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Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy-En PDF
Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy-En PDF
Philosophy
Contents
Preface............................................................................................. 3
Introduction .................................................................................... 7
Ontology ........................................................................................ 47
6. Love ..................................................................................... 72
Epistemology ................................................................................. 79
Soul-Eschatology........................................................................... 99
Conclusion................................................................................... 113
Preface
S
hiraz is a historical city in Fars province in Iran. The
ruins of Takht-e Jamshid or Perspolis (a monumental
palace which was destroyed and burnt by Macedonian
Alexander) are in the vicinity of this city. In Mulla Sadras time, the
Safavid dynasty ruled Iran. Safavid kings granted independence to Fars
province, which was ruled by the kings brother. It is said that Mulla
Sadras father served as the minister of the ruler of Fars.
Mulla Sadras father, Khwajah Ibrahim Qawami, was a
knowledgeable and extremely faithful politician. He was a rich man
and held a high position, but had no children. However, after a lot of
prayers and supplications to the Divine Portal, God gave him a son
whom they named Muhammed (Sadr al-Din, 979 A.H/1571 A.D), but
called Sadra. Later he was nicknamed as Mulla, that is, great
scientist. In the years to come, the title of Mulla Sadra became more
famous than his real name and replaced it on peoples tongues.
Sadr al-Din Muhammed (or Sadra) was the only child of the
minister of the ruler of the vast region of Fars and enjoyed the highest
standards of a noble life. It was a common tradition at that time for
aristocrats children to be educated by private teachers in their own
palace. Sadra was a very intelligent, strict, energetic, studious, and
curious boy and mastered all the lessons related to Persian and Arabic
literature, as well as the art of calligraphy, during a very short time.
Following the old traditions of his time, he might have also learnt
horse riding, hunting, and fighting techniques. Mathematics,
astronomy, medicine (to some extent), jurisprudence, Islamic law,
logic, and philosophy were also among the courses that youngsters
were supposed to pass at that time. The young Sadra, who had not yet
reached the age of puberty, had acquired some of all those fields of
knowledge; however, he was mainly interested in philosophy and,
particularly, in gnosis.
The notes left from his youth clearly reveal his interest in
gnostic literature in general, and the Persian poems of Farid al-Din
Attar (1119-1193 A.D), Jalal al-Din Rumi, known as Mevlana (1207-
4 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
1273 A.D), Iraqi (d.c. 1288 A.D), and Ibn-Arabis (1165-1240 A.D)
sophism, in particular.
He was certainly educated in Shiraz for some time, but the
main part of his education was most probably completed in the capital
of that time, Qazwin. This is because the ruler of Fars came to the
throne after the death of Shah (king), who was his brother, and,
inevitably, moved to Qazwin (985 A.H/1577 A.D), thus it seems
highly improbable for his minister and counselor not to have
accompanied him, or to have done so, but left his only son and family
behind.
At this time, Mulla Sadra became familiar with two prominent
geniuses and scientists, that is, Shaykh Baha al-Din Ameli and Mir
Damad, who were not only unique in their own time, but also
unparalleled by any scientist appearing even 4 centuries thereafter.
Mulla Sadra started studying under them and, through his outstanding
talents, became the best of all their students in a very short time.
Shaykh Baha was not only an expert in Islamic sciences
(particularly in jurisprudence, hadith, interpretation, theology, and
gnosis), but also a master of astronomy, theoretical mathematics,
engineering, architecture, medicine, and some secret supernatural
fields of knowledge; however, it seems that, due to his sophis ideas,
he did not teach philosophy and theology.
The other genius, Mir Damad, knew all the sciences of his time,
but his domain of teaching was limited to jurisprudence, hadith, and,
mainly, philosophy. He was a master of both Peripatetic and
Illuminationist branches of Islamic philosophy and considered himself
as an equal to Ibn-Sina and Farabi, and the master of all philosophers
following them. Mulla Sadra obtained most of his knowledge of
philosophy and gnosis from Mir Damad, and always introduced him
as his true teacher and spiritual guide.
When the Safavid capital moved to Isfahan (1006 A.H/1598
A.D)1, Shaykh Baha al-Din and Mir Damad, accompanied by their
students, moved there, too, and started their task of spreading
knowledge. Mulla Sadra, who was about 26 or 27 years old at that
time, had become needless of learning and a master himself, and was
thinking about establishing new philosophical principles and founding
his famous school of thought. Mullah Sadras life story is quite
1
. Two years after Descartes birth in 1596 A.D.
5
ambiguous. It is not quite clear how long he stayed in Isfahan and
where he went after that. Apparently, he had moved from Isfahan
before 1010 A.H. and returned to his own town, Shiraz. His fathers
estates and properties were in Shiraz, and although he gave a lot of
them to the poor, a part of them still exists in Shiraz and Fars in the
form of properties consecrated to pious uses.
Mulla Sadras life in Shiraz and his later migrations comprise
another period of his life which will be discussed in the next chapter.
Mulla Sadras life
Mulla Sadras Life
M
ulla Sadra must have returned to Shiraz in about
1010 A.H (1602 A.D). He had inherited a great
fortune and a lot of states from his father, which he
had to take control of. This might have been one of the reasons for his
going back to Shiraz.
He had an immense fortune, possessed an enormous ocean of
knowledge, especially, of philosophy, and had presented a number of
innovative ideas. Therefore, he started teaching in Shiraz, and a lot of
students attended his classes from different parts of the country.
However, his rivals, who, like many philosophers and theologians,
blindly followed their preceding philosophers, and felt that their social
status had been endangered, in order to defend their ideas, or perhaps
out of jealousy, started ill-treating him, ridiculing his new ideas, and
insulting him.
Such misbehaviors and pressures were not compatible with
Mulla Sadras delicate soul; on the other hand, his faith, religious
beliefs, and piety did not allow him to react and deal with them in the
same way. Thus he left Shiraz in resentment and went to Qum, which
had not yet turned into an important scientific and philosophical
center. This religious city is the burial place of the holy Masumah,
the daughter of the seventh leader of Shiites, Imam Musa Kazim
(AS), one of the descendents and grand daughters of prophet
Muhammed (p.b.u.h), and the sister of Imam Reza (the eighth leader
of Shiites). A number of great men and scholars have been buried in
Qum. This city has a long history (more than 15 centuries), and is said
to have been called Quriana1 before the advent of Islam.
Mulla Sadra did not stay in Qum itself and, because of its warm
and bad weather, or perhaps because of the similarity between the
social conditions there and those in Shiraz, he stayed in a village
1
. Cavalier Taverniers travel account (Persian version, p. 81)
14 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
1
. It took him a long time to write this book, and he finished its final part in the
last years of his life.
Mulla Sadras Life 15
Khan. This was because he had finished the construction of the school
which his father, Imam Quli Khan, had started, and prepared it for
teaching philosophy, and due to his previous devotion towards Mulla
Sadra, he invited this great man to Shiraz to take its scientific
supervision in hand.
Mulla Sadra was also involved in teaching philosophy,
interpretation, and hadith in Shiraz and trained some students there.
We understand from his book of Si Asl (Three Principles), which was
apparently written at that time in Shiraz in Persian, and which harshly
attacked the scholars of that time, including philosophers, theologians,
jurisprudents, and physicists, that in that period, like in his first period
of residence in Shiraz, Mulla Sadra was under the pressure of the
slanders and vicious conducts of the scientists of his town. This time,
however, he had become stronger and decided to stand against their
pressures and establish, introduce, and publicize his own school of
philosophy.
One of the dimensions of Mulla Sadras eventful life was his
frequent visitations to Kaba in Mecca. This worship and religious
pilgrimage is called Haj and Umra (lesser pilgrimage). It has been
written that Mulla Sadra went to seven (pay attention to the holy
figure 7) pilgrimages (apparently on foot). Nowadays, in spite of the
comforts offered by traveling by plane, there are still some difficulties
associated with going on this pilgrimage. Nevertheless, four hundred
years ago, they made this journey on horse or camel and through the
dry central desert of Saudi Arabia. Therefore, the Haj pilgrimage was
also considered a kind of ascetic practice.
On this journey, which was made in the form of big Karavans
of hajjis (Mecca pilgrims) moving towards Mecca, several people died
from heat, thirst, or exhaustion on the way. Thus, making such a
journey, which meant traveling for some thousands of kilometers on
foot, certainly involved much more hardships than it does today and
required a strong will and profound faith.
To add such an endeavor to his other ascetic practices, Mulla
Sadra stepped on this way seven times, and eventually, on his seventh
journey to Mecca for the visitation of Kaba, fell ill in the city of
Basra in Iraq and passed away, leaving this world for those who were
obsessed by it.
The route of his journey, if we consider its place of origin as
Shiraz, was the waterway from the eastern coast of Persian Gulf
16 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
towards its western coast, and to Basra port in Iraq, which was a part
of Iran at that time.
It is commonly said that Mulla Sadra passed away in 1050
A.H/1640 A.D; however, we believe that a more exact date is 1045
A.H/1635 A.D, which his grandson, Ilm al-Huda, one of the stars of
the sky of knowledge of his time and the son of Allamah Faydh
Kashani, has recorded in his notes. The sudden discontinuation of
some of his compositions, such as Interpretation of Quran and
Sharh-i Usul Kafi (Muhadith Kulayni), in about 1044 A.H/1634 A.D
are good pieces of evidence supporting this claim.
Mulla Sadra died in Basra, but according to the Shiite
tradition, he was taken to Najaf (in Iraq), which houses the tomb of
Imam Ali (AS), the vicegerent, cousin, and son-in-law of prophet
Muhammed (p.b.u.h), and the first leader of Shiites, and, as his
grandson, Ilm al-Huda, says, he was buried in the left side of the court
of Imam Alis (AS) harram (sacred shrine).
A. Teachers
Mulla Sadra was a master of all sciences of his time; however,
none of them were as important as philosophy in his eyes. As mentioned
previously, due to the outstanding spiritual and economic facilities
provided by his family, particularly by his father, he enjoyed the benefits
of studying under the most knowledgeable teachers of that period.
In Qazwin, Mulla Sadra studied under his two prominent
masters, Shaykh Baha al-Din and Mir Damad, and when the capital
changed to Isfahan in 1006 A.H/1596 A.D, he moved there in
company of his two masters, and in addition to completing his higher
education, particularly in philosophy, started a profound line of
research on contemporary philosophical issues. Due to his great talent,
depth of thought, and vast knowledge of rational sciences, logic, and
gnosis, Mulla Sadra succeeded in developing a series of
unprecedented principles and basic rules. In this way, the young tree
of Transcendental Philosophy, which is the name of his unique school
of thought, gradually grew until it raised its head highly in the sky.
Mulla Sadras Life 17
2. Mir Damad
Mir Muhammad Baqir Hussayni, known as Mir Damad, was
one of the most prominent scholars of his time and a great master of
Peripatetic and Illuminationist schools of philosophy, gnosis,
jurisprudence, and Islamic law. His father, too, was a jurisprudent and
was originally from Astarabad (the present Gorgan). He spent his
18 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
B. Children
Mulla Sadras date of marriage is not clearly known to us. He
married most probably at the age of 40 and his first child was born in
1
. Tarikh alam array-e Abbasi, vol. 1, p. 146, Tazkarat khulasat al-ashar,
Taqi al-Din Hussayni Kashani, Ahvali Mir Damad.
Mulla Sadras Life 19
1019 A.H (1609 A.D). He had five children, 3 daughters and two
sons, as follows:
1. Um Kulthum, born in 1019 A.H (1609 A.D)
2. Ibrahim, born in 1021 A.H (1611 A.D)
3. Zubaydah, born in 1024 A.H (1614 A.D)
4. Nizam al-Din Ahmad, born in 1031 A.H (1621
A.D)
5. Masumah, born in 1033 A.H (1623 A.D)
1. Sons
Mirza Ibrahim, whose formal name was Sharaf al-Din Abu Ali
Ibrahim Ibn Muhammed, is said to have been born in Shiraz in 1021
A.H (1611 A.D). He was one of the scientists of his time and was
considered a philosopher, jurisprudent, theologian, and interpreter at
the same time. He had also studied other sciences such as
mathematics. He wrote a book called Urwat al-wuthqa on the
interpretation of the Quran and a commentary on Rozah, the book
written by the well-known Lebanese jurisprudent, Shahid. Some other
books in philosophy have also been attributed to Mirza Ibrahim.
Mulla Sadras other son, Ahmad, was born in 1031 A.H (1621
A.D) in Kashan and passed away in Shiraz in 1074 A.H (1664 A.D).
He was also a philosopher, literary man and poet and some books
have been attributed to him.
2. Daughters
Mulla Sadras eldest child was his daughter, Um Kulthum, who
was a poet and scientist and a woman of prayer and piety. She was
married to Mulla Abdul Razzaq Lahiji, Mulla Sadras famous student.
His second daughter was called Zubaydah. She was married to
Faydh Kashani (Mulla Sadras other student) and gave birth to some
well-reputed children. She was also famous for having a vast
knowledge of science and literature, and being a poet.
Masumah, Mulla Sadras third daughter, was born in 1033 A.H (1623 A.D) in Shiraz
and was famous for being a knowledgeable woman and a master of poetry and
literature. She married one of Mulla Sadras other students, Qawam al-Din
20 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
Muhammed Neyrizi. Some people believe that her husband was another person called
Mulla Abdul Muhsin Kashani, who was also one of Mulla Sadras students.
C. Students
In spite of the long time that Mulla Sadra was involved in
teaching philosophy, interpretation, and hadith, including the last 5 (or
10) years of his life in Shiraz (1040 till 1045 or 1050), and more than
20 years in middle of his lifetime in Qum (from about 1020 till 1040)
or perhaps a few years before that in Shiraz or Isfahan, except for a
few, there is no record of the names of his students in historical
documents and writings.
Undoubtedly some prominent philosophers and scientists were
trained in his classes; however, surprisingly enough, none of them
became famous, or if they did, we have no knowledge of their names.
This, of course, might have been due to the weak relation between
their life and Malla Sadras life.
We know about 10 of Mulla Sadras well-known students,
among whom Faydh Kashani and Fayyadh Lahiji are the most
reputable ones.
1. Faydh Kashani
This student of Mulla Sadra was called Muhammed Ibn al-
Murtada, nicknamed Muhsen, but he was known as Faydh. He was
mainly famous for being a master of jurisprudence, hadith, ethics, and
gnosis. His father was one of the scholars of Kashan. Faydh went to
Isfahan (the capital of the time) at the age of 20. Later he went to
Shiraz and acquired the sciences of that time. Then he went to Qum,
where Mulla Sadra had established a vast teaching center. After being
acquainted with this great master, Faydh studied under him for about
10 years (till Mulla Sadras return to Shiraz) and was honored by
being accepted as his son-in-law. He even went to Shiraz in Mulla
Sadras company and stayed there for another two years; nevertheless,
since at that time (about the age of forty) he had become a
knowledgeable scholar and a master of all sciences, he returned to his
town, Kashan, and established a teaching center there.
During his lifetime, in addition to training a great number of
students, he composed several books on jurisprudence, hadith, ethics,
Mulla Sadras Life 21
and gnosis. His method of treating the science of ethics was such that
he was called the second Gazzali; however, he was much higher than
Abu Hamid Gazzali Tusi in his gnostic taste and scientific depth of
knowledge.
He was also a poet. He has left a book of poems in Persian, mainly consisting of gnostic
and moral poems, and mostly in the lyric form.
The Safavid king (known as Shah Safi) invited him in the last
years of life to Isfahan to serve as the leader of Friday prayer there,
but he refused this invitation and returned to his own town. However,
the insistence of the other Safavid king (Shah Abbas II) dragged him
to Isfahan most probably in the years after 1052 A.H (1643 A.D).
Faydh wrote more than 100 books, the most famous of which
are Mafatih in jurisprudence, al-Wafi in hadith, al-Safi and al-Asfia on
the interpretation of the Holy Quran, Usul al-Maarif in philosophy
and gnosis, and al-Muhajj al-bayza in ethics. All these books are
written in Arabic, and each is considered important in its own right.
Faydh had six children. His son, Muhammed Aalam al-Huda,
was a well-known scholar who composed a lot of works. According to
the date written on his gravestone, Faydh deceased in 1091 A.H (1681
A.D), apparently at the age of 84.
2. Fayyadh Lahiji
Mulla Sadras other student was Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji, the son
of Ali, known as Fayyadh. He was mainly famous as a philosopher
and theologian and was considered one of the distinguished poets of
his time.
He spent a part of his life in Mashad (the center of Khorasan
province) studying and, then, in about 1030 A.H (1621 A.D), or a few
years after that, he went to Qum, was acquainted with Mulla Sadra,
attended his classes, and, later, became one of his most faithful
students. Before Mulla Sadras return to Shiraz, Fayyadh was honored
by being accepted as his son-in-law (probably in about 1035 A.H).
Unlike his friend Faydh Kashani, Fayyadh did not go to Shiraz
with Mulla Sadra. It is likely that Mulla Sadra left him in Qum as his
substitute to continue his teaching work as a master.
Fayyadh was a prominent philosopher who sometimes
appeared in the role of a theologian following Khwajah Nasir al-Din
Tusi (writer of Tajrid al-Kalam). He had a profound poetic and
22 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
literary taste and, as one of the outstanding poets of that time, had a
Diwan (collection of poems) consisting of a variety of 12000 couplets
in ballad, lyric and quatrain (rubai) forms.
He was one of the most reputable and distinguished figures of
the Safavid period whom the Safavid Shah greatly admired and
respected. He was also quite popular among ordinary people. He
socialized with them and loved them so much and, in return, received
their great respect and devotion. However, in reality, he was a God-
fearing, pious, and secluded man who was heedless to worldly
attractions (This judgment has been made by his contemporaries about
him).1
Lahiji has a lot of works in philosophy and theology, the most
famous of which are: Shawariq al-ilham (a commentary on Tajrid al-
kalam), Gohar Murad (written in a simple language on theology, a
commentary on Suhrawardis al-Nur, glosses on Sharh Isharat, and
some other books, treatises, and a collection of poems.
Fayyadh was the father of at least three sons, who were all
among the scholars of their time. The name of his eldest son is Mulla
Hasan Lahiji, who became a master and succeeded his father in Qum.
Fayyadh is said to have lived for 70 years. He passed away in 1072
A.H (1662 A.D) in Qum and was buried in the same place.
1
. Tazkarah Nasrabadi, vol.1, p. 226.
Mulla Sadras Life 23
and passed away in Mecca in 1105 A.H (1695 A.D). He has also left
some books in philosophy to his later generations.
4. Hakim Aqajani
Hakim Mulla Muhammed Aqajani has been cited as one of
Mulla Sadras students. His life is also full of ambiguous points. He is
mainly famous for the commentary he wrote on Mir Damads (Mulla
Sadras master) important and difficult book, al-Qabassat, in 1071
A.H (1661 A.D).
Mulla Sadra was a prolific writer. He did not write at all during
his time of seclusion and asceticism and, after that, he was continually
involved in teaching and training the students of philosophy who
attended his classes from all over Iran; however, at all times, when
traveling or at home, he seized all possible chances to write books and
long or short treatises in philosophy. As a result, he created a varied,
useful, and inferential philosophical collection of writings in different
forms following different purposes.
Some of his books are textbooks and quite useful for gaining a
preliminary or complementary acquaintance with philosophy and
gnosis on the basis of his specific school of thought, Transcendent
Philosophy. Some of his other books are on the explanation and
demonstration of his own theories, and some others can be considered
as being on human ethics and manners.
He has devoted an important part of his works to the
interpretation of the Quran, and although death did not allow him to
provide a philosophical and gnostic commentary on the whole Quran,
what he wrote in this regard enjoys certain features which have made
them unique among similar interpretations.
Mulla Sadra, who was a Muhaddith (an expert in hadith and
traditions quoted from the Prophet (p.b.u.h) and his descendants), has
an important work on hadith. This is a commentary on a famous book
of hadiths, called al-Kafi, written by Kulayni Razi. Mulla Sadra has
commented on its chapter of Usul; however, perhaps due to his
24 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
1
. The last and most complete edition of this book, along with some critical
corrections, has been published by Mulla Sadra Publications Foundation,
Tehran, Iran.
Mulla Sadras Life 25
3. Sharh al-hidayah
This work is a commentary on a book called Hidayah which
has been written on the basis of Peripatetic philosophy, and was
previously used for giving a preliminary familiarity with philosophy
to students. However, it is rarely used today.
4. al-Mabda wal-maad
Also called al-Hikmat al-mutaaliyyah, this book can be
considered a summary of the second half of Asfar. It has been written
away from all discussions that Mulla Sadra views as being useless and
unnecessary. He called this book the Beginning and the End due to the
fact that he believed it in heart that philosophy means the knowledge
of the Origin and the Return. This book is mainly on issues related to
theology and eschatology, and is considered one of Mulla Sadras
important books.
5. al-Mazahir
26 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
6. Huduth al-alam
The issue of the origination of the world is a complicated and disputable problem
for many philosophers. In this book, in addition to quoting the theories of
philosophers before and after Socrates, and those of some Muslim philosophers,
Mulla Sadra has proved his solid theory through the theory of the trans-substantial
motion.
7. Iksir al-arifin
As the name suggests, this is a gnostic and educative book.
8. al-Hashr
The central theme of this book is the quality of existents resurrection
in the Hereafter. Here, Mulla Sadra has expressed the theory of the
resurrection of animals and objects in the Hereafter.
9. al-Mashair
This is a short but profound and rich book on existence and its related subjects.
Professor Henry Corbin has translated it into French and written an introduction to
it. This book has recently been translated into English, too.
13. Arshiyyah
Mulla Sadras Life 27
20. al-Tashakhkhus
28 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
In this book, Mulla Sadra has explained the problem of individuation and clarified its
relation to existence and its principiality, which is one of the most fundamental principles
he has propounded.
27. al-Mizaj
Mulla Sadra has written this treatise on the reality of mans temperament and its
relation to the body and soul.
30. al-Hashriyyah
A treatise on resurrection and peoples presence in the Hereafter, it deals with mans
being rewarded in paradise and punished in hell.
33. Si Asl
This is Mulla Sadras only book in Persian. Here, by resorting
to the main three moral principles, he has dealt with moral and
educative subjects related to scientists, and advised his contemporary
philosophers.
35. al-Tanquih
In this book, Mulla Sadra has concisely dealt with formal logic.
It is a good book for instructional purposes.
This treatise deals with issues of the philosophy of logic and inquires into concept
and judgment.
39. Letters
Except for a few letters exchanged between Mulla Sadra and
his master, Mir Damad, nothing has been left from them. These letters
have been presented at the beginning of the 3-volume book of Mulla
Sadras Life, Character and School, which have been written in
Persian. This book has also been translated into English.
* * * * * * * * * *
If we consider the above 39 books along with his 12-volume
books of interpretation, which we referred to as Tafasir in number 2,
as well as with his Mafatih al-qayb and Asrar al-ayat, we have cited
more than 50 of his works (exactly 53) so far. Some other books have
also been attributed to him; however, we will not refer to their names,
since they have either been discussed in other more comprehensive
books, or their being written by Mulla Sadra has been denied.
One of the problems which has raised a lot of arguments
concerning Mulla Sadras books is the place and time of their
composition. Most of his books have no composition date, and, in
order to know about this, one must refer to certain documents and
Mulla Sadras Life 31
1. Background
Before introducing Mulla Sadras school, it is first necessary to
take a glance at the historical background of Islamic philosophy in
Iran, and that of other schools of philosophy all over the world.
Nowadays, it is a proven fact to researchers that, unlike what
was believed before, philosophy did not originate from Greece; rather,
it started in the east, particularly, in Iran, and later it went to different
regions of Asia Minor and Mediterranean, Greece, Ionia, Syria, and
Lebanon. The school of philosophy developed before Aristotle was
called Illuminationist philosophy, which is sometimes called as
Pythagorean, Platonic, and, perhaps, gnostic and Orpheistic
philosophy, as well.
For some reasons, Aristotle did not agree with the foundations
of this school and, as a result, Peripatetic philosophy was developed
alongside it. After Aristotle, although his school (Peripatetic
philosophy) was forgotten, it was not completely destroyed. The
books written by philosophers following this schools and their
Mulla Sadras Life 35
1
. Farabis father was originally Iranian and served as a sirdar (commander)
under one of the rulers of Turkistan. He went from Khorasan to Farab,
where Farabi was born.
2
. All the problems of Peripatetic philosophy, before the translation of its related
books by Muslims, amounted to 200; however, this was increased to 700 by
Islamic philosophers, and, later, they propounded a number of complicated
problems which had never been discussed in Greece previously.
36 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
1
Suhraward is one of the towns in Iran in Azerbaijan province. There is
another man who was a contemporary to Suhrawardi and was called by the
same name. This person was a sophist.
38 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
1
. Among the philosophers of the modern era, Hegel is said to have been able
to develop an independent and systematic school of philosophy.
Unfortunately, this Hegelian system involves a series of controversies that
disrupt its orderliness; therefore, it cannot be considered a perfect
philosophical system.
40 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
1
. For example, Mulla Sadra has been inspired by one of the verses in the Quran
in formulating his famous and important theory of the trans-substantial
motion. He has also resorted to other verses in his other works.
Mulla Sadras Life 41
Mulla Sadra is one of the exceptional philosophers who has graded these sources. He
believes that the first basis for accessing truth is the intellect; however, he does not
consider it as being capable of solving the subtle problems of metaphysics. Therefore,
a philosopher or sage should not stop halfway through seeking the reality and deprive
himself from intuition and using prophets revelation.
3. Methodology
Mulla Sadras philosophical methodology can be inferred from
what we have so far stated concerning his school of thought. In Asfar,
when dealing with almost every problem, he firstly presents its
Peripatetic sketch, and propounds it within the framework of the
principles that conform to it in the Peripatetic school. Then he restates
the different old and new ideas which are related to that problem.
Following this, he rejects, modifies, confirms, or completes it, or
presents a series of new and more comprehensive arguments.1
Moreover, when necessary, he provides evidences from
sophism, particularly from Muhyaddin, Ibn-Arabi, and Plotinus (like
other Muslim philosophers preceding him, Mulla Sadra sometimes
mistakes him for Aristotle, because, even until recently, Plotinuss
book of Tasuat (Ennead) was considered to have been written by
Aristotle).
1
. He uses this method mainly for preventing students confusion in problem
solving.
Mulla Sadras Life 43
Mulla Sadra has his eyes on the Quran in dealing with all
major philosophical problems, and benefits from its Divine Graces so
much so that some assume that he employs the Quranic verses in his
philosophical reasonings. This is totally absurd; however, as
mentioned before, the Quran was always a source of inspiration for
him. Accordingly, he managed to discover certain realities that were
not accessible to others.
Mulla Sadras most important characteristic, which can rarely
be seen (if at all) even in Ishraqi philosophers, is his reliance on
intuition, unveiling, and perception of the realities of the world, and
solving intricate philosophical problems through ascetic practice,
worship, and connecting to the world beyond the matter and sense,
which he believes means the real sense. However, he neither suffices
to this, nor gives a decree in this regard to others; rather, his
methodology is to dress the realities that have been unveiled to him
through intuition, and that have been hidden under the cover of logical
reasoning in guise of a kind of reasoning which employs the common
terminology used in Peripatetic philosophy. He, himself, has referred
to this unique method of his in the introduction of Asfar.
As discussed above, he cast even those theories and ideas of his
preceding philosophers (whether before or after Socrates) which also
enjoyed an intuitive aspect, and which had not assumed an inferential
nature into the mould of common (or Peripatetic) philosophical
problems, and presented a series of philosophical arguments and
reasonings for them. Mulla Sadra prefers to call his school of thought
as one of wisdom rather than philosophy. As the readers are well
aware, he chose the name of Transcendent Wisdom1 for his school.
This is because, firstly, wisdom has an outstandingly long historical
record, and is assumed to be the same as what was called Sophia in
the past. Secondly, long ago, wisdom consisted of a vast field of
knowledge embracing all natural and mathematical sciences, and
possessed a worldview which was wider than that of modern scholars.
Thirdly, wisdom has been frequently praised in the Quran and hadith,
while there is no word of philosophy thereinside.
The subtle point here is that we can employ wisdom as a bridge
to fill the gap between philosophy and gnosis, which are two totally
1
. This word had been previously used as an adjective in mystic works of Ibn-
Sina and Qaysari, the well-known commentator of Ibn-Arabis Fusus.
However, Mulla Sadra used it formally as the title of his great book.
44 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
1
. It is interesting that the issues related to love and aesthetics are categorized
under theology in Mulla Sadras philosophy.
Ontology
Foundations and Basic
Principles of Mulla Sadras
Philosophy
1
. Shawahid al-rububiyyah is a short treatise which is different from al-
Shawahid al-rububiyyah. Refer to the list of Mulla Sadras books.
Ontology
1. Principiality of Existence
B
efore explaining this principle, it is first
necessary to define some technical terms. The
first term is wujud in Islamic philosophy, which
is equivalent to being and existence in
English, and tre and existence in French. Wujud or existence
is a mental concept that is in contrast to the concept of Nihil
(non-existence). External existence is concrete and identical with
the realization of things and individuals in the outside world.
When one asks about the reality of things, the response he
receives is quiddity. The definition of tree is equal to describing
its quiddity. Thus every external thing can be considered as
consisting of two parts, one being its existence, since we see that it
is present and exists, and the other being its essence and
characteristics, which separate it from other things, are employed
in defining that thing, and are used in the response given to the
question of what is it?; this part is called quiddity.
In spite of the fact that every thing has a quiddity and an
existence, we know that considering its external realization, it is
only one thing and cannot be more than that. For example, we can
only see a tree or a man before our eyes, rather than both the
existence of the tree and the tree itself, or the existence of man and
the man himself. This is because every external thing, that is, the
realized and existing thing, is only one thing rather than two.
Therefore, the realization of things is through either their quiddity
or their existence, and it is only one of them that is principial, with
the other being only its shadow that mans intellect abstracts from
the other. This apparently simple plan is the response given by
Mulla Sadra to the same intricate problem which had remained
unanswered for centuries.
Knowledge of Existence
Ontology 51
subject and the predicate. This is because the subject and the
predicate are two different concepts, and what permits predication
or judgment is their unity in existence. Thus principiality belongs
to existence.
Now, if we consider the quiddity of objects, rather than
their existence, as being principial and as the reality of their
essence (we know that quiddities are different from each other in
existence and essence), the predication of the predicate on the
subject will be impossible. We can no more say that in the
statement, the tree is green, the quiddity of the tree is essentially
different from the quiddity of green. If the verb to exist to be
(which is the sign of the interference of external existence) does
not appear between the two, these concepts will never come into
unity with each other, and no predication or unity will ever be
realized in the world.
Mulla Sadra maintains that if the realization of every
thing or quiddity is due to the addition of existence to it, thus
existence, itself, is prior to realization in the outside and more
attainable than other things. For example, if we believe that the
existence of water in something justifies its being wet, the
demonstration of wetness for water is more necessary, and the
water itself is prior to wetness and closer to it than other things.
And, basically, the affirmation of existence for existence does
not require any proof, since existence is essential for existence,
as wetness is essential for water.
Mulla Sadra illustrates his point by referring to whiteness in
the case of white objects, and says that when you qualify a piece of
paper, which is not identical with whiteness but occurs to it, by
whiteness and say that it is white, whiteness, itself, is prior to and
more deserving than the paper to possess the whiteness attribute
(since it is whiteness by itself).
By viewing the problem of quiddity and existence from
another angle, Mulla Sadra asserts: sometimes we assume a
quiddity without existence; that is, we ignore its external existence
(while it is not the case with existence). In other words, quiddity is
not such to be always concomitant with realization in the objective
54 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
1
. Some scholars had seen Heidegger reading the translation of Mulla Sadras
al-Mashair into French, Les Penetrations Metaphisiques, by Henry Corbin.
Thus it is highly probable that he was under Mulla Sadras influence in
developing some of his ideas.
Ontology 55
* * * * * * * * * *
In the last two centuries, certain schools of thought
categorized under the title of existentialism have become famous
in Europe. It is necessary to emphasize that the word existence in
such schools (except for Heideggers philosophy) is completely
different from wujud and principiality of wujud (existence) in
Islamic philosophy and in Mulla Sadras philosophy, and stands at
a great distance from them.
One of the distinctions here is that in Europe, they only pay
attention to mans existence rather than the existence of the whole
world of being. Such schools, in spite of their important
differences, share certain features with each other. According to
the followers of existentialism, existence is prior to quiddity;
however, by existence, they mean the same ordinary and
conventional existence which everyone has in mind. Besides, by
posteriority of quiddity, they mean that man, due to his free will,
at all times during his life, gives form to his quiddity and makes
himself, and that it is with his death, that his quiddity takes its
ultimate form.
Accordingly, it becomes clear that the quiddity they have in
mind is not identical with philosophical quiddity; rather, they are
referring to mans personality. Mans reactions to the dilemmas
of life and his anxieties, fears, sorrows, and pains both demonstrate
his existence and make up his personality (as well as his quiddity
in their words).
Here, Heideggers words sound to some extent familiar;
however, it can be said that he is not after knowing existence;
rather, he is seeking for an ambiguous issue which is different
from existence in Islamic gnosis and philosophy, and which, in
comparison to what Mulla Sadras school propagates, is highly
primitive and incomplete, and suffers from a series of important
defects.
* * * * * * * * * *
Mulla Sadra did not suffice to the important task of
demonstrating the principiality of existence and its being abstract.
56 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
2. Gradation of Existence
After demonstrating the principiality of existence and
quidditys being abstract, the problem of gradation of existence is
posed.1 However, before inquiring into this issue, we should first
define the communal meaning of existence.
As mentioned previously, existence is manifest in all
quiddities, that is, those external existents possessing their own
peculiar mould, form, and characteristics. And in spite of the
variety in existence (due to variety in quiddities and moulds), all of
them are of the same type, i.e., existence. In other words, existence
is common to all of them.
However, two forms of commonality are possible:
commonality sometimes appears in the form of absolute
homonymy; for instance, the word bat has different meanings in
English which are not at all related to each other, and this name is
shared by different concepts that are not semantically identical.
Sometimes, this commonality is semantic rather than
verbal; to put it more clearly, there might be a common reality
among different people, shared at different degrees of strength and
weakness. Sharing existence by all existents and quiddities is of
this type, since it is, indeed, commonly shared by all existents. Of
course, the existence of one thing is no different from the existence
of another thing unless in its limits, quantity, and definition. This
kind of commonality is called spiritual or immaterial
commonality in Islamic philosophy.
1
. Gradation has no meaning when it comes to the concept of existence (with
respect to its being a concept rather than a referent).
Ontology 57
1
. Perhaps because, in this way khalifs governments intended to culturally
confront Batiniyyah, who were the heirs to Ishraqi philosophy.
2
. The Fuzzy logic in physics has been inspired by the theory of gradation of
existence.
58 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
1
. The term used by Heidegger in his philosophy.
Ontology 59
1
Mulla Sadra demonstrated through a subtle philosophical analysis that the
existence of the Necessary Being, and, basically, His existence, are different
from the existence of contingent things.
Ontology 61
1
. For example, we attribute wetness in all wet objects to water, but wetness is
essential for water and not added to its essence. Thus wetness is necessary
and obligatory for water, but possible for other wet objects.
2
.Since existence is essential for the Necessary Being, it does not logically
require demonstration, and, according to the philosophical principle of the
essential is needless of a cause, the concept of the Necessary Being is
concomitant with existence.
62 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
* * * * * * * * * *
In Mulla Sadras school of thought, this principle is stated
as follows: anything whose truth (the essence of that existence)
is simple (non-composite) is everything (it is not separate from
other objects).
This principle is based on the law that existence is a simple
and absolute truth, and every absolute simple thing possesses all
existential perfections, and each and every existence in contained
in it. Therefore, firstly, the external reality of existence (not its
mental concept) cannot be more than one thing (it is single and
one). Secondly, there is no sense in its not being pre-eternal, and
having come into existence from non-existence (every existence
requires a maker). Thirdly, the existence of all existents is no
separate from that very origin of existents, is in need of it, and
depends on it. Fourthly, it is absolute, for it is impossible for
something that is called the origin, essence, and reality of
existence to have limits and boundaries, and not to be absolute and
all-inclusive. The reason is that limits and boundaries are signs of
need, while the absolute and perfect is not needy.
Consequently, an existence in the light of which all
existents come into being is absolute and void of non-existence
and imperfection, and we cannot, even in our mind, view it as
being a composite (of its own existence and non-existence of
others); for example, if we consider the absolute and original
existence as A, and other existents as B, we must say: A B,
rather than A = B, since in this case it will be composed of A
+B, which is a contradiction, for the first existence was assumed
a single and absolute existence and cannot be composite and non-
absolute, i.e., have limits (separability). The absolute existence or
the creator of other existents must logically possess all the
existential perfections, and be free from any sign of non-existence
and imperfection. It is reminded that composition means
imperfection and absolute non-existence.
Now, when this existence (for example, A) is not composed
of A and the opposite of B (B), its opposite, A = B, must be true,
and this means that every simple existent (non-composite) in
which composition has no way includes all things.
Ontology 63
* * * * * * * * * *
This argument can also be stated as follows:
1) All objects can be posited or considered in two
independent ways; in one of them they possess
existence and are themselves, and in the other they are
not other than themselves. These two considerations
are independent, and have their own logical place.
Therefore, every possible thing is composed of two
conceptual and logical parts, and composition is the
sign of need and imperfection, since each of its
components is in need of its other component, and need
is the sign of possibility or lack of necessity.
2) The Necessary Being is simple due to His
being the Absolute Existence and being needless of
everything else (even in mans imagination). Thus He
cannot be mentally divided into two things, namely,
self and not other than self. As a result:
3) Simple truth contains all the perfections and
positive aspects of all existents, although it is not
identical with them.
The next argument indicates that:
1) All existents are the effects and creations of
the Necessary Being; that is, they have taken whatever
degree of existence they possess from the Necessary
Being and Absolute Truth.1
2) Since it is impossible for the Giver of
perfection to lack it Himself, the Necessary Being
possesses all perfections (positive aspects) of its effects,
of course not in a scattered form, but in a simple,
focused, and single form.
1
. The Absolute and Pure Existence, Himself, is needless of a cause; rather, its
essence necessitates existence; otherwise, the impossible will be
necessitated, and the origin of existence will be negated.
64 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
existence at all times and in all its forms, exactly in the same way
that sunlight is not separate from daylight.
Absolute Existence, logically, is Omnipotent and dominates
everything in its philosophical nature, and Gods Power and other
Attributes originate from His Absolute and Simple Existence.
4. Indigence Possibility
One of the consequences of the principle of the principiality
of existence is Mulla Sadras accurate division of existence into
three types, as given below:
1. The existence of the existent is for it and
depends on it (psychological or predicative existence).1
2. The existence of the existent is for something
else, such as the existence of attributes and accidents for
things (e.g., whiteness for paper), since, although we
assume an independent existence for whiteness, its
existence cannot be realized unless in the paper, and
thus it is a predicate and attribute for the paper (unlike
the first type, in which existence is the subject, and its
existence depends on itself).
3. This type of existence can be found in the
relation between the subject and the predicate (It is
shown by ast in Persian and by is in English). This
existence has no independence of itself, and, even
unlike accidents and attributes, cannot be assumed by
itself in the mind. This existence is nothing except for a
relation with the subject (i.e., original existence), and
has no share of existence by itself.
1
. Kant believed that employing such an existence in propositions is wrong
and said that when existence is the predicate of propositions, nothing is
added to the subject. Mulla Sadra had answered this objection about two
centuries before him and argued that existence makes the subject in such
propositions (known as simple whetherness), and reveals the affirmation
of the subject rather than the affirmation of the predicate for the subject.
66 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
5. Motion in Substance
No one has ever denied the principle of existence of
motion, but philosophers previously believed that it existed only in
1
. al-Mashair, p. 84, al-Shawahid al-rububiyyah.
2
. In Islamic philosophy, cause is divided into perfect and imperfect ones. A
perfect cause creates the effect without the mediation of another thing, and an
imperfect cause is in fact a part of the cause and creates the effect through the
contribution of other factors. For example, we cannot consider parents as the
perfect cause of a childs existence, and mans acts all depend on a series of
conditions and absence of obstacles.
68 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
1
. In other words, the relation between substance and accident is similar to the
one between a horse and its rider in that if the horse is motionless and its
rider moving, it will be impossible for the horse to move along a distance.
2
. Khamenei, S.M, 2000, Development of Wisdom in Iran and in the World,
Tehran, SIPRIn Publications, p. 59.
3
. Isutsu, T, Continuous Creation. In this book, Isutsu expresses that Master
Kai, from Japan (1042-1117 A.D) has some statements which refer to the
same gnostic ideas of Muslims and Heraclitus.
70 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
1
. Peripatetics conceived of time as the product of the motion of spheres.
Mulla Sadra, apparently, does not deny this view; nevertheless, he does
not, in fact, agree with this view either, and believes that time is related to
the trans-substantial motion.
Ontology 71
6. Love
1
. al-Asfar, vol. 7, p. 197, Tehran, Sadra Islamic Philosophy Foundation
(SIPRIn), 1382 A.S.
Ontology 75
7. Platonic Idea
1
. Kenneth Ford calls the motions of electrons in the atom the energy dance.
Capra (in his Tao of Physics), after referring to this issue, quotes from a
Tibetan monk that all objects are masses of atoms which produce sounds
and songs by means of their dance and motions. In the Quran, too, in
order to say that all particles of the world remember and glorify (dhekr)
God, the word tasbih (glorify, praise), which has a fluid sense, has been
used. In Persian (Iranian) gnostic literature, all particles of the universe are
said to be dancing and rejoicing.
Ontology 77
1
. Mulla Sadra, Huduth al-alam, p. 184, Tehran, Sadra Islamic Philosophy
Foundation (SIPRIn), 1378 A.S.
2
. Eidos.
78 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
in the world of Ideas (between the world of matter and the world
of intellects).1
After rejecting the above interpretations, Mulla Sadra defines
and demonstrates the issue in his own way. He first refers to the point
that the Ideas intended by Plato are immaterial realities which are
completely of the same type of external objects rather than quiddities
different from them. That is why in ancient Iranian philosophy the
Idea of everything was called by its own name. For example, they had
chosen the name khordad for water, mordad for tree, and Hum-e
Izad (Gods Hum) for the holy plant, Hume (an angel whose name
was khordad, one whose name was mordad, and one whose name was
Hum).
Accordingly, Platos Ideas must be considered each as one
of the individuals of a species and the main and primary creation
and progenitor of each species; the material and this-worldly
things are the other individuals of that species which, due to being
bound by matter and its limitations, have turned into weaker and
more imperfect existents.2 He adds that from the viewpoint of the
principiality of existence (and its gradation), it is not a problem for
some of the individuals of a species to be stronger and more
perfect than the other individuals of the same species. Besides, it
should be taken into account that these ideas are not the patterns
and moulds for other individuals; rather, they are their analogs.
In order to demonstrate this theory philosophically, Mulla
Sadra has proposed some philosophical arguments in his al-Asfar
and al-Shawahid.
* * * * * * * * * *
1
. al-Shawahid al-rububiyyah, p. 191, Tehran, Sadra Islamic Philosophy
Foundation (SIPRIn), 1382 A.S.
2
. In Mulla Sadras school, every quiddity whose existence and realization
does not require going through the degrees of potency and act (and, as a
result, through motion and time), and is an actual existence is a perfect
existence. Nevertheless, not all existents and individuals of every species
are like this, and thus they must go through a specific route to gain
perfection in existence.
Ontology 79
M
uslim philosophers have divided existence
into two types: objective (or external)
existence and mental (or psychological)
existence. Mental existence represents the
existence of subjects in the mind when they are imagined or
function as subjects for predicates in propositions. Such subjects or
mental existents might have an extension in the outside, as well as
not.
For example, we sometimes consider non-existence as the
subject, and pose a number of judgments for it in the mind and in
propositions which are true but lack external objectivity. Besides,
concerning non-existent and impossible objects (agreement of
opposites), we sometimes imagine the universalities (as well as
existents, completely detached from all their characteristics) in the
mind. A universal thing, whether a concept or a judgment, is
created in the mind, and, as we know, is of an abstract existence;
however, since it has no existence in the outside world; it exists in
another place, i.e., in the mind. The existence of such existents is
called mental existence. The perception of such an existence is
instinctive, and everybody perceives and accepts it by his inner
sense (This issue supports the idea of mental existence).
The division of existence into mental and external ones
could also be generalized to the division of quiddity. Accordingly,
it can be said that quiddity or essence is of two types: external and
mental.
82 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
1
. Vol. 1, Introduction.
Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
82
1
. Due to conservation of essences and the impossibility of categories
transforming into each other.
Epistemology
83
1
. al-Asfar, vol. 1, p. 292, Mustafawi Publications.
Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
84
Intelligent
Epistemology
85
1
. Mulla Sadra, Treatise on the Unity of the Intellect, Intelligent, and
Intelligible, Direct reference has been made to this point at the end of the
first essay of this treatise.
82 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
1
. al-Asfar, vol. 3. p. 313, Tehran.
Epistemology 83
1
. This difference is the same as the one between nomen and phenomenon.
84 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
Perceiver Perceived
Epistemology 85
3. Mans Perceptions
Perception has always been, and still is, one of the themes
raising a great amount of commotion in philosophical discussions.
Mulla Sadra has a particular theory in this regard, too, and it seems
to be more accurate and comprehensive than the ideas of other
philosophers.
He accepts philosophers classification of perception into
sense, imaginal, rational, and estimative perceptions.
1
. Final entelechy.
2
. First entelechy.
1
However, he does not agree with the way they qualify
them, and, ultimately, maintains that perception is of three types:
sense perception, imaginal perception, and rational perception.
Mulla Sadra believes that the origin of all perceptions is the
external object, which, immediately after entering the mind,
obtains some degree of immateriality. He adds that, basically, all
human perceptions are immaterial, and do not depend on a specific
matter in the brain or the body for their existence, since matter,
which is essentially followed by the trans-substantial motion, and
its every moment is separate from the other, has no self-awareness,
much less to be aware of another existent.
The mind, which, according to some philosophers, is like a
receptacle for knowledge, is nothing other than the very
perceptions and pieces of knowledge that mans soul creates
through its specific power of creativity.
We discussed imaginal perception previously in an
independent section, thus in what follows, we will deal with the
other two types of perception, namely, sense and rational
perceptions.
Sense perception
Mulla Sadra believes that sense perception has different
stages:
First stage: This stage consists of the reflection of external
facts by the five senses. He conceives of this stage as the effect and
reflection of an image on a photography negative, and maintains
that it is too imperfect and low to be called perception and result in
knowledge for man. This stage consists of a series of code-like
signals that create a faint picture in the brain (and in early
philosophers words, in the common sense).
This stage is only halfway through perception, and
empiricists, who equate reflection on the senses with perception,
1
. In his books, Mulla Sadra expresses his doubts about estimative perception,
and equates it with imagination.
82 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
have sufficed to half of what really takes place, and, thus, they
cannot deny the complete process of perception.
Second stage: At this stage, it is the human souls turn to
gain knowledge from these images and codes. Here, two important
elements are necessary for sense perception: attention and
awareness. Attention is a psychological phenomenon, and has
nothing to do with the body. Unless the souls attention is
completely focused on the functions of the five senses, none of the
signals transmitted by them can be regarded as perception.
We have also seen in practice that man, while crossing the
street, does not perceive all the things his senses (such as sight and
hearing) experience, unless he pays attention to them.
Attention is also a psychological phenomenon, out of the
realms of the body and the brain. Attention is the result of mans
attention to those things which have presence for him.
Awareness is the very presence of external objects in mans mind
(and soul). Mulla Sadra calls this attention and awareness of the
soul as presential knowledge.
In Islamic philosophy, knowledge and perception are
divided into two groups: acquired knowledge and presential
knowledge.
Acquired knowledge consists of what is acquired through
the five senses. It can introduce and present the quiddity (rather
than existence) of objects to the mind. In Islamic philosophy, the
cognitive form that is created in the mind is called the indirectly
known.
As to his acquired knowledge, man is never confronted
with the existence of perceived things, because, as mentioned in
the part related to mental existence, external existence cannot enter
the mind without declining to the degree of mental existence, and
is, in fact, not perceptible (that is why we perceive the fire, but its
existential features, i.e., warmth, do not come to the mind). In
acquired knowledge, man only deals with the quiddity of objects;
hence, his knowledge of phenomena lacks their characteristics and
effects, and is useless.
Epistemology 83
1
. The issue of creativity has been extensively discussed in Islamic gnosis and
Mulla Sadras school of thought, , as illustrated in the part on mental
existence. For more information, refer to the article written by Seyyed
Muhammed Khamenei, Creativity and Mans Vicegerency.
82 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
3. Immaterial Imagination
1
. Sensus Communis in Latin.
Epistemology 85
1
. At the end of the hole, the front part of the brain.
2
. This is because, like the body, the soul possesses certain senses such as
sight (insight). Man can experience it and gain certainty about its reality
when dreaming or dying.
86 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
1
. Creation ex nihilio.
2
. Al-Mabda wal-maad, vol. 2, p. 647, Mulla Sadra Philosophy Foundation
Publications. Al-Asfar, vol. 8. p. 234.
SoulEschatology
Soul - Eschatology
1. Corporeal Origination of the Soul
I
n the past, two major theories concerning the
human soul were quite popular among
philosophers. One of these theories was the
Platonic theory of the spirit and the soul,
suggesting that the existence of the soul was eternal, spiritual, and
prior to the creation of the body (Timaeus). The second theory
belonged to Peripatetics, and Ibn-Sina provided a thorough
explanation for it. This theory dealt with the immaterial or non-
corporeal origination of the soul, along with the corporeal
origination and creation of the body. Later Mulla Sadra presented
an innovative theory in this regard. He proved that although mans
soul ultimately becomes immaterial in its particular course of
development, it is corporeal at the outset of creation, and is born
from the body.
In Mulla Sadras view, mans soul is initially solid, and
then, after leaving the stage of solidity behind, turns into an
embryo and steps into the vegetative stage (vegetative soul). Later
it arrives at the animal stage (animal soul), and then, in the process
of its real maturity, reaches the stage of human soul and becomes a
rational soul. After this stage, in the light of its efforts, practice,
and rational and spiritual training, it can also achieve human
maturity (which he calls the holy soul and actual intellect
(intellectus in actu)). This is a stage which quite a few are capable
of reaching.
All these stages, in fact, represent moving in the same route
in order to leave potency and enter actuality. Each succeeding
102 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
stage is a potential for the preceding one, and going through them
means passing through grades of intensity, and moving from
weakness to strength. However, the collection of these stages
comprises the points of a line called human life and line of
development, and which is formed on the basis of the principle of
graded existence and the trans-substantial motion.
It is important to know that entering each stage does not mean
getting away from the previous stage; rather, each higher stage, at all
times, embodies and includes the weaker stages prior to itself, as well.
The rule here suggests that every strong existence according to
gradation of existence embraces all the weaker existential stages
before it.
Mulla Sadra blames philosophers like Peripatetics who
consider the soul a static substance which remains in the same
state from the beginning to the end of life, and has no trans-
substantial motion. Obviously, he also disagrees with people like
Descartes who believe in the absolute separation of the soul and
body.
Like other Muslim philosophers, Mulla Sadra believes in
the abstraction (immateriality) of the soul, but not in the sense
intended by his preceding schools of thought. In his view, the
immateriality of the soul is gradual owing to its ascending and
developmental journey, and, in his own terms, due to its trans-
substantial motion. This motion leads to bodys senility and
annihilation; however, it is a motion towards rationality in the
soul, and becomes more powerful and active day after day. The
developed soul, after separating from the body and becoming
needless of it, ultimately, turns into the abstract intellect, and
continues its life in a space which is more desirable than the
material one.
* * * * * * * * * *
Mulla Sadras philosophical psychology is based on his other
philosophical principles, which are considered exactly the very
reasons he adduces to prove his theory. Such principles are presented
below:
1. Material substance naturally enjoys a developmental
motion, and, unlike what Peripatetics say, nature is not
Soul Eschatology 103
1
. Henry Corbin believes that mujarad (abstract) in the terminology of
Islamic philosophy is the same as the Greek khoristos and an equivalent
to transcendent rather than to immaterial or incorporeal.
2
. Such independence for abstract things from the matter is not in contrast to
the idea that the material body should make the provisions necessary for
abstract things; for example, the upper layer of the brain and the nervous
system serve as tools for exerting the souls will or transferring affections
to it. In real life instances we see that electrical keys and tools are not
electrical by themselves, but they can (and must) be at the service of
electricity and its connection to other parts, and manifest its benefits.
Soul Eschatology 105
2. Metaphysics of Death
One of the important topics of the philosophical discussions
related to the soul is death, which Mulla Sadra has borrowed from
natural sciences, and introduced and discussed in the field of
philosophy.
Mulla Sadra views death as the souls desertion of the body.
He disagrees with this idea of biologists and physicians suggesting
that death is the effect of the destruction and annihilation of the
body, and the derangement of its natural order, like one whose
house has been destroyed and is forced to seek shelter somewhere
else.
He maintains that death is of two types: natural death and
accidental death. In natural death, the soul, in its journey towards
perfection, leaves the body when it does not need it anymore. He
assimilates the body to a ship, and the soul to the wind that pushes the
ship forward, and says that if there is no wind, the ship will stop
moving; likewise, when the soul departs with the body, there will be
no life.
By reference to a hadith from the Holy Prophet (saas),
stating that the soil will rot the whole body except for the
substance1 from which it has been created, Mulla Sadra states
1
. We can consider it as DNA or something like it but unknown. It is called
ajb al-dhanab in the hadith.
106 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
that, after death, man takes the faculty of imagination away with
himself. This faculty is his substance, contains all forms and data
of the worldly man, and is immaterial and independent from the
material world. The personality of the same worldly man is
reconstructed in the Hereafter with more abilities and faculties in
the light of this very faculty of imagination.
Death does not ruin the body; rather it disperses it, and,
while maintaining its origin and substance, takes its attributes
away from it, and ,whenever it wishes, it can return those attributes
to the original substance of the body.1
In the Iranian Islamic gnostic literature, particularly in Rumis
Mathnavi, death is considered a rebirth and a gate for entering another
world, and it had better to call it life rather than death. Rumi uses the
words dying or being reborn is stages to refer to the change of the
human embryo from spiritless matter into the vegetative form, then into
the animal form, and finally into the human form. He maintains that the
developed man can turn into an angel by death, or even go higher than
angels.
3. Resurrection
The issue of resurrection can be considered as one of the
neglected themes in philosophy and metaphysics. Although
resurrection is one of the subcategories of the issue of the soul, and
although its mortality or immortality after death is among the
themes dealt with in philosophy, before Mulla Sadra, it was
classified under the subjects studied in theology.2 The most non-
philosophical answer to this problem is the denial of resurrection,
the world, or other worlds that religions and Illuminationst
philosophers have referred to.
Mulla Sadra could propound this subject in the mould of a
philosophical issue, and place it among the discussions following
1
. In the Quran, human death has been assimilated to vegetations hibernation.
2
. Considering the entropy of the world matter, and the assumption of the
subsistence of energy, natural sciences and physics, too, should inevitably
deal with this problem, and find out about the fate of the world and the
universe after the Big Bang or another possible event.
Soul Eschatology 107
the issues related to mans soul and his faculties and perceptions.
According to Islamic and Quranic beliefs, the world of matter has
a destiny in which the matter changes shape1 or is completely
annihilated. However, in a repeated event (which can be called the
big explosion or the second Big Bang), human beings and objects
will appear in a specific form.
Mulla Sadra stated in a new theory that revivification, or
collective presence in the resurrection day, is not restricted to
human beings and includes all existents.2 This theory of
resurrection is more in conformity with the theories of the end of
the transformation of the physical quiddity of the world.
Resurrection or the day of deranging the order and form of
nature is followed by the scene of revivification, i.e., the presence
of all human beings and things.
According to Mulla Sadra, time is the cause of separation
among people in its course of passage, and when time and place,
which are the two factors causing dispersion among people, are
annihilated, all of them will come together in the same place. In
Mulla Sadras philosophy, the world of the Hereafter is another
world which is no different from this world except in its matter,
mass, body, and time, yet the form and shape of objects are
apparently the same as before.
This world has been called the Ideal world, and its
characteristics are mainly similar to the characteristics of pure
energy.
The Ideal world is one of the three-fold worlds Mulla
Sadra in line with sophists agrees with in his worldview. These
worlds consist of the world of matter, the world of Ideas (or
imagination), and the world of intellect and intelligibles.
The above worlds are not three separate places; rather, their
classification is based on their strength, weakness, perfection,
imperfections, and, in Mulla Sadras words, their proximity to or
distance form the Pure Origin or God.
1
. In physicists words, anti-matter will dominate the matter, and the present
matter of the world will be destroyed.
2
. Mulla Sadras treatise, Risalat al-hashr, is on this issue.
108 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy
1
. Mulla Sadra emphasizes that, unlike the common belief, the body is not the
guard and carrier of the soul; rather, it the soul that preserves the body
after its own establishment. Thus the soul has a body for itself after death.
Soul Eschatology 109
* * * * * * * * * *
I
t was previously mentioned that Mulla Sadras
school of thought, as a perfect philosophical system,
and in spite of various problems, is of a coherent
and congruent form. In this system, the process of
philosophical thought (or, in his own words, mans first spiritual
journey) begins with existence and existent. Even if we accept
that, logically, the issue of knowledge (epistemology) is prior to
ontology, Mulla Sadra is still justified in considering existence as
the beginning point for thinking. This is because even
knowledge, as a phenomenon, requires an existential basis, too,
and in order to keep away from skepticism, one must, inevitably,
recognize mans existence (or as Descartes says, his Cogito)
officially.
This might have been the reason why Muslim philosophers
have mixed the issues related to knowledge and existence in their
works. Mulla Sadra has started his book with existence, since it is
the most comprehensive and inclusive subject for philosophical
thought.
Islamic philosophy is based on the interaction and bilateral
relation between ontology and epistemology, and as it discusses
the issues of quiddity (questioning the what of something) and
quality (questioning the how of something), it also deals with their
ontological relation with the outside.
The second feature of Sadrian philosophy is demonstrating
the gradational relation of existents with each other, as well as
with their pre-eternal source. From one aspect, this principle
cannot be separated from the previous issue principiality of
existence and this very principle can pave the way for
Soul Eschatology 115
1
. Seyyed Mohammed Khamenei, Tehran, Sadra Islamic Philosophy Foundation.
116 Mulla Sadras Transcendent Philosophy