy, Delhi: Oxford University Press, ISBN stantinople, Aakar Books, ISBN 81-87879-56-4
978-0-19-563977-3, OCLC 246448596
Moienuddin, Mohammad. Sunset at Srirangapatam:
Hasan, Mohibbul, History of Tipu Sultan, Aakar After the death of Tipu Sultan, Orient Longman,
Books, ISBN 81-87879-57-2 ISBN 81-250-1919-7
Subramanian, K. R (1928), The Maratha Rajas of Pande, B. N. Aurangzeb and Tipu Sultan: Evalua-
Tanjore, Mylapore, Madras: self-published, OCLC tion of their religious policies (IOS series), Institute
249773661 of Objective Studies
William, Logan (1887), Malabar Manual, ISBN Sil, Narasingha P. Tipu Sultan: A Re-Vision, Cal-
978-81-206-0446-9 cutta Historical Journal' (2008) 28#1 pp 123. his-
Grose, John Henry; Charmichael; ), John toriography
Carmichael (of the East India Company) (1777), A Strandberg, Samuel. Tipu Sultan: The Tiger of
Voyage to the East Indies Mysore: or, to ght against the odds, AB Samuel
Balakrishna, Sandeep, Tipu Sultan, The Tyrant of Travel, ISBN 91-630-7333-1
Mysore, Rare Publications
Taylor, George. Coins of Tipu Sultan, Asian Educa-
Thompson, Rev. E. W. (1990) [1923]. The last siege tional Services, India, ISBN 81-206-0503-9
of Seringapatam. Mysore City: Wesleyan Mission.
Wigington, Robin. Firearms of Tipu Sultan, 1783
ISBN 8120606027.
99, J. Taylor Book Ventures, ISBN 1-871224-13-6
The British ocer James Scurry, who was detained a prisoner for
10 years by Tipu Sultan along with the Mangalorean Catholics
13.1 Text
13.2 Images
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Hyder Ali and Tippu Saheb (1824), p. 4 Original artist: James Scurry
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cense: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fahad Faisal
File:Tipu_Sultan,_Death_Place.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Tipu_Sultan%2C_Death_Place.
jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Muhammad Mahdi Karim
File:Tipu_Sultan,_Indian_warrior_Emperor_of_Mysore.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Tipu_
Sultan%2C_Indian_warrior_Emperor_of_Mysore.gif License: Public domain Contributors: 1 Original artist: ?
File:Tipu_Sultan_seated_on_his_throne.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Tipu_Sultan_seated_on_
his_throne.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://chroniclecycles.blogspot.de/2011/07/throne-of-tipu-sultan.html Original artist:
Creator:Anna Tonelli
File:Tipu_death.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Tipu_death.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1700_1799/tipusultan/death/death.html or another reading: http://www.
bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/tiger_of_mysore_gallery_11.shtml Original artist: Henry Singleton (1766 - 1839)
File:Tipu_tomb.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Tipu_tomb.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Self-photographed (Original text: I, Prakash Subbarao, took this image) Original artist: Prakashsubbarao at English Wikipedia
22 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES