Introduction

"It's our game," exclaimed poet Walt Whitman more than a century ago,
"that's the chief fact in connection with it: America's game." He went on to
explain that baseball "has the snap, go, fling of the American atmosphere-
belongs as much to our institutions, fits into them as significantly, as our
constitutions, laws: is just as important in the sum total of OUf historic
life." Perhaps Whitman exaggerated baseball's importance and congru-
ency with American life, but few would contend that the sport has been
merely a simple or occasional diversion. Indeed, if forced to make a choice,
most would side with Whitman. They would insist that baseball achieved
a special prominence and permanence in the United States that in some
respects makes its significance equivalent to that of business, politics,
religion, ethnicity, or race.
Until recently, those attempting to tell the story of how baseball be-
came so "important in the sum total of our historic life" focused almost
exclusively on the history of the game between the foul lines. That is,
rhey vividly-sometimes with nostalgia and often with more than a bit of
hyperbole-recounted the feats of the great players and the great teams.
In doing so they were not completely amiss. It would be foolish to ignore
the drama and the significance of what took place on the playing field,
of Harry Wright's Cincinnati Red Stockings, King Kelly, the Baltimore
Orioles of the I8905, Ty Cobb, Babe Ruth and the New York Yankees,
Satchel Paige and Jackie Robinson, or Sammy Sosa, Mark McGwire, and
Barry Bonds.
 ...-------------------------
., ....."'"
2
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
3
But while recounting the exciting story of legendary players and teams
once put it, "the only game in town." Never before did the game occupy
I try to do more. I attempt to tell a broader story, one that identifiesthe
such a central place in American life. The entrepreneurs in charge of the
critical continuities and changes in the way the game was played and
representative nines in the larger cities established an entity that became
examines the creation and demise of team dynasties, the organizationof
known as organized baseball, which consisted of an elaborate hierarchy
baseball, the ethos of the game, and baseball's relationship to American
of major and minor professional leagues. They concocted an elaborate
society. This book might also be described as a history of baseball's culture
myth of the game's origins, erected great civic monuments in the form of
meaning the story of continuity and change in the game's rules, organiza- ballparks made of steel and concrete, and instituted an annual fall rite
tions, habits, customs, skills, and interactions with the larger society. known as the World Series. Led by Babe Ruth, the game propagated epic
The larger story of America's game begins in the 1840S with an exami- heroes whose dimensions of public involvement were equaled by few other
nation of a ball game anchored in the lives of young artisans and clerks, figures in American history, and Ruth's team, the New York Yankees,
They formed voluntary associations or clubs and described themselves became synonymous with success. In the front office, Branch Rickey, first
as members of a "base baJJ fraternity." This variety of basebaJJ has never of the St. Louis Cardinals and then of the Brooklyn Dodgers, not only
completely vanished; countless amateur and semiprofessional teamscon- brought to the baseball business a new rationality but also, with his role
tinued to playa version of it until the 1960s, and some of the rules and in breaking the "color ban" in 1946, contributed directly to a new era of
customs of the fraternity temain to this day. Even in the heyday of the American race relations.
fraternal era, however, a new basebaJJ culture emerged, one that was tied By midcenrury, there were other games in town. After 1950 America's
to the commercial opportunities presented by the sport. With commercial game confronted potent competition, not only from other professional
baseball in the 1860s and 1870S came professional players whose roles sports (especially football) but more importantly from a shift by Ameri-
resembled more the actors and actresses of the day than boys playing baJJ cans from public to private, at-home diversions. Attendance at all levels
on empty lots or a group of young shipbuilders gathering to play at their of baseball fell, minor league baseball became a shell of its former self,
clubhouses. and hundreds of semiprofessional and amateur teams folded. Professional
The growth of the professional game was inextricably linked with urban baseball responded to the crisis by planting additional major league teams
identities. Representative professional baseball teams exhibited a remark- in new population centers, building new stadiums, and trying to harness
able capacity for giving towns and cities deeper emotional identities; reams the new technological marvel of television. The empowerment of profes-
helped to define the particular character of an urban community, giving sional players in the last quarter of the twentieth century not only ended
citizens a sometimes glorious sense of place and sharply drawn collective their serflike relationship to the owners but also subtly altered the public's
memories. Baseball sometimes furnished a respite, albeit a short one, from perceptions of the athletes and the game. In the early twenty-first century,
grinding and unfulfilling work and from the social stresses and dislocations revelations of a massive drug scandal became a public relations nightmare
of urban life. At its best, baseball could even reduce antagonisms arising for major league baseball while, at the same time, the public response to
from class, religious, ethnic, and racial divisions. In a nation comprising a the crisis reflected the ambivalence of the American people.
multiplicity of ethnic, racial, and religious groups, one without a monarchy, An analysis of baseball's recent troubles, however, should not obscure the
an aristocracy, or a long, mystic past, the experience of playing, watching, game's continuing vitality and importance. Despite its limitations for con-
and talking about baseball games became one of the nation's great common veying the nuances of baseball, television has allowed many more people
denominators. In the perceptive words of British novelist Virginia Woolf, to see the game played at higher levels of excellence than ever before. In
it provided "a centre, a meeting place for the divers activities of a people the 1980s and early 1990S both big league and minor league attendance
whom a vast continent isolates [and] whom no tradition controls." No increased appreciably. In the late 1990S and early twenty-first century,
matter where you were, you pulled off the hit-and-run play, the double attendance at not only big league games, but also at college and minor
play, and the sacrifice bunt the same way in one town as in another. league games reached all-time highs. With baseball flourishing in the Carib-
In the first half of the twentieth century, baseball was, as Bill Veeck bean basin and Japan, baseball increasingly reflected the larger historical
 4 INTRODUCTION
-
process of what scholars described as "globalization. Perhaps no signof
the game's durability has been more important than the soaring interest
in an alternative baseball culture represented in novels, poetry, nostalgic
movies, rotisserie basebaJl, "saberrnetrics," dozens of Web sites devoted
exclusively to the game, and the collection of baseball souvenirs. Now
college students can even take COurses in baseball history and literature.
In the opening decade of the twenty-first century, as in the past, base-
ball's grip on the American people rests to a large extent on its power to
evoke continuity. In the I850S, just as today, three strikes retired a hitter
and ninety feet separated the bases. Unique among American team games,
baseball presents itself to the fan in startling clarity; each player stands
alone on vast expanses of green, and the game's pace is slow enough to
permit the mind to collect sharply etched memories, each of which can
be analyzed repeatedly. Regardless of wars, economic catastrophes, natu-
ral disasters, or personal tragedies, t.he memories remain. In a world of
seething change and uncertainty, baseball continues to offer comfort and
reassurance; in this sense, it remains America's game.
 q

I
The Fraternity
and Its Game
In 1858, three years before the first shots were fired in the nation's ter-
rible civil war, baseball excitement in the New York City area mounted
to a fever pitch. The occasion was a best-of-three-game series between
an all-star nine from Brooklyn and a team of New York City all-stars.
After lengthy, sometimes acrimonious negotiations, the teams selected as
the site for their series the Fashion Race Course, a popular Long Island
horse racing track that featured a magnificent new stone grandstand. To
get to the games, the fans crowded into carriages, omnibuses, and the
special trains of the Flushing Railroad. Admission cost fifty cents, a price
in those days equivalent to half a day's earnings for a common laborer.
Proceeds from the games went not to the players but to a fireman's fund
for widows and orphans. According to a press report, the spectators in-
cluded "a galaxy of youth and beauty in female form, who ... nerved
the players to their task." Perhaps feminine comeliness steeled the resolve
of the New Yorkers the most, for they won the first game, zz to 18. In
the second game the Brooklynites evened the series, winning 29 to 8, but
 6 BASEBALL
THE FRATERNITY AND ITS GAME 7

then the New Yorkers tebounded to win the decisive third contest d for forming voluntary associations, As Thomas Altherr and David Block
. h ,an
h h arnprons
tee ip, 29 to 18.
have carefully documented, long before Abner Doubleday's alleged inven-
The all-stat series of 1858 was only one among many sparringspectacles tion of baseball at Cooperstown, New York, in 1839, men and boys in
that suddenly burst on the nation in the middle decades of the nineteenth the U.S. were playing a large variety of baseball-like games, During the
century. In the I840S and I8S0S, thousands of spectators gatheredat Revolutionary War, for example, the soldiers frequently relieved boredom
tracks in virtually every state in the Union to watch horse and footraces: by resorting to "playing ball" or "base." Early bat-and-ball games might
equal numbers thronged along the nation's harbor, lake, and riverbank; also be called "ball," "old cat," "barn ball," "town ball," "rounders,"
to observe boat races. Although a bare-knuckle prize fight rarelyattracted or even "base ball." Most of these games probably originated in England,
more than a few hundred fans (being illegal everywhere and oftensched- though we know that Native Americans played a variety of bat-and-ball
uled in remote places), literally tens of thousands heard oral accountsor games as well. While no written rules existed (or at least have survived)
read about them in the newspapers. Prior to 1845, only a few scattered for the earliest of these games, as early as 1767 an English children's book,
references exist of baseball games, but within fifteen years severalhundred A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, printed in London, contained engravings of
clubs had been formed, and more than ten thousand boys and youngmen scenes of boys playing games labeled as "stool-ball," "base-ball," and
played in club matches. "trap-ball. "
Two groups, each described by contemporaries as "fraternities,"were These early games required a ball, a stick with which ro hit the ball, and
of critical importance to the rise of organized sporrs in the r840s and one or more bases. The bases might be stones, articles of clothing, trees or
I 8 50S. One was known simply as the sporting fraternity, or "thefancy." shrubs, or stakes driven into the ground. The ball might be fabricated on
The fancy shared a love of sports, especially those games that provided the spot. One of the players might offer a woolen stocking to be unraveled
opportunities for drinking, wagering, and hearty male fellowship.Remain- and wound around a bullet or a cork. The cover might consist of stitched
ing mostly outside the mainstream of Victorian America, the sporting leather. No one probably worried about the distances between bases or the
fraternity offered antebellum men, in particular the younger, unmarried, number of players on each side. There was no umpire. The object of the
ethnic, working-class population, a sense of belonging and excitement, as game was to throw a ball so that it could be hit easily by the batsman.
well as a refuge from femininity, domesticity, and the demanding routines A decisive turning point in the emergence of the baseball fraternity came
of the new industrial economy. in 1842 and 1843 when a group of young clerks, storekeepers, professional
The other group, known as the ball-playing fraternity, came closer to men, brokers, and assorted "gentlemen" in New York City began playing
meeting Victorian standards of propriety, though the behavior of the ball a bat-and-ball game at the corner of 27th Street and Fourth Avenue in
players and their followers frequently made them also suspect to the guard- Manhattan. According to unverifiable baseball folklore, it was Alexander
ians of mid-nineteenth-century morality. The ball players organized volun- Joy Cartwright, a bank clerk and later a partner in a stationery shop, who
tary associations, or clubs, for the playing of baseball. Representatives of in I845 convinced the young men to form a club. They called their fledgling
the clubs wrote and revised the rules of play, appointed officials,scheduled organization the New York Knickerbocker Base Ball club, thereby identify-
matches, and in 1858 formed a national association, The hall-playing ing themselves with the hoary mystique of the area's original Dutch settlers.
fraterniry provided its informal membership with the direct excitement For a playing site, they rented a portion of the Elysian Fields in Hoboken,
of playing ball games and with the indirect benefits arising from male New Jersey, a "most picturesque and delightful" place surrounded by
camaraderie and exhibitions of manly physical skills. woods and with easy access to New York City via the Barclay Street ferry.
After a hard afternoon at play, the members regularly retreated to nearby
McCarty's Hotel bar, where they could regale one another with manly
talk and quench their thirst with spirituous drink. For a time, McCarty's
The baseball fraternity had its origins in the widespread popularity of may have also served as an informal clubhouse; at least it was there that
various sorts of bat-and-ball games and the special American penchant the Knickerbockers held their second annual meeting,
 8 BASEBALL

The Knickerbocker Base Ball club bore only a fainr resemblance to a

modern professional or sandlot baseball club. In contemporary sports,
the words club and team are used interchangeably. The main, if not the
exclusive, purpose of sucb organizations is to play games against other
teams and sometimes to make money. To the Knickerbockers, however,
the term club meant far more than simply a team of baseball players
bent on victory or monetary remuneration. The Knickerbocker club, like
many of the other pioneering baseball clubs, was both an athletic and a
social association. While providing opportunities for playing baseball, it
also scheduled suppers, formal balls, and other festive occasions in the
off-season. Individuals could acquire membership only by election; the
club conscientiously tried to keep out those who had a "quarrelsome
disposition" or who did not fit well into the group for other reasons. The
Knickerbockers drew up bylaws, elected officers, and even fined members
who breached the organization's code of dress and behavior. Club members
had to purchase uniforms of blue woolen pantaloons, white flannel shirts,
and straw hats and attend "Play Days" on Mondays and Thursdays. The
Knickerbockers at one time had more than 200 members, many of whom
played little if any baseball.
In I845, the club set down in writing the rules for its game. As with
the English game of rounders, the Knickerbocker game stipulated that the
infield be diamond shaped, with a base at each corner. The umpire caJIed
no strikes or balls, but three pitches that had been swung at and missed
retired the batsman. Tagging a runner between bases replaced "soaking"
or "plugging," a painful feature of several bat-and-ball games by which
base runners could be retired by striking them with a thrown ball. The
Knickerbockers limited the team at bat to only three outs. Fielders couId
obtain outs by catching the batted ball on the first bounce, in the air,
throwing to first base ahead of the runner, or tagging the runner between
bases. A game ended as soon as a team scored twenty-one "aces," or runs,
provided that both teams had played an equal number of "innings." (In-
nings apparently was a term borrowed from cricket).
Other features of the Knickerbockers' game would be even less familiar
to the modern fan. Instead of placing himself behind the catcher or in the
field, the "umpire" (another term that may have been borrowed from
cricket) sat at a table along the third base line, sometimes dressed in tails
and a tall black top hat. Unless a play was so close that it was disputed
by one of the team captains, the umpire never interfered with the course
of the game. When a controversy did arise, it was the umpire's duty to
 THE FRATERNITY AND ITS GAME
9

weigh the merits of the opposing arguments carefully before tendering a

decision. If uncertain of a proper ruling on a fair or foul ball, for instance,
he could even request the opinions of nearby spectators. All of them being
"gentlemen," it was presumed that the spectators would offer unbiased
judgments.
Intraclub games began with the captains choosing sides, much in the
manner of children on empty lots today. The captains called a tossed
coin to see which team batted first. When the losing side took the field,
all the infielders except the "short" fielder (the shortstop) usually stood
atop their respective bases. The fielders wore no gloves, and the catcher
used no protective gear. Hoping to catch pitches on the first bounce, the
catcher stood several feet behind the "striker," or batter. Taking a running
start, the "feeder," or pitcher, literally pitched (rather than threw] the ball
underhanded with a straight arm from a distance of forty-five feet. Because
the umpire called no strikes, the striker could wait patiently fat a pitch to
his liking. Except for fellow club members and occasional invited friends,
few spectators witnessed the earliest contests.
The Knickerbockers were not the first baseball club in the country,
nor did their formation immediately result in a flurry of interest by other
young men in organizing such clubs. Newspaper reports indicate that
one or more teams existed long before the Knickerbockers; in 1991, Tom
Heitz, librarian of the Baseball Hall of Fame, reported finding an account
from 12 July 1825 in which a group of nine men challenged any team in
Delaware County, New York, to a game. Nonetheless, these early teams
appear not to have survived for long. The Knickerbockers themselves
suffered a crushing defeat (23-I) at the hands of a "New York Club" in
1846, but the winning club, if it ever existed as a separate entity, appar-
ently met an early demise, and fat a time the Knickerbockers themselves
nearly collapsed from a lack of sufficient interest. They did not play another
recorded game with an external foe until r By r .
Then suddenly, in the mid-I850S, a baseball mania swept through the
metropolitan New York area. In 1854 and 1855 at least three new clubs
appeared in Manhattan, while Brooklyoites formed seven additional clubs.
According to Porter's Spirit of the Times (I8 55), Brooklyn, which had once
been known as the "City of Churches," was "fast earning the title of the
'City of Base Ball Clubs." The next year, the same sporting sheet reported
that every empty lot within ten miles of New York City was being used as
a ball field. According to "The Baseball Fever," a song that first appeared
in 1857,
 ro BASEBALL

Our merchants have to close their stores

Their clerks away are staying,
Contractors too, can do no work,
Their hands are all out playing.

Men got up in the wee hours of the morning to practice before going
to work; they spent their lunch hours playing catch; and after work, they
rushed to the ball fields for yet more play. "The streets in the vicinity of
our factories are now full at noon and evening of apprentices and others
engaged in the simpler games of ball," reported the Newark Daily Adver-
tiser in r860. Doubtless some young men sacrificed their future careers in
business or lost their jobs, all for the sake of the new game. Nothing, not
even the biting cold of winter or expressions of displeasure by employers,
seemed to chill their enthusiasm for baseball.
By the summer of r86r at least 200 junior and senior teams were playing
in Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, Westchester, and northern New Jersey.
These teams were of two sorts. One set of teams, usually composed of perry
merchants and clerks, organized social clubs such as the Knickerbockers.
Although they frequently had enough resources to rent a club room or a
clubhouse, they were nonetheless clearly less wealthy than the yachtsmen
of the era or the members of the athletic clubs that grew in popularity in
the r870s and r880s. The second kind of team arose from neighborhoods
and workplaces. Young men from a particular neighborhood or those
employed in a particular craft-shipwrights, butchers, firemen, post office
employees, printing trade workers, and harness makers, for example-
formed teams, some of which had no formal existence apart from the
playing field. Because the activities of the latter teams, unless they were
especially powerful, rarely appeared in the sporting sheets or the newspa-
pers of the day, and because they generated few if any surviving records,
we know far less about them than we do about the social clubs.
Even less information has survived about early African American base-
ball. Antebellum slavery in the South and low incomes among free blacks
in the North no doubt severely constricted the possibilities of forming
clubs. Nonetheless, after the Civil War, there is scattered evidence of blacks
organizing clubs in most of the larger cities. Apparently, the Pyrhians of
Philadelphia were the first all-black team. As early as r867, the Excelsiors
of Philadelphia and the Uniques of Brooklyn played a game hailed by the
press as the "colored championship of the United States." On their ar-
rival in Brooklyn, the Excelsiors, dressed in full uniform and headed by
 THE FRATERNITY AND ITS GAME II

their colorful fife and drum corps, marched through the city's Streets to
the ballpark. A large crowd gathered for the contest. With the Excelsiors
ahead 42 to 37 after seven innings of play, the umpire called the game on
account of darkness. Led again by their fife and drum corps, the Excelsiors
and their supporters marched back to the East River, which they crossed
by ferry to New York City for their return trip by train to Philadelphia.
In the first recorded intercollegiate baseball contest, one played by the
rules of New England town ball rather than by those of New York, Am-
herst subdued Williams in r859 by a lopsided score of 73-32. Unlike
Williams, Amherst had trained carefully for the contest. According to a
Williams professor, Amherst took "the game from the region of sport and
carried it into the region of exact and laborious discipline." When the
Amherst students learned of the win, they rang the chapel bell, lit a huge
bonfire, and set off fireworks. The Monday following the game brought
equally exciting news to the Amherst students; they had also defeated
Williams at chess. Once more, "there was a universal ringing of bells,
and firing of cannons; and throats already hoarse shouted again amid the
general rejoicing." The Civil War temporarily set back the game on college
campuses, but in the war's wake college clubs formed in all parts of the
nation. It soon became the most widely played of all college Sports.

G G G

Despite the widespread enrhusiasm for baseball, not all men were equally
devoted to the new game. In the early days of its history, established or
would-be bankers, merchants, and industrialists had little use for baseball.
A few of them played within their own inner social circle or lent their
approval to the sport if it did not interfere with the work of their employ-
ees, but for the most part they saw ir as a waste of valuable time. "The
invariable question put to a young man applying for situations in New
York," reported the secretary of the Irvington, New Jersey, baseball club
in r867, "is, whether they are members of ball clubs. If they answer in
the affirmative, they are told that rheir services will not be needed." When
the wealthy engaged in or patronized sports, it was usually restricted to
such socially exclusive activities as yachting, horse racing, and (after the
Civil War) formal athletic clubs, polo, tennis, and golf. Because baseball
entailed modest costs to play, it was poorly suited for those who turned to
sports as a means of distinguishing themselves from the masses.
At the other end of rhe social spectrum, the casually employed, unskilled
 I2 BASEBALL

workers, who did rhe backbreaking chores of moving dirt at construction

sites or loading and unloading wagons and ships, lacked the financial means
or perhaps the inclination to join baseball clubs. Such men usually satisfied
their needs for leisure in the patronage of saloons or in such "blood" spans
as cockfights or rattings. In New York City, for example, they might visit
Kit Bums's Sportsman Hall, where they could watch and wager on how
long it would take a dog to kill a pit full of rats, or go to Tommy Norris's
livery stable, where they could witness rattings, cockfights, goat fights, and
even a boxing match between two women who were stripped nude above
the waist. Finally, though baseball is steeped in the pastoral images of the
American countryside, and rural people did play various ball games, the
early fraternity was exclusively an urban phenomenon. In the antebellum
era, no farmers are known to have formed clubs.
Instead of coming from the rich, the poor, or the farmers, the early
fraternity's main support came from the clerks, those who occupied the
bottom rung of the white-collar occupational ladder, and the artisans,
those who occupied the top rung of the blue-collar occupational ladder.
Although the clerks and artisans had adequate financial resources to permit
them to form voluntary associations, and they had some control over their
conditions and hours of work, both groups were experiencing profound
changes in their ways of life.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, skiJJed artisans took a fierce
pride in their work and held esteemed positions in their communities.
Working Out of small shops and using the skills that had been passed down
to them from earlier generations, they fashioned from start to finish most
of the goods used by Americans: household utensils, furniture, carriages,
harnesses, tools, and dozens of other items. Although the fast-growing fac-
tory system did not suddenly or completely annihilate the skilled handicraft
mode of production, it required artisans with fewer skills, as weU as a large
unskilled or semiskilled work force. Factories more sharply segregated the
roles of employer and employee, and they subsrirured a rigid discipline for
the more casual work patterns of the past.
The socioeconomic role of clerks likewise underwent important changes.
In the first quarter of the nineteenth century, working as a clerk was in
effect an apprenticeship for many of the Sons of the wealthy who aspired
to become business or professional men. Employed in thousands of small
offices, these young men learned the fundamentals of the business while
serving as copyists of correspondence and business documents, bookkeep-
ers, and collectors of invoices and in dozens of other capacities. But as the
 THE FRATERNITY AND ITS GAME 13

business and manufacturing concerns hired thousands of additional clerks

to handle the expanded volume of transactions in the middle decades of
the century, the older system of clerks as jacks-of-all-trades gave way to
one wherein office workers performed specific tasks, such as copying docu-
ments or bookkeeping. With less opportunity for advancement, clerking
for many became a dead-end occupation.
The ball-playing fraternity offered younger clerks and artisans satisfac-
tions missing in their work as well as in other parts of their lives. Frank
Pidgeon, captain of the "first nine" of the Brooklyn Eckfords, a club com-
posed of shipbuilding artisans, offered two reasons for playing ball. First,
"such sport as this brightens a man up, and improves him, both in mind
and body," commented Pidgeon. Second, Pidgeon stressed the sheer plea-
sures of the experience itself: "We had some merry times among ourselves;
we would forget business and everything else on Tuesday afternoons, go
our in the green fields, don our ball suits, and go at it with a perfect rush.
At such times, we were boys again."
Pidgeon's phrase "we had some merry times among ourselves" suggests a
larger function of the early games. Often unmarried and living away from
home in impersonal boardinghouses, the young men sought excitement,
opportunities to display their individual physical skills, companionship,
and a sense of belonging. It was no accident that the early players described
themselves as members of a ball-playing fraternity. The term fraternity
implied a special closeness among the ball players, a literal brotherhood.
In playing baseball and in such associated activities as eating, drinking,
wagering, and talking together, the players consummated intensely shared
experiences and friendships. As in a family, the ball players developed their
own set of special understandings, argot, and expected behaviors.
Within many of the clubs, as Warren Goldstein has perceptively ob-
served, pageantry and off-season social activities strengthened the bonds
of male fellowship. While on the playing fields, the players donned colorful
uniforms similar to those of the volunteer fire departments and the volun-
teer militia units of the day. Uniforms clearly distinguished the ball-playing
frarernity from the general urban masses. In the more highly organized
clubs, members met throughout the year to share food, drink, and good
cheer. Some of the clubs scheduled an annual ball. For its second annual
ball (1861) the shipbuilding artisans of Brooklyn's Eckford club deco-
rated the dance hall "elegantly and profusely." A special treat was captain
Frank Pidgeon, who exhibited his skill in the "Parisian style" of dancing.
That same winter the Atlantics, another club of skilled workingmen from

____________ 4II1II
 BASEBALL

Brooklyn, were almost as active on the dance 1100ras they had beenon the
playing field during the previous summer. They scheduled eight "invitation
hops" along with an annual ball.
Among the clubs, highly formal, even ritualized relationships belped
preserve the integrity of the early fraternity. The clubs carefully distin-
guished between "friendly games" or "social games," on the one hand,
and rnatches" or "match games," on the other. Arrangement of a match
II

game with another club's nine entailed a written chalJenge.If the chalJenge
was accepted, then the captains of the respective nines would agree on an
umpire and the press might be notified of the upcoming match. At the end
of the game, the losing captain would make a short speech congratulating
the winners and then present them with the game ball. The captain of the
winning team responded with a speech praising the losers. The game ball
was then inscribed with the date and score of the contest, wrapped in gold
foil, and usually retired to the winner's trophy case.
Throughout the r8 50Sand into the r860s, the host club provided visitors
with an elaborate evening meaJ. In r 858, for example, "the Excelsior Club
[of Brooklyn] was escorted to the Odd Fellows' Hall, Hoboken, by the
Knickerbocker Club, and entertained in a splendid style.... Dodworth's
Band was in attendance to enliven the scene." In the postgame gather-
ings, celebrations could become quite boisterous. A marked feature of the
festivities, according to a press report in 1858, was "the indulgence of a
prurient taste for indecent anecdotes and songs-a taste only to be grati-
fied at the expense of true dignity and self-respect." "Evidence of dawn's
appearance" occurred in Baltimore before the players finally calJed a hair
to a postgame eating and drinking binge in r860. Although the players
were advised to abstain from "spirituous liquors," they were told that "to
allay thirst and relieve exhaustion, lager-beer answers every reasonable
purpose." An extreme example of the effectiveness of postgame rituals in
promoting amity within the fraternity occurred in 1860. According to a
New York Clipper report, after having shared a keg of lager, the players
were unable to recall the score of a game that they had played earlier in
the day. Little wonder that the early basebalJ fraternity experienced dif-
ficulties in winning support among suspicious Victorians!
Nonetheless, the fraternity persisted in trying. As Porter's Spirit of the
Times, a weekly that was planted firmly in the fraternity's camp, put it in
r857, the ball player "must be sober and temperate. Patience, fortitude,
self-denial, order, obedience, and good-humor, with an unruffled temper,
are indispensable .... Such a game ... teaches a love of order, discipline,
 THE FRATERNITY AND ITS GAME

and fair play." No one could have coined a more satisfactory list of Vic-
rorian virtues, all of which the game allegedly nurtured. Furthermore,
the defenders of the game insisted that, unlike other sports, only baseball
encouraged "manliness," or self-conrroi, the opposite of boyishness or
uninhibited behavior. For the sedentary clerks who had few opportunities
ro express their physicality in the workplace, the robustness of baseball
may have been particularly appealing. Consistent with the argument that
baseball was a manly game, widespread agitation arose within the frater-
nity in the r860s for requiring that the fielders catch the ball "on the fly"
rather than on the first bounce for a purour.
Play by boys, according to the Brooklyn Eagle, kept the youngsters
"out of a great deal of mischief .... [Baseball] keeps them from hang-
ing around [fire] engine houses, stables, and taverns." The game merited
"the endorsement of every clergyman in the country," concluded Henry
Chadwick, because it was a "remedy for the many evils resulting from the
immoral associations [that] boys and young men of our cities are apt ro
become connected with." Perhaps such arguments relieved the anxieties
of some, but they certainly failed ro still completely public suspicions of
the fraternity and its game.

G G G

In the I8 50S and I860s the "New York game," as the Knickerbockers' ver-
sion of the sport came to be known, completely displaced competing forms
of baseball. Part of the success of the New York game stemmed from its
rules. Both spectators and players preferred the use of foul lines, a unique
feature of the New York game that contained the play and allowed the
fans to get closer to the field. The "three outs to end an inning" rule of the
New York game permitted more offensive action than the "Massachusetts
game" of "one out, all our." Finally, by restricting the length of a game to
nine full innings (in 1857), the New York game usually ended within three
hours, whereas a contest played by Massachusetts rules (which required
the winning team to score a hundred runs) frequently failed to reach a
conclusion before nightfall. Cricker, for a time an effective competitor of
the New York game for popularity, was even slower; it sometimes took
two full days ro finish a match.
New York's pivotal position in the nation's commercial and communica-
tions network aided the city in achieving the triumph of its game. Visirors
to Gotham on business or pleasure observed the new game and sometimes

____________ 4
 r6 BASEBALL

became infatuated with it; some of them, on returning home, introducedit

to their friends. And, like the zealous missionaries of a new religious faith,
New York baseball enthusiasts took their game everywhere they went:
among other documented places, to Baltimore, St. Louis, New Orleans,
Chicago, Washington, D.C., San Francisco, and Honolulu (to the latter
by none other than Alexander Cartwrighr himself). The nation's leading
sporting weeklies, Porter's Spirit of the Times (founded in r8F) and the
New York Clipper (founded in r853), both published in New York, took
up the cause. They extolled the New York game in editorials, recounted
the game's early history, printed the results of matches, and even instructed
readers on how to form clubs.
No single journalist gave the New York game greater assistance than
an English-born Brooklynite, Henry Chadwick. For many years, he wrote
voluminously on baseball for the Brooklyn Eagle (r856-94) and the New
York Clipper (r857-88). He also edited many of the annual guidebooks
of the sport. Allegedly selling 50,000 copies, the first of these, Beadle's
Dime Base Ball Player (r860), set the pattern for the rest. It contained
some of Chadwick's newspaper articles, rules of the game, statistics for
the previous year, and a summary of the physical and moral benefits of
the sport. Chadwick also adapted from cricket the box score and batting
averages, quantitative devices that enhanced basehall's appeal. Recogniz-
ing the importance of his contributions to the early game, contemporaries
hailed Chadwick as the "Father of Baseball."
Nothing encouraged the diffusion of baseball outside the New York
area more than the r 8 60 tours of the famed Brooklyn Excelsiors (meaning
in this context a group that excels). News of the "crack club's" lopsided
triumphs over teams in Albany, Troy, Buffalo, Rochester, and Newburgh
flashed across the nation's telegraph wires. Albert Spalding, who in r860
was just beginning his career as a ball player in the far-off Illinois prairies,
later recalled that these matches inspired thousands of young men to hope
"that they might win for their ciries a glory akin to that which had been
achieved for [Brooklyn]." That same summer, the Excelsiors proceeded on
to Philadelphia and Baltimore. Their visit to Baltimore, according to the
Clipper, advanced the cause of baseball in that city by at least rhree years.
Partly because of the play of the Excelsiors in Philadelphia, George Kirsch
has concluded that baseball in the City of Brotherly Love "exploded in
popularity, leaving townball as a quaint relic of the past." The Excelsiors'
skill, however, was not the only element helping to further the game; ac-
cording to Henry Chadwick, the fact that the Excelsiors ranked "second to
 THE FRATERNITY AND ITS GAME

none ... in social standing did more to establish base-ball on a permanent

and reputable footing than had been attempted by any other club."
As early as the mid-I850S New YOlk's baseball fraternity began to pro-
mote the sport as "the national game." Such a strategy fitted perfectly the
mood of the tense 18 50S. In a decade that spawned the nativist, anti-Cath-
olic Know Nothing political movement and the bitter sectional rivalries
thar were to culminate in the Civil War, yearnings for national unity spilled
over into the sports arena. Few events captured the public imagination
more than American challenges to English supremacy in horse racing,
yachting, and prizefighting. Many of the first baseball clubs avowed their
patriotism by taking on such names as American, Columbia, Eagle, Young
America, Washington, Union, Liberty, and National. As the English had
their cricket and the Germans had their Turnvereins (gymnastics clubs),
Porter's Spirit declared in 1857, so should the Americans have "a game
that could be termed a 'Native American Sport."
New Yorkers took the initiative in forming the first national associa-
tion of baseball enthusiasts. Although the Knickerbockers were unable,
or perhaps unwilling, to dictate the structure and rules of baseball for the
entire nation, as the pioneering Marylebone Club of London had done for
cricket in Britain, the Knickerbockers did establish an influential model
for the organization of the early clubs, drew up the first rules, and issued
the first call for a meeting of New York club delegates. Meeting in 1857,
the clubs decided to form a larger organization that would make rules,
regulate interclub competition, and preserve the fraternal character of the
game. The next year the group called itself the National Association of
Base Ball Players (NABBP), a misnomer inasmuch as only clubs in New
York City and nearby areas initially belonged to the association. By 1861,
however, clubs located in New Haven, Detroit, Philadelphia, Baltimore,
and Washington, D.C., as well as in the New York area, sent delegates to
the annual NABBP convention.
FinaJly, the Civil War (1861-65) helped ensure the dominance of the
New York version of baseball. Many clubs folded as their members made
their way off to war, but at the same time, by bringing together massive
numbers of young men in military units, the war replicated conditions
similar to those that existed among them in the cities. Seeking to escape
boredom and establish an identity in an all-male milieu, soldiers and sailors
frequently turned to boxing, running, wrestling, shooting-at-the-mark, and
baseball matches. The troops played both previously arranged and pick-up
games; they played both inside and outside the camp grounds. Accord-
 18 BASEBALL

ing to baseball lore, a game berween two teams of New York volunteer
infantrymen at Hilton Head, South Carolina, attracted more than 40,000
soldiers. The attendance was probably exaggerated; without a grandstand
only a few thousand spectators could have seen much of the acrion. At
any rate, this exhibition of the New York game was said "to have lighted
the spark that caused" the postwar "baseball explosion." In the midst of
another game in Texas, the Confederates launched a surprise assault on
Union troops. Although the Northern soldiers repulsed the charge and
lost only their center fielder to the enemy, they also had the misfortune of
losing "the only baseball in Alexandria."
Veterans of both armies returned home after the war, bringing with
them the game that many had encountered for the first time in the camps.
Doubtless few Southerners saw the Sport as an antidote for their tradi-
tional "listlessness and love of indolent pleasures," as Northerner Henry
Chadwick did, but they did rake to the game's excitement. In the West,
antebellum Chicago had only four clubs, but by the second summer af-
ter the conflict had ended at least thirty-two clubs were playing in the
Windy City. Interest was sufficient in 1865 for the Chicago enthusiasts to
form rhe North Western Association of Base Ball Players, which included
clubs from as far away as St. Louis. By 1865 representation at the annual
convention of the NABBP had grown to include delegates from ninety-
one clubs located in ten states. Two years later the association elected its
first non-New Yorker, Arthur Pue Gorman from Washington, D.C., as
president and in 1868 held its first convention outside New York City (in
Philadelphia).

G I] G

Although baseba II in organized forms had existed only for two decades
or so, the basebalJ fraternity was able to make a convincing case by the
end of the Civil War that its game should be labeled as the national game.
The fraternity had a substantial affiliation in all the major cities of the
Northeast, with some representation in the cities of the Midwest and the
Far West, and was spreading rapidly into the smaller towns and cities
throughout the nation. No other organized American sport included so
many participants or attracted so many persons who avidly followed the
game as spectators. But at the very height of its apparent success, the fra-
ternity confronted forces that would soon threaten irs very existence.
 2
A Commercial
Spectacle
In 1862, the same year that Alexander T. Stewart opened the nation's
first department store on Broadway and loth Street in Manhattan, an
enterprising Brooklynite, William H. Cammeyer, had a different idea for
improving his financial fortunes. Why not seize on the opportunities of-
fered by the city's baseball mania? By converting his ice-skating pond at
the corner of Lee Avenue and Rutledge Street into an enclosed field, he
could charge fans a fee to warch the games played there. Acting on this
thought, Cam meyer proceeded to drain his pond, fill it with dirt, level the
surface, and build a fence around the plot. To provide seating for some
1,500 spectators, Cammeyer nailed together long wooden benches. In one
corner of the field he built a "commodious" clubhouse for the teams, and
in another he erected a saloon to quench the thirst of fans. On opening
day, 15 May 1862, flags, including the American flag and the pennants
of local teams, hung loosely in the breeze, and a band played "The Star

______________ ---0 .......

 20 BASEBALL

Spangled Banner." Reflecring the high patriotic sentiments of rhe day,

Cammeyer named his new field the "Union Grounds."
After the Civil War, dozens of entrepreneurs across the country followed
a procedure similar to Cammeyer's. They enclosed grounds, sponsored spe-
cial games, and offered money to participating teams while meeting rheir
costs from gate receipts. Less frequently, the clubs themselves purchased
a field, enclosed it, and charged admission. Typically, watching a routine
game cost a fan ten cents, a major contest might be twenty-five cents,
and even fifty cents was not an unusual charge for a championship game.
Rather than relying exclusively on club membership dues ro finance their
teams, the clubs increasingly turned to the money that could be obrained
from gate fees.
The "enclosure movement," as the drive to build fences around the
grounds and charge admissions was called, had far-reaching implications
for the baseball fraternity. To seize the full advantages offered by gate
fees, teams had to play more games with external foes; by the late 1860s,
several "first runes" were playing fifty or more games per season, and some
of them were embarking on long summer tours as well. In policy matters,
enclosure meant that ordinary club members increasingly deferred to the
interests of the "first nine" and that dubs began to recruit members more
on the basis of their playing skills rather than their general sociability. In
short, the enclosure movement tended to subordinate fraternal concerns
to commercial considerations. It was, as Henry Chadwick later wrote,
"really the beginning of professional base baJJplaying."

G G G

Once a club scheduled its first match with another club, it set in motion the
process by which that club moved away from its fraternal origins. External
matches, on the whole, generated far greater excitement than intraclub
games. "It is weJJ known that where a lively, well contested and exciting
game is in progress," concluded the New York Clipper in 1860, "there
will ever be found crowds of interested spectators." The fans invariably
chose sides; their own identities then became emotionally linked to the suc-
cesses and failures of the teams for which they rooted. Byproviding urban
dwellers with richer identities, the teams helped satisfy deep yearnings for
belonging and rootedness in an exceptionally mobile society. Teams could
also give neighborhoods, ethnic and occupational groups, and cities new
and deeper emotional existences.
 A COMMERCIAL SPECTACLE 21

The growing popularity of championships added to the intensity of the

interclub games. As early as 1859, Massachusetts held a statewide baseball
championship at the Boston Agricultural Grounds, and seven years later
the New England association awarded a silver ball for its championship.
New York area teams first contended for a self-proclaimed national cham-
pionship in r860. According to the practice of the day, a club retained the
championship until it lost a two-of-three series. A self-proclaimed 1866
World Championship Tournament in Rockford, Illinois, brought in teams
from Detroit, Milwaukee, Dubuque, and Chicago. Two years later, Frank
Queen, the publisher of the Clipper, offered a national championship tro-
phy of a gold ball to the team with the best won-lost season record among
the powerful New York nines.
Potential publicity, glory, gate receipts, and championships invariably
encouraged a greater emphasis on the fortunes of the "first nine" at the
expense of the other ball-playing club members. "All of those who would
like to play an occasional game merely for recreation are precluded from
doing so," lamented the Philadelphia Sunday Dispatch in 1866. "All the
base ball clubs of any prominence give up their grounds entirely to [their]
first nine, and out of several hundred members they are the only ones who
derive any benefit whatever from the game." Such clubs then became in
effect merely booster organizations for the first nines. Play became far
more serious. When not playing, many of the first nines practiced nearly
every day. Players began to specialize according to positions. The New
York Clipper noted as early as 1861 that players could achieve "special
excellence" only if they "permanently" occupied one position. "A first base
player only, for instance, should be known as a first base player only, and
the same as regards other bases, the pitcher, catcher, and the short field
[shortstop]."
Inrerclub games could easily degenerate into ill will and a loss of self-
control, both of which could seriously damage the larger interests of the
fraternity. Spectators more frequently became boisterous participants in
the games. As early as 1857, Porter's Spirit of the Times reported that, in a
game in which the Excelsiors defeated the Niagaras, "some of the Niagaras'
friends did not behave as gentlemen should." Whenever a pitch approached
an Excelsior batter, some of the fans yelled '''shanks,' 'Shanghai,' and other
words not quite as decent as the above." Large crowds sometimes interfered
with the course of the game itself. When fans congregated in the outfield,
fielders might have to retrieve balls from among a forest of legs. In a game
in Philadelphia in 1860, so many fans crowded around third base that the
 22 BASEBALL

other fielders "were at a loss to know whether the third base [was] occupied
or not." Gangs of boys were particularly aggravating. "The noisy and ill-
bred urchins ... intrude themselves among the spectators and annoy and
disturb everyone in the vicinity with bad language and rough conduct,"
reported a newspaper in a frequently repeated complaint of the day.
Baseball matches sometimes reflected fundamental ethnic and class
rivalries. A manifest instance occurred in 1860 when the Excelsiors, a
team that ranked "second to none in social standing" and was composed
of Protestant, old-stock American clerks and petty merchants, met the
Atlantics, a team composed mainly of Irish Catholic workingmen, in a
three-game series for the New York championship. The teams split the
first two games without incident, though more than ro,ooo spectators at-
tended each contest. In the final game, before a crowd estimated between
I 5 ,000 and 20,000, several close calls by the umpire triggered an outburst
by the Atlantics rooters. They hooted and jeered. No one could restrain
them, not even the Arlanrics players themselves or the hundred policemen
stationed at the game to keep order. Accompanied by a shrill chorus of
insults from the Atlantics fans, captain Joseph Leggett of the Excelsiors
pulled his players off the field. As the Excelsiors' team omnibus departed,
Atlanrics rooters pelted it with stones.
More was at stake in the game than simply winning or losing. Albert
Spalding, in a secondhand report, described the Arlantics fans as "utterly
uncontrollable ... thugs, gamblers, thieves, plug-uglies and rioters." The
cause of the disorder, according to the Clipper, was "the spirit of faction
... in which the foreign element [i.e., the Irish Americans] of our immense
metropolitan population, and their ... offspring, especially, delights to
indulge." To both the Protestant old-stock and the Irish Catholic ethnic
fans, the game had become a symbolic test of honor and supremacy. From
that day to the time when both clubs disbanded in I87I, the Atlanrics and
Excelsiors never again met on the field of play.
Capitulation to the excitement of a hard-fought game was not limited to
the spectators, or "kranks," as the more rabid of the fans came to be known.
As the game's popularity spread among the workingmen and ethnics, groups
not so encumbered by Victorian fears of unregulated passion, the players
more frequently succumbed to their tempers, disputed umpires' decisions,
and argued with their opponents or even their own teanunates. In another
game featuring the Atlantics-this time against Tammany Hall's New York
Mutuals in I863-the press reported that in the ninth inning "considerable
'chaffing' [took place] among the members of the two clubs." Both teams
 A COMMERCIAL SPECTACLE

became "excited to an unusual degree" when William McKeever of the

Mutuals stepped up to bat with the tying run on first base. Trying to tempt
McKeever into swinging at a bad pitch, the Atlantics pitcher proceeded to
throw more than fifty" bad" balls. In the words of a reporter, McKeever
then "allowed his temper to get the better of him."
As in this instance, amiable relationships among the players depended
on their mutual willingness to adhere to the sport's conventions. No ex-
plicit penalty prevented the Atlantics pitcher from deliberately throwing
pitch after pitch outside the spot favored by the hitrer, but it was under-
stood that such behavior violated the spirit of the game. With a growing
premium placed on winning, and without the restraints of an upper-class
circle of "gentleman" sportsmen or a compelling tradition of "fair play"
(as existed among the upper classes in England), the American baseball
players tended to exploir every area within the game for which there was
no explicit rule or no penalties levied for violations.
Because some batsmen had been too selective about the pitches that they
were willing to swing at, the NABBP in 1858 authorized the umpire to call
strikes on those hitters who repeatedly refused to swing at "good balls."
This rule change encouraged the pitchers to throw harder but wilder, inas-
much as they suffered no penalties for throwing "bad balls." In response
to this new violation of the game's spirit, the NABBP in r863 permitted
the umpire to award first base to hitters who had been the recipients of
three bad pitches. Although both these rules left the issue of whether to
call balls and strikes to the umpire, it was only a matter of time before
the official would have to make a judgment on every pitch thrown except
those swung at by the hitters.
Acutely conscious that the loss of self-control potentially weakened
fraternal bonds, the early clubs tried to deal with spectator and player
misbehavior in a variety of other ways. They fined club members for using
profane language, disputing umpire decisions, disobeying the captains, and
other forms of disorderly conduct. In interclub matches, the umpire had the
unenviable task of upholding the ideal of "gentlemanly behavior." "The
position of the umpire," explained Henry Chadwick, "is an honorable one,
but its duties are anything but agreeable, as it is next to impossible to give
entire satisfaction to all parties concerned in a match." In recognition of
the inadequacy of these restraints, and consistent with the Victorian notion
that women possess special powers to domesticate men, the ball-playing
fraternity frequently sought the patronage and influence of women. Men
required feminine "confidence and approval," commented the Clipper, "as
 $

BASEBALL

a kind of social regulator in the joyousness of our fun, to prevent it from

becoming too boisterous." Ultimately, none of these measures ensured
that early baseball would be freed from disorderly conduct.

G G G

Earning money from gate receipts was only one source of profit arising
from interclub baseball matches. Soon, gamblers were also exploiting
the pecuniary opportunities presented by the games. Although roundly
condemned by proper Victorians, gambling had been closely tied to such
antebellum spectacles as horse races, billiard matches, prize fights, and
pedestrian races. As early as r840 almost any coffeehouse, billiard parlor,
or saloon might harbor a gambling establishment. Many of the nineteenth-
century sporting spectacles arose from spirited arguments over the merits
of a horse, a prize fighter, or a runner. A wager and the scheduling of a
contest then ensued. Few experiences equaled the intensity of wagering;
for spectator, promoter, and athlete alike, winning a bet could be more
important than the thrill of winning the contest itself. In wagering, one
risked not only money but one's self-esteem as well. By choosing to bet
on a particular team, the bettor might be making a statement of ethnic or
occupational pride. Furthermore, wagering provided an opportunity to
display skills for men who increasingly found such opportunities denied
to them in their workplaces.
By the late 1860s, baseball offered the Victorian underworld rich op-
portunities to satisfy the widespread hunger for gambling. At some parks,
gamblers openly touted their odds. In California, just as a fielder was about
to catch a fly ball, the gamblers who had placed a bet on the side at bat
would fire their six-shooters. On a few occasions, bettors even mobbed
playing fields to prevent the completion of games in which they stood to
lose money. "So common has betting become at baseball matches," com-
plained a Harper's Weekly editor in r867, "that the most respectable clubs
in the country indulge in it to a highly culpable degree, and so common ...
the tricks by which games have been 'sold' for the benefit of the gamblers
that the most respectable participants have been suspected of baseness."
Although newspapers frequently hinted at fixes throughout the late
r860s, they probably exaggerated the extent of the practice. Every time
a favored team lost, fans were likely to suspect that the game was fixed.
Nonetheless, the common practice of scheduling three-game champion-
ship series tempted teams to split the first two games so they could profit
-----------------4 A COMMERCIAL SPECTACLE 25

from a third contest. There was one publicly disclosed admission of such
a fixed game. In 1865, Thomas B. Devyr, a pla yet for Tammany Hall's
New York Mutuals, testified that William Wansley, a teammate, had ap-
proached him and another teammate, Edward Duffy, with a proposal to
split $100 among them ro throw a game against the Brooklyn Excelsiors.
By winning the last two games of the three-game series, Wansley allegedly
assured Devyr, "we can lose this game without doing the Club any harm."
After disclosure of the fix at a hearing, the Mutuals promptly expelled all
three offenders, but later, hoping to strengthen their team, they forgave
their past transgressions, reinstating first Devyr in 1867, then Duffy in
1868, and finally Wansley in 1870.
By the rnid-r Ssos, widespread charges of fixes, gambling, drinking,
and general disorder seriously jeopardized the baseball fraternity's ef-
forts ro maintain Victorian respectability. Led by the evangelical Prot-
estant clergy, proper Victorians frequently identified the game with the
nineteenth-century underworld of commercial entertainment that included
saloons, vaudeville, variety shows, billiard halls, gambling emporiums, and
brothels. Like other commercial pastimes, baseball became a focal point of
controversy in several cities. The city political machines and their bosses,
who depended mainly on the support of the Catholic, ethnic, working-
class vote, usually sided with commercial baseball, whereas the well-to-do,
old-stock Protestants sided with the reformers who wanted to restrict or
abolish commercial amusements.
Indeed, the "politicians are commencing to curry favor with the frater-
nity of ballplayers, as a class of our 'fellow citizens' worthy of the attention
of 'our influential men,''' reported the Clipper as early as 1865. Politicians
helped organize and fund teams. The New York Mutuals, for example,
had been founded in 1857 by William Marcy Tweed, who was to become
the infamous boss of Tammany Hall. The club's 1871 board of directors
included city aldermen, state legislators, and local judges.
Recruiting club members exclusively for their playing talents represented
yet another threat to the survival of the early baseball fraternity. Just as the
1860 tours of the powerful Excelsiors of Brooklyn had been instrumental
in popularizing the New York game, the same club led the departure from
exclusive reliance on regular membership as a pool of talent. Between
1857 and 1860 the Excelsiors strengthened their first nine by recruiting
new members from the New York Cricket Club and the Star Club, a lead-
ing junior nine from Brooklyn. None of their new recruits was a more
important symbol of baseball's future than James Creighton, "the sport's
 26 BASEBALL

first superstar." Creighton was not only the game's premier pitcher (he
threw what contemporaries called a "speed ball" and is alleged to have
invented the curve ball), but he was also baseball's first known compen-
sated player.
Although the National Association of Base Ball Players (NABBP)explic-
itly prohibited the employment of professional players, soon teams were
extending sub-rosa subsidies to players. As early as r863, the Brooklyn
Eagle reported that "ball matches have of late years got to be quite serious
affairs, and some have even intimated that ballplaying has becomequite a
money making business, many finding it to pay well to play well." In the
immediate postwar years professionalism became even more common; the
majority of the players on the Atlantics, Eckfords, and Muruals, the three
most powerful nines in the metropolitan New York area, apparently were
being paid to play.
Subsidies often took the form of a paying job that required little or no
actual work. Many of the Mutuals, for example, held patronage positions
with New York City's government. "The real birthplace of professional
baseball" in Washington, D.C., was said to be among clerks employed
in the United States Treasury Department. Comprising some of the best
recruits in rhe East, nearly all of the r867 Washington Nationals, the first
eastern club to tour west of the Alleghenies, held jobs with the federal
government. Adrian "Cap" Anson recalled that when he was a youth
in Iowa in the late 1860s, "it was generally the custom to import from
abroad some player who had made a name for himself ... and furnish him
with a business situation." An example was young Albert Spalding, who
in r867 accepted a posirion paying forty dollars a week with a Chicago
wholesale grocery "with the understanding that my store duties would
be nominal, a chance given to play ball frequently, without affecting my
salary to reduce it."
As the game became more commercialized, its ambience changed. "In-
stead of legitimate trials of skill between clubs," lamented the Philadelphia
Sunday Mercury in 1867, "we had conflicts in which animosities were
engendered, gambling was fostered, and from which arose the effort to
make ball-playing a regular business occupation." By the rmd-r Ssos the
postgame rituals of awarding rhe game ball to the winning team and of
the home club hosting the visitors to an evening feast had all but vanished.
The more skilled players increasingly cut their ties with their home clubs
and offered their services to the team that offered them the most gener-
ous subsidies. This practice was known as "revolving." Perhaps the most
 A COMMERCIAL SPECTACLE

extreme case was a player who, according to a newspaper report in 1866,

had played with six different clubs during the previous three seasons.

o 0 C:J

The history of the NABBP and its locally affiliated associations provides
additional illumination on baseball's transition from a fraternal game into
a commercial spectacle. Throughout its existence, the NABBP wrestled
with several issues that threatened the fraternity's existence. One of the
first of these was whether the association should have an open admissions
policy. Should it, for example, welcome the membership of junior clubs,
those composed of boys under the age of twenty-one? Exclusion of the
juniors was necessary, the opponents successfully argued, to preserve the
"manly" quality of the sport. Consistent with their effort to dissociate
their game from youngsters, the association in 1863 also adopted a rule
requiring that the ball be caught on the fly rather than on the first bounce
for a putout.
Likewise, the association excluded black clubs. Although white and
black clubs sometimes shared playing fields and on occasion played games
against one another, both the NABBP in its 1867 convention and the New
York state baseball association in 1870 flatly refused to admit black clubs.
"If colored clubs were admitted," concluded the NABBP's nominating
committee, resorting to the logic of a racist society, "there would be in all
probability some division of feeling, whereas, by excluding them no injury
could result to anyone."
To protect the fraternity from internal divisions-that is, in the words
of the NABBP, to cultivate "kindly feelings among the different members
of Base-Ball c1ubs"-the association tried to regulate player eligibility.
Permitting players to revolve from one club to another during the season
generated much ill-will within the fraternity and completely violated the
belief that the players ought to have emotional ties to their clubs. In a
vain effort to prevent revolving, the association in 1865 required that a
player be a member of a club for at least thirty days prior to playing in an
interclub game.
The use of professional players posed an equally serious problem for the
fraternity. Unlike the wealthier sportsmen of the era, the baseball clubs
rarely employed amateurism as a means of promoting social exclusivity.
One of the few exceptions may have been the Knickerbockers, who, despite
their pioneering role in baseball, had never been competitive in extramural
 28 BASEBALL

competition. "The same standard still exists [twenty-one years after the
club's founding], no person can obtain admission in the club merely for
his capacity as a player," reported Charles A. Peverelly in 1866. "He must
also have the reputation of a gentleman." But neither the artisan nor the
ethnic communities developed a tradition of amateurism, let alone using
it to promote social exclusion. They had no objections in principle to play
for pay. Instead, their opposition to paying players sprang mainly from
the fact that it created two sharply different levels of skills within the
fraternity. Such a division tended to erode the equality that was essential
to the fraternity's existence.
In the end, the association was ineffective in forestalling the ascendancy
of commercial baseball. To begin with, the great majority of dubs belonged
to neither the NABBP nor a regional association. Secondly, the NABBP
itself had no real power; ultimately, it had to rely entirely on the voluntary
compliance of the member dubs. Finally, the associarion was rent by inter-
nal divisions. Even when paid players were first officially barred in 1859,
some members of the NABBP protested thar the ban discriminated against
ordinary workingmen and was likely to retard improvements in the quality
of play. By the late 1860s, critics of the rule pointed out that in practice
it had become a "dead letter"; frank recognition of professionalism, they
said, would eliminate the widespread hypocrisy of under-the-table pay-
ments to players. In I868, the association voted to recognize two classes
of players, one as professional and one as amateur, only to reverse itself
the following year.
The issue of professionalism finally brought about the demise of the as-
sociation in 1870. After a "spicy debate," two-thirds of the delegates to rhe
NABBP convention voted against a resolution that condemned "the custom
of publicly hiring men to play the game of base ball [as] reprehensible and
injurious to the best interests of the game." "Under the pressure of the
control of the professional managers," reported the Clipper, "the National
Association gave up the ghost, and after a reputable existence of ten years
and a decline in health during rhe last three, it adjourned sine die." In the
following year, the professionals formed their own National Association
of Professional Base Ball Players. In the same year, 1871, the opponents
of professionalism, led by the New York Knickerbockers, responded by
forming a new association that expressly tried to restore "the old status
of base-ball playing," extending an invitation of membership to all clubs
"which engage in the game for recreative exercise only, and not for gate
money, receipts, or for pecuniary benefit only." By the I870S, however, it
 A COMMERCIAL SPECTACLE

was far too late to restore the original character of the game. In r874 the
new amateur association folded.

G G G

By rhe late r860s, baseball was fully launched as a commercial enterprise.

Enclosing the grounds and charging gare fees had become a common
practice. Many clubs paid their most valued players in some fashion, and
for the r869 season the Cincinnati Red Stockings boldly announced that
they would field an all-salaried nine. Although baseball continued to fulfill
fraternal needs for thousands of young men and boys, the commercializa-
tion of the sport weakened fraternal bonds. Paid players became in effect
employees, much like the professional actors and actresses of the day, and
many of the clubs became joint-stock companies, organized in part for
the express purpose of profiting from the sport. Yet commercialization by
no means dampened public enthusiasm for the game. Professional players
raised the quality of play to new heights, and the professional teams soon
demonstrated that they could fan the fierce fires of local tribalism even
more effectively than had their fraternal predecessors.

____________ d"IIIII
 s

3
The First
Professional Teams
Nothing surprised baseball enthusiasts more in 1869 than the performance
of Cincinnati's Red Stockings. The nation's first publicly proclaimed all-
salaried team swept through the 1869 season without a loss and with
but one tie. The tie occurred when the Haymakers of Troy, New York,
angered-or perhaps feigning anger-by an umpire's decision, lefr the
field after five minutes of arguing. Some said that the Haymakers walked
off to protect the bets of those who had wagered on a Troy victory. Be
that as it may, more than 23,000 fans watched the Red Stockings invade
baseball's citadel, metropolitan New York, where they handily defeated
six foes considered up to that time the best in the game. The team then
traveled by train on to the nation's capital in Washington, D.C.) where
President Ulysses S. Grant welcomed the western "Cinderella" team and
complimented the members on their high standard of play.
On returning home, Cincinnatians gave the team a rousing welcome.
-------------------4 THE FIRST PROFEssrONAL TEAMS

They organized a parade featuring carriages decorated with flags, plumes,

and bright ribbons, and the Zouave band played the team song:
We are a band of Ball Players
From Cincinnati City
We go to toss the ball around,
and sing you our ditty.
Hurrah! Hurrah!
For the noble game, hurrah!
Red Stockings all
We'll toss the ball.

The band escorted the team to the Gibson House hotel, where that
evening at a lavish banquet a local lumber company presented the players
with an icon of their success: a huge, specially turned bat that was eigh-
teen inches thick in the fattest part and sixteen feet long. "Glory, they've
advertised the city-advertised us, sir, and helped our business," exulted a
delighted Cincinnati businessman. In September, the Red Stockings crossed
the country on the newly completed transcontinental railroad and played
a series of games in California. Altogether, according to one estimate, they
traveled by rail, stage, and ship 11,877 miles, and more than 200,000 fans
watched their games.
The national attention bestowed on the Red Stockings in 1869 provoked
the envy of cities elsewhere. They soon formed their own representative
professional nines, thereby signaling the end of one era and the beginning
of another. Although hundreds of teams continued to playas amateur or
semiprofessional outfits, it was the joint-stock clubs fielding paid players
in the rapidly growing cities of the Midwest-or "the West," as the region
was called in those days-that determined the main directions of baseball's
history in the I870S and r880s.

Nothing contributed more to the enthusiasm for the creation of representa-

tive nines than the intense rivalry among nineteenth-century cities. Older
eastern cities could to some degree take their eminence for granted; they
already had familiar physical edifices, hallowed civic monuments, and long-
established institutions that gave them a sense of continuity, permanence,
and achievement. Even in the East, however, a smaller city might see in

___________________ A
-------------.
32 BASEBALL

its baseball team an opportunity to embatrass a larger neighbor. "If we

are ahead of the big city in nothing else," crowed the Brooklyn Eaglein
1862, "we can beat her in baseball." Nonetheless, until the formation of
the Giants in 1883, local baseball enthusiasts regarded such a powerful
team as the Muruals as only one among several strong New York teams,
none of which individually they considered to be the New York team.
Interurban rivalry among the upstart cities of the West, rather than
among the older eastern cities, first stimulated the enthusiasm for the
formation of representative pro teams. In the West, only a few decades
separated small, sleepy trading posts from large, bustling cities. Uncertain
about their city's status but hopeful for its future, local newspapermen,
merchants, and manufacturers frequently resorted to strident boosrerism.
They tried to bolster their extra vaganr claims in behalf of their cities by
conjuring up suitable institutions, including churches, parks, hospitals,
opera houses, libraries, colleges, and representative baseball nines.
Chicago, a longtime Cincinnati rival for midwestern supremacy, was
a classic instance. Prior to 1870, Chicago, like other larger cities, had
been the home of several dozen baseball clubs, none of which could be
said to have represented the city as a whole. Cincinnati's success with a
representative pro team in 1869 changed all that. Chicago "could nor see
her commercial rival on the Ohio bearing off the honors of the national
game," declared the Windy City's Lakeside Monthly. "So Chicago went to
work." Among others, Joseph Medill of the Chicago Tribune and Potter
Palmer, Owner of the famed Palmer House hotel, rose to the occasion by
organizing the White Stockings baseball club as a joint-stock company.
They "raised $20,000 with which to employ a nine that should," in the
words of an envious Boston newspaper, '''sweep the board."
As it had in Chicago, the decision by a group of small-time entrepre-
neurs, politicians, and civic boosters to field a representative pro team in
Cincinnati arose more from dreams of promoting the city's reputation,
advancing personal political careers, and taking revenge against a local
rival than from the lure of potential profits. In I 868 the Buckeye Base Ball
Club of Cincinnati had, according to the Spirit of the Times, ignored all
the fraternity's principles; it had "shipped players in from Washington to
take part in this game, and even went so far ... as to drug some of the
players of the Cincinnati [Red Stockings Club] and to bribe others." But
neither were the Red Stockings innocents. A year earlier, Aaron B. Cham-
pion, a twenty-six-year-old attorney with soaring political ambitions, had
reorganized the club as a joint-stock company. Over the next two years, by
 THE FIRST PROFESSIONAL TEAMS
33

vigorously pushing stock sales and subscriptions among local businessmen

and politicians, Champion recruited more tban 350 club members and
raised enough money to employ star players from the East. In fact, only
one local man, Charles Gould, the first baseman, graced the roster of the
powerful ten-man r869 Red Stockings squad. "Had the Cincinnati Base
Ball Club depended upon home talent it would never have been heard
from outside its own locality," observed the National Chronicle.
No outsider was more important to the Red Stockings' success than
Harry Wrighr. Born in England to a father who played professional cricket,
Wright gained his first organized ball-playing experience at the St. George's
Cricket Club in Staten Island, New York. He served as the club's bowler
and assisted his father, who was the club's pro, in teaching the nuances
of the sport to the other club members. Like many cricketers of the day,
Wright soon took up baseball; he played for a time in the outfield for the
legendary New York Knickerbockers. In r865 he moved on to Cincinnati,
where he received a salary of $1,200 as an instructor and player for the
Union Cricket Club. The following summer he switched to playing base-
ball exclusively. The Cincinnati Base Ball Club paid him $r,20o to serve
as a player, captain, chief recruiter, and publicist for their baseball team.
Other players on the r869 team received salaries ranging from $r,400 for
George Wright, Harry's brother, to $600 for Richard Hurley, the team's
lone substitute. Altogether, Wright disbursed $9>300 in salaries.
Despite the r869 team's fantastic success on the playing field, Wright
experienced headaches in managing the first publicly all-salaried team.
Sometimes gate receipts did not equal team expenses. For example, in
Mansfield, Ohio, the club grossed only $50, and in Cleveland $81. No
opponent showed up for a game scheduled in Syracuse, New York. At
times the players cut practices, missed trains, imbibed too much strong
drink, and stayed up into the wee hours of the morning. Wright's eccentric
pitcher, Asa Brainard, was a special problem. During one game, a wild
rabbit ran across the infield in front of Brainard. He impulsively turned and
hurled rhe ball at the frightened bunny. Brainard's throw not only missed
the elusive rabbit but sent the ball rolling into the crowd, allowing two
rival runners to score. Fortunately, not aU was lost, for the powerful Red
Stockings won the game anyway. After deducting all expenses, Champion
reported a profit of only $1.25 for the season.
The Cincinnati club remained undefeated until a year later. On 14 June
1870, after having won twenty-six consecutive games during the spring,
the Atlantics upset them 8-7 in eleven innings before a crowd of 20,000 at

____________ d'fIIIII
 5

34 BASEBALL

the Capitoline Grounds in Brooklyn. During the 1870 campaign they lost
five more games. The exact reasons for the team's demise in Septemberare
unknown. In November, amidst much grumbling about the team's man-
agement, the club stockholders ousted Champion. It may have been that
the players were demanding too much in salaries. At any rate, the team's
financial prospects were too dim to attract additional investments. With
the dissolution of the famed team, Harry Wright took four of his players
with him to form the nucleus of a team that would represent Boston. The
others went to Washington, where they played for the Olympics club.

o G G

Although fielding a baseball team could on occasion attract more attention

to a city than building hospitals, opera houses, or libraries, it could also
backfire, as the Cincinnati experience suggested. After all, by necessiry, for
every team that wins there is another team that loses. A losing team then
(as now) could evoke negative publicity, feelings of inferiority, and even
depression among the city's residents. After the St. Louis Brown Stockings
defeated the Chicago White Stockings in 1875, a Chicago newspaper re-
ported that "a deep gloom settled over rhe city. Friends refused to recognize
friends, lovers became estranged, and business was suspended. All Chicago
went to a funeral, and the time, since then, has dragged wearily along,
as though it were no object to live longer in this world. From a more
l)

practical standpoint, a losing team usually meant declining attendance and

frequently financial losses to those who had invested in it.
As a business proposition, baseball faced other difficulties. The ricochet-
ing business cycle could play havoc with the best-laid plans. During the
periods of unemploymenr or falling incomes, families were more likely
to forgo tickets to base bail games than food or shelter. As with farming,
day afrer day of adverse weather could also quickly destroy the fortunes
of an otherwise promising ball club. Finally, despite its claims to being
the national game, until at least the first decades of the twentieth century,
pro baseball enjoyed at best only lukewarm acceptance among proper
Victorians. Without the patronage of a vast range of old-stock middle-
class Protestanrs, rhe game depended for its support mainly on ethnics
and workingmen (both of whom enjoyed less than average amounts of
discretionary income) and on the middle- and upper-income ranks unre-
strained by Victorian attitudes.
Given these handicaps, pro baseball teams, like most smaJl businesses
----------------. THE FIRST PROFESSIONAL TEAMS
35

then and since, experienced staggering rates of failure. Ted Vincent, a

modern student of the pro teams in the postbellum era, has found that
three-fourths of them failed ro survive for more than two years. Leagues
of representative teams were equally fragile. Far more typical than the
National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (1871-75), the
National League (1876-preSent), and the American Association (1881~1)
was the Southern League. Prior to 190, the Southern League collapsed
before the end ofthe season no fewer than seven times (1886, 1888, 1889,
1893,1894,1898, and 1899) and did not play at all during three seasons
(r890, 1891, and 1897). By 1900 no fewer then eighteen different cities
had fielded teams in the loop.
Contrary to press reports of the day, those who formed or invested in the
nineteenth-century joint-stock company pro clubs were rarely either "lead-
ing citizens" in their communities or "magnates," to use a term popularized
in the 1890S by big league club owners themselves and by Albert Spalding in
his early history of the game. Families of old wealth, in particular, looked on
pro baseball with profound suspicion. "Our professional baseball, with its
paid players and its thousands of smoking, and sometimes umpire-baiting
spectators, is doing more harm than good," concluded Outing, a sports
magazine that catered to the wealthy elite. "The spectators are wasting two
or three hours of fresh air and sunshine looking at what they ought to be
doing." Neither were the newly created captains of industry, commerce,
and finance likely to invest in pro baseball clubs. They were too clever for
that; they recognized that greater financial rewards with fewer risks could
be had by placing their money in other enterprises.
In his study of 1,263 nineteenth-century investors in both major and minor
league professional baseball, Vincent found that they came predominantly
from the ranks of small merchants, billiard parlor operators, saloon keepers,
theater owners and managers, clerks, salesmen, and professional politicians.
Many such men were less concerned about direct financial returns from the
game than in using baseball's high visibility as a means of advancing their
political or commercial interests. In addition, players themselves sometimes
purchased stocks; Albert Spalding, Charles Comiskey, Connie Mack, and
Clark Griffith eventually became baseball entrepreneurs in their own right.
In the 1880s and 1890S, as the opportunities for profit increased, brewers,
realtors, and traction (streetcar) company owners also became important
investors. Such men benefited in direct ways from concession sales or from
the location of ballparks. Frequently excluded from opportunities in more
respectable business arenas, German and German-Jewish ethnics became

______________ rt"IIII
 BASEBALL

increasingly conspicuous in rhe late nineteenth century by their dispropor-

tionate presence in the pro game (as they were in the theater and other
forms of commercial amusement of the day).
Although then as today the press talked of pro baseball as though ir
were one of the nation's major business enterprises, such descriptions
wildly exaggerated the size of club operations. The gross receipts of a
typical nineteenth-century pro baseball team were closer to those of a
Carner saloon than to those of Andrew Carnegie's steel works or John D.
Rockefeller's oil empire. The r875 Bosrons, the most financially successful
team of the r870s, generated gross receipts of $38,000; from these the
club netted $3,26r. The r88r Chicago White Stockings received $32,000
from the gate, whereas the New York Giants of 1887 broke all attendance
records and may have received as much as $70,000 in gross revenues.
All these figures were well above average for the basebalJ clubs of their
respective eras, and, although they were not mean sums for that day, they
paled beside Andrew Carnegie's income. The steel magnate earned more
than that weekly!
In addition to the joint-stock representative pro teams in the larger cities,
boosters or the players themselves organized hundreds of semiprofessional,
or "cooperative," nines. These teams might pay only the pitcher on a per
game basis; all other players might either receive no pay at all or split
whatever was left from gate receiprs after expenses had been deducred.
Because of their baseball skills, such players often obtained sinecures in
local businesses or industry. In order to enhance their prospects of win-
ning symbolic contests against rival towns, clubs frequently scoured the
surrounding region for talent. Alrhough rhe clubs rarely survived for more
than a season or two, a new team frequently arose out of the ashes of
an expired club. As for the players, with opportunities for exhibirions of
physical manliness limited by the radical changes in nineteenth-century
workplaces and the prevailing Victorian restraints on self-expression, semi-
pro baseball provided them with an exciting arena for the display of their
physical prowess and aggressiveness in a controlled setting.
The representative team was only one way, albeit ultimately the most
important, of organizing a pro team. Beginning in the r880s, a dozen or
more pro barnstorming teams also regularly toured the nation. Some were
temporary aggregates composed of nationally known players who sought
to increase their earnings by embarking on off-season tours. Others were
more permanent outfits. Even the best of the representative nines feared
the barnstorming Hop Bitters, based in Rochester, New York. The Hop
 THE FIRST PROFESSIONAL TEAMS
37

Bitters bore the name of (and thereby advertised) a popular patent medicine
of the day, one that claimed to be "the Invalid's Friend & Hope." Asa T.
Soule, the concoctor of the drug and owner of the team, claimed that he
gave each of his players a teaspoonful of the nostrum before every game.
When the team lost, which it rarely did, he doubled the dosage.
Barnstorming black nines could be equally effective on the playing field.
Although the itinerant black teams did not teach the heyday of their popu-
lariry until the twentieth century, in the late I880s the powerful Cuban
Giants, formed in I885 by a group of ball-playing hotel waiters at the
Argyle, a famed resort on Long Island's South Shore, took on all comers.
The Giants eventually booked some I50 games a season, mostly against
white clubs. In I 887 they took a long western tour on which they played
major league clubs in Cincinnati and Indianapolis, as well as several minor
league teams. "The Cuban Giants ... have defeated the New Yorks, 4
games out of 5, and are now virtually champions of the world," reported
the Indianapolis Freedman in I 888. But "the St. Louis Browns, Detroits
and Chicagos, afflicted by Negro-phobia and unable to bear the odium
of being beaten by colored men, refused to accept their challenge."
Probably nothing about baseball shocked Victorian sensibilities more
than the barnstorming women's teams. There are scattered reports of
amateur women's nines in the fraternal era; for example, as early as 1866,
Vassar college students organized two clubs. In the I880s a few enter-
tainment entrepreneurs exploited the public fascination with the bizarre
by forming women's pro teams. One of the most notorious of these was
Harry H. Freeman's "buxom beauties," who "paraded the streets [of New
Orleans] in full uniform, and created an impression that base ball, played
by shapely ... girls, must be attractive." "The short-skirted ball tossers"
played poorly, continued a newspaper report in I885, but they "try and
play hard even if they do not succeed better than girls are expected to with
the national game. >l Given prevailing notions of Victorian womanhood,
Freeman had difficulties recruiting players. In I 886, New Orleans officials
arraigned Freeman "on the charge of being a dangerous and suspicious
character." He was accused of "inducing young girls to leave their homes
and parents to join his troupe of base ball players." In order to heist
Florence Harris, one of his recruits, out of the Crescent City undetected,
Freeman cut off her dark hair and had her don a blonde wig.

G G G
 BASEBALL

Ballparks also indicated the early pro game's modest businessdimensions.

Unlike the great railway terminals or the massive banks of the day,only a
few of the nineteenth-century baseball parks could be consideredsigniJi-
cant civic monuments. Nearly all of them, even in the larger cities, were
inexpensive, jerry-built, wooden structures that were doomed to become
early victims of decay, termites, fire, or even collapse from the excessive
weight of fans. Indeed, fans sometimes lost their lives from fallingstands.
The worst disaster in baseball history occurred at Philadelphia in 1903
when a collapsed railing sent twelve persons reeling to their deaths. On
five separate occasions during the I890S fires ravaged Sportsman's Park
in St. Louis, and in 1894 alone fire leveled the stands in four National
League cities. Because of the stands' temporary nature, the cheapness
with which they could be built, and improvements or changes in mass
transit, teams rarely occupied the same park for more than a few seasons.
The Chicago White Stockings, for example, played at six different sites
between 1870 and 1894.
Wooden fences kept out nonpaying spectators, though some fans avoided
paying an admission by watching games through cracks or knotholes in the
boards (hence the terms knothole clubs and knothole gangs). Larger parks
had roofs to protect some of the spectators from the sun. Less expensive,
unprotected seats consisted of unpainted, sun-bleached boards (hence the
term bleachers). To provide additional seats for major games, park owners
frequently nailed together temporary stands of raw pine. At several parks,
the tradition of permitting fans to congregate along the foul lines remained
intact until well into the twentieth century; at big games, fans also watched
from in front of the outfield fences.As the game progressed, such fans tended
to inch closer to the action, sometimes interfering with play. Even as late
as the first decade of the twentieth century, richer patrons could also view
the games from the comfort of their carriages parked in the outfield.
Lake Front Stadium in Chicago was one of the more lavish facilities of
the I880s. Reportedly costing the White Stockings the princely sum of
$10,000 to remodel in r883, the park accommodated ro,ooo patrons; it
had a band pagoda near the main entrance and, for wealthier fans, eigh-
teen boxes featuring arm chairs and curtains to keep out the sun or the
gaze of unwelcome viewers. The box seat of Albert Spalding, the club's
president, even came equipped with a telephone connected to the clubhouse
"to enable [Spalding] to conduct the details of the game without leaving
his seat." To handle the crowds and maintain the grounds, the "palatial"
park required forty-one uniformed attendants.
 Q

THE FIRST PROFESSIONAL TEAMS

39

Lake Front Stadium was better suited to meet the needs of spectators
than it was for playing baseball. The distances between home plate and
the outfield fences were the shortest in major league history, A fly ball of
only 196 feet in right field, 300 feet in center field, and a mere 180 feet in
left field could reach the outfield fence. Even against a baseball that was
quite soft by modern standards, these bandbox dimensions enabled Ed
Williams of the White Stockings to hit twenty-seven home runs in 1884,
a major league record that stood until Babe Ruth broke it in 1919. In
1884, alrhough no other club totaled more than fourteen homers, Chicago
boasted four players who hit more than twenty.
As with the theater, circuses, and other forms of commercial entertain-
ment, colorful pageantry was a conspicuous part of the early pro game.
Flags and pennants flew from outfield fences, and patriotic buntings of
red, whire, and blue frequently festooned the grandstands. During lulls
between innings, brass bands sometimes entertained fans. Vendors hawked
concessions and scorecards at all parks, but the lack of a public address
system or numbers on players' uniforms challenged the fan's ingenuity
in following the action. Because the playing facilities had no showers or
changing rooms for visitors, the players-in full uniform-usually rode
out to the parks ftom their hotels in open omnibuses drawn by horses,
sometimes bursting into the team's song on the way. Such a spectacle helped
lure customers to the game. This practice was not officially abandoned
until 1912, when the American League finally required all its teams to
provide dressing rooms. Apparently, however, cleanliness and the reduc-
tion of pungent odors were not major concerns of the day. A physician
warned managers against having their players take "dangerous and useless
showers," but he did advise them to require a weekly supervised bath.
Early professional ball games attracted motley crowds. The St. Louis
Post-Dispatch reported in 1883 that "a glance at the audience on any fine
day ar the ball park will reveal ... telegraph operators, printers who work
at night, rravelling men [salesmen] ... men of leisure men of capital,
bank clerks who get away at 3 P.M., real estate men barkeepers ...
hotel clerks, actors and employees of the theater, policemen and firemen
on their day off ... clerks and salesmen temporarily out of work ...
butchers [and] bakers." Clubs in several cities specifically arranged rheir
games for the convenience of white-collar workers. So that stockbrokers
and their associates could easily get to the park after the close of Chicago's
Board of Trade, the White Stockings set their starting time at 2:30 in the
afternoon; likewise, the 3:30 starting time of the New York Giants allowed

_______________ A
-- ------------------. BASEBALL

the Wall Street crowd ample time to get across town to the ball field. For
the convenience of government clerks, Washington's teams scheduled their
games at 4:30 in the afternoon.
Although young, white-collar workers were conspicuous at games, it is
far less certain how many blue-collar, ethnic workingmen attended games.
Steep ticket prices (a minimum of fifty cents to National League games dur-
ing the last quarter of the century), the cost of horse car or electric trolley
fare to the ballpark, the necessity of play during the daylight hours, and
the ban on Sunday games in most cities aJJ restricted potential attendance
by unskilled workingmen. A New York Times report of an r888 Memorial
Day game at the Polo Grounds noted the unusual enthusiasm of the men
and boys who normally were confined to "shops and factories during the
week days, and who [had] to content themselves for months with reading
accounts of games."
Nonetheless, newspapers frequently commented on the presence of the
Irish in Boston and New York and the Germans in Cincinnati and St.
Louis. Although the original Polo Grounds obtained its name from the polo
played there by publisher James Gordon Bennett and his wealthy friends,
that association faded when the area was converted into a baJJ field; by
the r880s, the bleachers had become known as "Burkeville," named after
the predominantly Irish fans who sat there. Several other fields had "Kerry
Patches," which also referred to sections occupied regularly by the Irish
kranks. Rather than coming from the factories or large-scale shops, these
ethnic fans probably came from the ranks of petty shopkeepers, skiJJed
workingmen, public officialdom, and other occupations less encumbered
by income constraints and with schedules sufficiently flexible to allow
attendance at weekday games.
Compared to men, women rarely patronized pro baseball. Despite the
fact that special ladies' days were scheduled and special sections of the
stands were reserved for women as early as the r8805, their attendance ap-
parently varied greatly according to time and place. For example, in 1875
the press reported that large numbers of women were attending games in
Hartford and Boston, but in that same year the presence of a single "lady
who seemed to take a great interest in the proceedings" of a game at the
Union Grounds in Brooklyn occasioned comment in a local newspaper.
A decade later, however, a report of a game between the top contenders
for the National League pennant at the Polo Grounds contained these
words: "The ladies are regular and numerous attendants at the grounds.
The hundreds of them who stood on the seats and screamed and waved
 THE FIRST PROFESSrONAL TEAMS 4I

their handkerchiefs and brandished their fans in ecstasies of applause yes-

terday knew enough to come early and avoid the crush." Yet this account
should not be considered representative or typical; it leaves an exaggerated
impression of the number of women spectators and their involvement in
the game. Early photographs reveal an overwhelming preponderance of
males at most games.

o o (]

During the I870S and I 880s the professional teams fully established their
ascendancy over all of baseball. The Cincinnati Red Stockings and dozens
of other clubs soon proved that full-time salaried players could nearly
always outperform those who held down other jobs during the playing
season. Seizing mainly on urban rivalries, an assortment of civic boosters,
small-time entrepreneurs, and politicians organized hundreds of profes-
sional and semiprofessional teams. Although adverse weather, poor play,
mismanagement, and the peculiar nature of the enterprise, among other
reasons, caused nearly all the teams to fail financially within only a year
or rwo of their founding, new nines soon filled their places. The next im-
portant stage in rhe history of the professional game was the formation
of leagues of the representative teams.
---------------.

4
The First
Professional Leagues
Armed with endorsements of four western clubs, William Ambrose Hul-
bert, president of the Chicago Base Ball Club, met on 2 February 1876
with representatives of six eastern clubs at the Central Hotel in Manhattan.
Nothing could deter Hulbert, not even the rain and the gale-force winds
that whipped through Manhattan's streets at seventy miles per hour. Ac-
cording to baseball lore, after all the delegates had entered his room, he
locked the door behind them and then, with a dramatic flourish, dropped
the key into IUspocket. Hulbert rhereby symbolically held the eastern men
captive until they agreed to his plan for the creation of a radically different
professional baseball league. They discussed and refined Hulbert's proposal
into the evening hours before finally signing a pact creating the National
League of Professional Base Ball Clubs (NL). Appropriately, given base-
ball's claim as the national pasrime, the fareful meering took place during
the nation's centennial year of 1876. Perhaps it should also be remembered
 THE FIRST PROFESSIONAL LEAGUES 43

that the league began play in the same spring that chiefs Rain-in-tbe-Face,
Sitting Bull, and Crazy Horse annihilated General George A. Custer and
his troops near the Little Big Horn River in southern Montana.
The creation of the NL, along with more than a dozen other leagues
during the 1870S and 1880s, was an important step in the evolution of
professional baseball. Although professional baseball leagues only gradu-
ally evolved into the economic cartels familiar to fans today, baseball men
early on recognized that the formation of leagues could promote their
mutual interests. The first pro baseball league, the National Association
of Professional Base Ball Players (1871-75), had no grand plan for win-
ning public favor or maximizing the income of its member clubs. It was
merely a loose confederation designed to provide a system for naming a
national championship team. But its successor, Hulbert's National League,
aspired to become a circuit composed of only the premier clubs. It sharply
restricted the number of clubs that could join the league, took steps to
curb player freedom, and sought, not altogether successfully, to present
itself as a fortress of Victorian propriety.

G G G

On I7 March 1871, St. Patrick's Day, ten delegates representing clubs

fielding professional baseball teams met in New York City, where they
founded the first organized league, the National Association of Profes-
sional Base Ball Players, usually known simply as the National Association
(NA). Although the inclusion of "Base Ball Players" in the title of the new
association suggested that it was a player-controlled organization, the
players did not entirely dominate either the NA or most of its member
clubs. True, of the eleven teams that enlisted for the first season, five were
described as "cooperative" nines. Organized by the players themselves
and thus without the patronage of a joint-stock company, the cooperative
reams paid expenses from gate receipts; if there was any money left over,
they divided it among the players. Nonetheless, Harry Wright, who was as
concerned with club management as with the fate of the players, was the
only active player at the 187I NA founding meeting. Apart from Wright,
only two (or possibly three) active players ever attended the annual conven-
tions of the NA. The NA did elect player-captain Robert Ferguson, who
was associated at different times with the New York Mutuals, Brooklyn
Atlantics, and the Hartfords, as president for two terms, but Ferguson
--------------.
44 BASEBALL

himself acknowledged that the league presidency was a ceremonialposi-

tion. The club directors bestowed it on him as a token recognitionofrbe
"playing class's" contribution to the game.
Although the National Association exhibited few characteristics of a
modern Sports league cartel, it was important to the history of professional
baseball. With the demise of the fraternal-oriented National Association
of Base Ball Players in 1870, the new association became by default rhe
rule-making body for all of baseball. Never again would the fraternal.
centered version of baseball significantly affect the game's rules. More
importantly, the NA also established a procedure for naming a pro team
as the national champion. Each club was to playa best-of-five-gameseries
with all other members. Such a system was awkward, inasmuch as teams
did not play the same number of championship games during the season
and each club had to schedule its own games. To maxinnize revenues, the
clubs scheduled many games against non-NA foes.
In 1871, the association's first season of play, Chicago's White Stockings,
the Athletics of Philadelphia, and the Bostons embarked on an exciting
three-way race for the championship pennant. Unfortunately, Chicago's
Great Fire burned down the White Stockings' new field, which seated 7,000
spectators. Although the White Stockings lost their park, uniforms, and
equipment in the fire, they decided to carryon anyway. Wearing suits of
"various hues and makes, ludicrous in the extreme" that had been loaned
to them by other nines, the ill-dressed and ill-fated Chicagoans lost the
flag by a single game on the last day of the season to the Philadelphians.
Because of the Great Fire, Chicago did not field an association team in
either the 1872 or 1873 season.
For the next four seasons (r872-75), no club successfully contested
the hegemony of the Bostons, as Harry Wright's team was knowo. Led
by their gaunt, full-bearded, clerical-looking manager, the team won four
consecutive pennants and compiled a staggering 227-60 cumulative won-
lost record. In r875, the final season of the association, Boston ran away
with the league flag, winning seventy-one games and losing only eight. In
terms of the NA's total welfare, the Bostons may have been too good; other
teams paled in comparison. It must have been difficult for Brooklynires, for
example, to grow excited about their Atlantics. During the 1875 campaign,
the abysmal Atlantics won only two of forty-six league games.
Boston's phenomenal success stemmed in large part from the recruitment
of superior players. Wright had at his disposal his brother George, a su-
perb fielding, hard-hitting shortstop. At second base, he employed Roscoe
 THE FIRST PROFESSlQNAL LEAGUES 45

Barnes, the league's perennial batting champion, and behind the plate was
the league's most admired superstar, Jim "Deacon" White. White picked
up his nickname because, unlike most of his fellow players, he regularly
attended church services, toted a Bible with him wherever he went, and
always behaved as "a gentleman in his professional and private life." In
the pitcher's box, Wright had big Albert Spalding, who at six feet and two
inches in height towered over his contemporaries and was the league's
most successful hurler. Spalding compiled a 207-56 won-lost record and
a .320 batting average while at Boston. "On receiving the ball," read a
contemporary account of Spalding's pitching style, "... he gazes at it
two or three minutes in a contemplative way, and then turns it around
once or twice to be sure that it is not an orange or coconut. Assured that
he has rhe genuine article ... and after a scowl at the short stop, and a
glance at horneplare, [he] finally delivers the ball with the precision of a
cannon shor."
Alrhough notions of the earlier fraternal era lingered on in Wright's
thinking, he approached the game in a far more businesslike manner than
did most of the orher men associated with the pro game. Whereas stock-
holders frequenrly placed more value on potential psychic and political
rewards than on profits, Wright depended on baseball for his livelihood.
"Base ball is now a business," he flatly explained in a letter to Nicholas
Young of the Washington Olympics. The pro clubs, he maintained, should
drop freewheeling practices that, while admittedly enhancing a sense of
equality and fraternity among the players, might impair a team's prospects
for success. Wright not only carefully managed such details as club sched-
uling and finances but, above all, firmly established his authority over the
players. Acting as a paternalistic patriarch, he even dictated their living
arrangements. In Bosron, "George [Wright]' Harry [Wright], and [Charles]
Gould live together," reported the Spirit of the Times in 1871, "and the
other seven 'boys' live next door in a private house, so they are all under
Harry's wing." No longer did the players rule their own destinies. At
least for the Bostons, a clear-cut employer-employee relationship existed
between the manager and his "boys. II

G G G

Although no fewer than fifteen new clubs were clamoring to get into the
National Association for the 1876 campaign and more than 3,000 fans
frequenrly attended the games of major foes, not all was well with the loop.
 ---------------. BASEBALL

Not only did it suffer from Boston's lopsided superiority on the playing
field, but for those who believed that pro baseball could achieve greater
success by mirroring Victorian America, the NA was little short of a di-
saster. Rather than serving as models of order and propriety, association
games too frequently erupted into incivility and anarchy. Ugly confronta-
tions and long delays in play regularly arose over the choice of umpires
and their decisions. As in the past, the NA, which required that the home
teams pay umpires $ 5 per game, foUowed the practice of having the borne
team pick an umpire from a list of names submitted by the visitors. Bur
with money now at stake and fraternal ties largely eroded, nothing kept
home teams from objecting to all the proposed arbiters. Accompanied by
growing crowd unrest, arguments over the choice of an umpire sometimes
held up starting the contests for an hour or more.
Agreement on an official for the game by no means terminated the pos-
sibility of controversy. Umpires held unenviable positions. They needed to
master a complex set of rapidly changing rules, they had to make countless
decisions during the course of a game, and given the size of the playing
field, a single umpire was sometimes in a poor position to make good
calls. Until the practice was prohibited in 1880, umpires still occasion-
ally consulted with nearby players or bystanders before rendering a final
decision on fly ball or base calls. Frequently confronted with vociferous
complaints about their rulings from players, managers, and fans (who as
likely as not had wagered on the contest), it was little wonder that umpires
sometimes lost their tempers or simply quit in the middle of games. Few
umpires, however, responded as forceful1y as Robert Ferguson. Angered
by the "growling" of Mutuals' catcher Robert Hicks, Ferguson, while
serving as umpire of a game between the Lord Baltimores and the Muru-
ais in 1873, grabbed a bat and broke the offender's arm in two places. He
thereby disabled Hicks "for the remainder of the game." At the game's
conclusion, a constable stepped forward to arrest Ferguson, but the injured
catcher refused to press charges.
Game fixing and gambling also plainly mocked Victorian values. Wager-
ing on games was common everywhere; both Brooklyn and Philadelphia
even allowed pool selling in their parks. The frequency of game fixing can-
not be precisely determined, but players on some teams, such as the Muru-
als of New York City, acquired a notorious reputation for their willingness
to take money from gamblers in exchange for playing poorly enough to
lose games. In the 1874 and 1875 seasons, newspapers repeatedly reported
instances of suspected game fixing by the Mutuals. Referring to an 1874
 THE FIRST PROFESSIONAL LEAGUES 47

win by the White Stockings over the Mutuals, the Chicago Tribune declared
that "for the first time in the history of baseball in Chicago, the national
game has been disgraced by a palpable and unbelievable fraud." Accord-
ing to the Tribune, there was "ample reason to believe that at least four
[Mutua ls] players were hired to throw the game and had no intention of
winning at any stage." This and more than a dozen similar incidents, none
of which led to punitive action by the NA's judiciary committee, cast a
dark shadow of suspicion over the "squareness" of association games.
Nevertheless, neither Boston's dominance on the playing field, the be-
havior of ball players, nor the common practice of players revolving from
one club to another is sufficient in itself to explain the association's demise.
The National League coup of 1876 was mostly the work of a single in-
dividual, William Ambrose Hulbert. The burly Hulbert had no nostalgia
for the earlier fraternal game. As a successful Chicago coal merchant, an
active Republican, and a member of the city's prestigious Board of Trade,
he approached baseball solely from the perspective of a businessman,
politician, and civic booster. Hulbert loved Chicago. "I would rather be
a lamp-post in Chicago than a millionaire in any other city," he allegedly
said repeatedly. In the wake of Chicago's Great Fire of 1871, Hnlbert
saw in professional baseball an opportunity to promote the revival of his
beloved city.
For baseball to contribute to the Windy City's civic renewal, the team
had to perform well enough to engender pride in its accomplishments.
Therefore, Hulbert, as president of the White Stockings, set about recruit-
ing the best players he could find. He secretly and boldly defied the NA rule
against signing players from other clubs while the season was in progress.
In the midst of the r875 campaign he persuaded Albert Spalding to join
the White Stockings as a pitcher, captain, and manager for the upcoming
r876 season in exchange for a salary of $2,000 plus 25 percent of the
team's gate receipts. On receiving the news that Spalding and three other
Boston players had defected to Chicago, the Worcester Spy reported that
"Boston is in mourning. Like Rachel weeping for her children, she refuses
to be comforted because [her] famous baseball nine ... the city's most
cherished possession, has been captured by Chicago."
Hulbert's employment of Spalding was especially fortuitous. The char-
ismatic Spalding not only was a superb pitcher, but he also aided Hulbert
in convincing Boston stars Jim White, Cal McVey, and Roscoe Barnes,
along with Philadelphia's hero Adrian "Cap" Anson, to sign contracts with
Chicago. Fear that the eastern clubs might retaliate for these audacious

____________________
4
 BASEBALL

player raids by expeUing rhe Chicago recruits and perhaps the club itself
from the NA was, according to Spalding, the inspiration for Hulbert',
conception of an entirely new league. "Spalding," Hulbert exclaimed, "I
have a new scheme. Let us anticipate the Eastern cusses and organize a
new association ... and then we'll see who wiU do the expelling."
Hulbert and his cohort concluded that pro basebaU could be stabilized
by forming a league restricted to the most powerful representative nines of
the larger cities. The National Association had allowed any club fielding
a pro team, regardless of whether it was located in a smalJ town or the
nation's largest city, to join and compete for the championship pennant.
The only requirement was that the aspiring club pay a $ro entry fee.
Thus, dozens of clubs from both the smaUer towns and the big cities had
regularly joined and shortly dropped out; several did not even complete
a single season of play. Under such unstable conditions, fans in the large
cities had special difficulties identifying a particular team as the city's
representative nine. That fifteen additional clubs were seeking admission
to the association for the r 876 season created a special sense of urgency
among those seeking to form a new circuit. If the "whole gang be Jet in, "
predicted the Chicago Tribune, half the clubs would fail to meet expenses.
The only solution, the Tribune concluded, was either to reform the NA or
form a new league organized as a "closed corporation." Hulbert adopted
essentially the latter idea.
Composed initially of teams located in Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati,
Hartford, Louisville, New York, Philadelphia, and St. Louis, the National
League departed sharply from the practices of the NA. To offset some of
the disparities in the markets arising from differences in population among
the NL cities, the league provided that visiting teams would receive 50
percent of the base admission price to each game. (As higher-priced seats
were added to league baUparks, the share of total receipts going to visiting
teams fell.) A club wishing to join the new league had to obtain the ap-
proval of the existing clubs, only one club could represent each city, and
no club could be located in a city with a population of less than 75,000.
Each club enjoyed a territorial monopoly in another sense. When a team
from one league city, such as the Chicago White Stockings or the Bostons,
came to another league town, they could play no other pro club except the
NL team representing that city. The founders hoped that these strictures
would enable them to establish a premier circuit, one that would estab-
lish a clearly separate identity and a superior quality of play compared to
competing basebaU clubs or leagues.
 Q

THE FIRST PROFESSIONAL LEAGUES 49

The NL abandoned all prerenses of being a player-centered enterprise.

Although player delegates were not specifically prohibited from attend-
ing annual league meetings until 1878, by confining the game to "regular
[joinr-] stock companies" the NL got rid of the cooperative nines that had
played in the NA. It also quickly implemented labor policies similar to
those of the industrial corporations of the day. Although the NL founders
did not initially have enough gall or foresight to bind players to one club
for their entire playing careers-or perhaps they doubted the legality of
such a move-they did forbid negotiations with players affiliated with
other clubs while the season was in progress and granted the clubs the
power to expel players from the league for violating team rules.
Led by Albert Spalding, the league founders nourished the legend that
the NL saved professional baseball from utter ruin. Had it not been for the
timely creation of the NL and the sagacious decisions of its leaders, so the
fable went, the national pastime would have conrinued its downward slide
into complete degradation. The league inrroduced a new player discipline;
it avowed to end rowdy behavior and make "Base Ball playing respectable
and honorable." In a further bid to dissociate itself from the NA, portray
itself as a civic rather than a profit-driven enterprise, and appease suspi-
cious Victorians, the league organizers banned Sunday games (officially
in r878) as well as liquor sales and gambling in their parks. They also
hoped that a minimum admission price of fifty cents would prevent at-
tendance by ruffians while encouraging "the better classes [to] patronize
the game a great deal more." No doubt at a cost of some support among
the working class, especially working-class ethnics, the NL ostenratiously
presented itself as the national pastime's main moral guardian.
These measures by no means ensured the fledgling league's survival. Cus-
todians of Victorian propriety remained suspicious. "You should never go
to a ball game," lectured Pittsburgh Judge J. W. F. White in 1887 to a de-
fendant in a larceny case. "Baseball is one of the evils of the day." Although
on paper few other business cartels bound their membership in so many
particulars, like other gentlemen's agreements, the baseball cartel had no
legal standing; its restrictive agreements could not be enforced in the courts.
Therefore, each club was ultimately free to place its interests ahead of the
league's welfare. "The [baseball] magnare must be a strong man among
strong men," concluded Spalding years later, "else other club owners in the
league will combine in their own interests against him and his interests."
With its effecriveness entirely dependent on the voluntary compliance of
the member clubs, the NL faced awesome challenges to its very existence.

_________________
4
 BASEBALL

Both on and off the field of play, Chicago's baseball men orchestrated
the NL's early history. Off the diamond, there was the formidable duo of
William Hulbert and Albert Spalding, who had founded the NL and pur
together the 1876 "all-star" White Stockings team. Spalding pitched and
managed the White Stockings to the 1876 NL championship, but there-
after until his retirement in 1878 he played sparingly. In the meantime, he
charted the beginning of another important career. In February of 1876 the
Chicago Tribune announced that Spalding was opening a "large emporium
in Chicago, where he will sell all kinds of baseball goods and turn his place
into the headquarters for the Western Ball Clubs." He obrained the exclusive
right to furnish the official NL baseball and to publish Spalding' Officiol
Baseball Guide, an annual that included the league rules, records, articles,
and Spalding's views on the main issues confronting the game. Spalding later
expanded his business into both the manufacturing and retailing of sport-
ing goods, and it SOon became the largest such organization in the world.
While Spalding was launching himself as a sporting goods entreprenew;
Hulbert guided the NL through its perilous early years. An industrial
depression in the late I870S furnished the league with its first great chal-
lenge. With widespread unemployment and reduced incomes for many, the
amount of money available for leisure expenditures dropped drastically.
For the 1876 season probably none of the clubs save Chicago earned a
profit. Hoping to avoid further financial losses, both the Athletics of Phil a-
delphia and the Mutuals of New York decided to forgo their final western
road tours. Hulbert, who had been installed as the leagne president after
Morgan G. Bulkeley of Hartford had been chosen by lot as president the
first year, responded sternly. He obtained the expulsion of both clubs, thus
denying the NL access to the nation's two largest cities. Even the tears of
the Athletics' contrite president failed to reverse Hulbert's decision.
In 1881, when the Cincinnati club persisted in selling beer at its park
and playing Sunday games, Hulbert hounded them out of the league as
well. "We respectfully suggest, that while the league is in the missionary
field," responded Oliver P. Caylor of the Cincinnati Enquirer, " ... they
[also] turn their attention to Chicago and prohibit the admission to the
Lake Street grounds of the great number of prostitutes who patronize
the game up there." Caylor's red herring apparently availed nothing but
perhaps chuckles. Hulbert was determined that no club would successfully
chalJenge the league's authority.
 THE FIRST PROFESSIONAL LEAGUES

Hulbert likewise cracked down on loose player behavior. Charges sur-

faced ar the conclusion of the 1877 season rhar four Louisville Grays'
players had fixed games. The powerful Grays needed to win only eight
games to clinch the championship pennant, but during the stretch drive
rhe ralented four played like a team of local sandlotters. They made costly
errors and carelessly got picked off bases. Even worse, one of the four,
James Devlin, the Grays' star pitcher, suddenly lost his stuff. A subsequent
league investigation found the players guilty of taking money for throwing
rhe games. Hulbert again acted without mercy; he promptly banned the
four culprits from the NL for life. Pleading abject poverty, Devlin regu-
larly begged the NL for reinstatement. "I am living from hand to mouth
all winter [and] I have not got a Stitch of Clothing [njor has my wife and
Child," Devlin lamented in a letter to Harry Wright. But the league did
not bend. On one occasion, according to Spalding's recollection, Hulbert
gave the offender $ 50 from his own pocket while exclaiming, "Damn you,
you have sold a game, you are dishonest, and [the] National League will
not stand for it." Ar the tender age of thirty-three, the pathetic Devlin died
(cause unknown) while serving as a Philadelphia policeman.
Although Hulbert's stern measures against clubs and players strength-
ened the National League's authority and its image of integrity, such ac-
tions failed to ensure the prosperity of league franchises. Indeed, during
its first fifteen years of existence, twenty-two different cities had teams in
the NL; only Boston and Chicago fielded clubs for the entire 1876-90 era.
Until the mid-r gSos, the NL could be accurately described as "Chicago's
league," for not only did Chicago men manage the league, but the other
teams in the NL depended to a large extent on the revenues they received
from playing the White Stockings.
Neither did the NL establish its ascendancy over all of professional
baseball. Indeed, dozens of strong pro clubs continued to operate indepen-
dently of the NL. In 1877 delegates from eighteen of these clubs founded
rhe International Association of Professional Base Ball Players, which,
since it allowed any club to join, resembled the old National Association.
Nor did Hulbert's loop establish its clear-cut ascendancy on the playing
field. Several nonleague pro teams were fully as good as the NL teams. In
1877 alone, according to a careful count by Harold Seymour, NL teams
lost seventy-two games to outside foes, and even at that the league teams
were frequently accused of avoiding the strong independent clubs.
Acting in the monopolistic manner of the industrial corporations of the
day, the NL tried to control or eliminate competition from other teams
 BASEBALL

and leagues. In r8n it organized the League Alliance. All pro clubs that
joined the alliance would have their territorial rights and player contracts
protected from one another as well as from the NL clubs. Conversely, clubs
that refused to join the alliance could have their rosters preyed upon freely
by other clubs. The NL also welcomed into its fold the stronger Interns-
tional Association clubs. Conveniently overlooking its requirement that
franchises could be located only in cities with 75,000 or more residents,
the NL took in clubs from three smaller cities: Syracuse and Troy, New
York, and Worcester, Massachusetts. Finally, the league ordered a halt
to all games with nonleague foes on league grounds, tbereby cutting off
lucrarive earnings by Outsiders in NL ballparks.
The high-handed methods by which the National League was under.
taking "to control the baseball fraternity" was "unreasonably absurd,'
declared A. B. Rankin, a leader of the International Association. "Are we
to submit to the caprice of a clique, or ring?" he asked rhetorically. Yet
the dream of resurrecting a loosely formed association rhar all pro base.
ball teams could freely join and through which they could compete with
one another for a championship pennant was rapidly fading. By the time
the International Association collapsed in r880, the NL's more binding
kind of cartel had demonstrated a capacity to withstand conflicts among
its members and challenges from both the players and teams outside the
league's fold.
In r882 Hulbert died, and Spalding assumed his mantle. At the age of
thirty-two, SpaJding became president of the White Stockings, a position
he held until r891, and though he did nor serve as league president (an
office of nominal authority after Hulberr's death), he was the most domi-
nant voice in league counsels, Ostensibly to convert foreigners to baseball
but no doubt to expand sales of his SPOrting goods as well, in r888-89
Spalding arranged a highly publicized worldwide tour that matched Ills
Chicago team against a team ofNL all-stars. Although the foreigners were
singularly unimpressed with the exhibitions of America's national game,
and although Spalding lost money on the venture, the exotic nature of
baseball games in far-off Australia, in the shadows of Egyptian pyramids,
in Rome's Colosseum, and on the leading cricket grounds of England
intrigued Americans at horne.
As Hulbert and Spalding directed the destinies of the NL off the field,
on the diamond no players were more important than Chicagoans Adrian
"Cap" (so named because of his captaincy of the team) Anson and Michael
"King" Kelly. They formed the nucleus of one of the most powerful teams
 Q

THE FIRST PROFESSlONAL LEAGUES

53

in big league history; in the I880s the White Stockings won five pennants
in seven years. In that decade only Anson was left from the championship
squad of 1876, but the six-foot, two-inch, zoo-pound-plus first baseman,
"a veritable giant," as he was described by contemporaries, continued to
be one of the best players in the game, even until his retirement in r897.
He won four league batting crowns and in twenty-two seasons failed to hit
.300 only twice. Anson became the playing manager of the White Stockings
in r879, a position he retained until his retirement. The fans loved to hear
Anson, who had a booming voice, bellow out directions to the players or
epirhets aimed at the nmpire. One of Anson's recruits, lightning-fast but
weak-hitting William "Billy" Sunday, later achieved renown as one of the
nation's leading evangelists.
King Kelly competed with Anson for the adoration of Chicago kranks.
A colorful player both on and off the field, Kelly excelled at hitting and
base running. "Slide, Kelly, SLide!" later became a hit song. Apart from
baseball, Kelly loved horses and drinking. Tall, dark, and handsome, "as
Celtic as Mrs. Mnrphy's pig," he was one of the first of many players
who trod the boards of vaudeville; he starred in a skit titled "He Would
be an Acror, or The Ball Player's Revenge." Kelly inspired many legends,
most of which revolved around his opportunism and trickery. During one
game, as the sun began to set toward the end of the twelfth inning, Kelly
pulled one of his most startling stunts. With two out and the bases full,
Kelly, as the right fielder, leapt into the twilight trying to catch a mighty
drive that would win the game. As he came down, he held his glove high
in the air and jauntily jogged to the dugout. The umpire bellowed: "Out
number three! Game called on account of darkness!" "Nice catch, Kell,"
exclaimed his teammates. "Not at all, at all," Kelly responded. '''Twent
a mile above my head." In the days before players wore gloves, however,
Kelly was no iron mao. While catching in a game for Cincinnati in r879,
a Cal McVey pitch bruised his hand. Kelly refused to intercept any more
of McVey's "cannonball" pitches, so the Cincinnati manager brought in
a slower-throwing "change pitcher" who, according to a press report,
proceeded to "take his lumps" from the Providence club.
In r887 Spalding shocked the baseball world by selling Kelly to the
Boston team for the then-astronomical sum of $10,000. The Boston fans
promptly labeled him "the $10,000 Beauty," after a local actress who used
that title as a promotional gimmick. If anything, the Boston Irish loved
Kelly more than his followers in Chicago did. The fans even chipped in
their hard-won earnings to buy the King a pair of handsome gray horses

____________________ <"'111
 54 BASEBALL
-
and a fancy gig so that he could ride out to the ballpark on Washingron
Street in proper style. Kelly added to tbe grandeur of the occasion br
wearing needle-pointed shoes and a taJi top hat.

GJ G G

"Beer Ball League," hooted the Chicago Tribune, a mouthpiece of the Na-
tional League, in I88!. The Tribune referred to the newly created American
Association of Base BaJi Clubs (AA). And it was true that brewery owners
sat on the boards of directors of six of the clubs in the new association. In
addition, the AA brazenly authorized the sale of beer at its games, permit.
ted play on Sundays (in cities where it was legal), and set a base admission
price of a mere twenty-five cents a game. By such measures, the AA sought
to tap into a large pool of potential baseball fans who had been abandoned
by the NL's ostentatious capitulation to Victorian standards of propriety.
Few ethnics or workingmen cared a whit for either temperance or a stria
Sabbath. Indeed, few occasions pleased them more than the opportuniry
to drink beer on a hot Sunday afternoon while watching a ball game.
The stage for the creation of the AA had been set by the return of
prosperity in the I880s. Industria! production again leapt forward, real
incomes rose, and from both the European and American countrysides
millions flocked into the nation's cities. Cut off from their traditional rural
and viJiage pastimes, the urban dweJlers sought excitement and communal
experiences in commercial recreation. They increasingly patronized the-
aters, circuses, dance halls, saloons, and commercial sports. Responding
to the growing spectator demand for basebaJl, the number of pro teams
and pro leagues proliferated. Not only did two new leagues-the American
Association (I882-9I) and the Union Association (I884)-chal1enge rhe
NL directly for major league status, but by the end of the decade seventeen
other pro leagues existed, scattered from Maine to California.
The initiative for the American Association came mainly from Alfred
H. Spink of St. Louis and Oliver P. Caylor of Cincinnati, two sportswrir-
ers whose cities had been squeezed out of the NL. Both cities had large
German ethnic constituencies that enjoyed beer drinking and Continental
Sundays. In St. Louis, Spink found an invaJuable ally in Christopher Von
der Abe, a thick-accented German immigrant. In the summer of I88I the
two men added Sunday baseball games and beer to the other attractions
of Von der Ahe's amusement park. Such a formula worked wonders, at-
tracting unusually large crowds. Among the teams that cashed in on the
 Q

THE FIRST PROFESSIONAL LEAGUES 55

opportunity offered by the St. Louisians were Caylor's newly organized

Cincinnati Reds and the Dubuque, Iowa, Rabbits, who featured a young
ex-newsboy, Charles Comiskey, at first base. Witnessing the success of
Spink and Von dec Ahe, entrepreneurs in Cincinnati, Baltimore, Louisville,
Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh joined the St. Louisians to form the AA in
r882.
The NL recognized in the AA a serious challenge to its claim as the
nation's only major league. The NL quickly reversed its long-standing
ban on baseball in New York and Philadelphia. It gently pushed aside
the existing clubs in the smaller cities of Troy and Worcester and in r883
welcomed John Day's Gorharns (soon to be known as the Giants) from
New York and the Philadelphias (later to be known as the Phillies) of
Alfred]. Reach. To prevent all-out guerrilla warfare for players, after the
1882 season NL president Abraham G. Mills, who was yet another leader
from the Chicago club, engineered a tripartite truce with the AA and the
Northwestern League, a minor league operating in Michigan, Ohio, and
Illinois. At the heart of the 1882 agreement was the mutual recognition
of reserved players and the establishment of exclusive territorial rights.

National League Cities, 1876-1902

(pennant-winning years in parentheses)
Baltimore, 1891-99 (1894-96)
Boston, 1876-r902 (1877-78, 1883,1891-93,1897-98)
Brooklyn, 1890--1902 (1890, 1899-1900)
Buffalo, 1879-85
Chicago, 1876-1902 (1876, 1880-82, 1885-86)
Cincinnati, 1876-80, 1890-1902.
Cleveland, 1879-84, 1889-99
Detroit, 1881-88 (1887)
Hartford, 1876-77
Indianapolis, r878, 1887-89
Kansas City, 1886
Louisville, 1876-77, 1892-99
Milwaukee, 1878
New York, 1876, 1883-192 (1888-89)
Philadelphia, 1876, 1883-192
Pittsburgh,1887-1902(1901-2)
Providence, 1878-85 (1879,1884)

______________
4
 -
BASEBALL

St. Louis, 1876-77, 1885-86, 1892-1902

Syracuse, 1879
Troy, 1879-82
Washington, 1886-89, 1892-99
Worcester, 1880-82

American Association Cities, 1882-91

(pennant-winning years in parentheses)
Baltimore, 1882-9r
Boston, r891 (189r)
Brooklyn, 1884-90 (1889)
Cincinnati, 1882-89, 1891 (1882)
Cleveland,1887-88
Columbus, 1883-84,1889-91
Indianapolis, r884
Kansas City, 1888-89
Louisville, 1882-91 (1890)
Milwaukee, 1891
New York, 1883-87 (1884)
Philadelphia, 1882-91 (1883)
Pittsburgh, 1882-86
Richmond, 1884
Rochester, 1890
St. Louis, 1882-91 (1885-88)
Syracuse, 1890
Toledo, 1884, 1890
Washington, 1884, 1891

The guns of warfare had hardly been silenced when a third contender
for big league status, the Union Association, entered the fray.Unlike many
of the men behind the AA, the Union Association's founder and financial
angel, Henry V. Lucas, a young St. Louis millionaire, was not motivated
by the financial opportunities to be derived from beer or Sunday games.
An ardent fan and apparently sympathetic to players' resentments arising
from their inabilities to offer their services to the highest bidder, Lucas (or
"Saint Lucas," as he was dubbed by an irreverent press) determined [Q build
a circuit without strictures on player freedom. Although Lucas's eight-team
loop attracted a few firsr-rars players from the NL and the AA, there were
simply not enough fans to support thirty-four big league teams. After Lu-
 LQ

THE FIRST PROFESSIONAL LEAGUES 57

cas's fortune had been dissipated and "his combativeness destroyed," the
NL extended mercy to him and the players who had jumped to his Union
Association. At the close of the r884 season, the NL allowed the disloyal
players to return and provided Lucas with a franchise in St. Louis.
In the meantime, the predecessor of baseball's modern World Series
began to take shape. In the fall of I883 clubs from the two leagues played
fifty-eight exhibition games against one another, but the AA'sPhiladelphia
Athletics, after having lost seven of eight exhibition games to lesser NL
foes, prudently decided to cancel a postseason series with the NL cham-
pion Bostons. The next year the NL pennant-winning Providence team
won all three postseason games from the AA's flag-bearing New York
Metropolitans, but these games attracted negligible public attention. A
turning point came in 1885, when Von der Ahe's St. Louis Browns and
Spalding's Chicago White Stockings played a controversial posrseason
series. The Browns won the three games completed, but one game ended
in a tie because of darkness, and the umpire forfeited another game to
Chicago after St. Louis manager Charles Comiskey angrily protested an
umpire's call by taking his team off the field.
In I886 the teams confronted each other again in the first contest to
be billed as "the world's championship." A wager between Spalding and
Von der Ahe calling for the winner to receive all the gate receipts added
to the public excitement. The series started in Chicago, where the White
Stockings "Chicagoed" (shutouts in those days were called "Chicago"
games) the Browns 6-0, but the next day the St. Louisians reciprocated
the embarrassment by Chicagoing the Chicagoans n-o. Chicago took
the final game in the Windy City, but then disaster befell the proud White
Stockings. In St. Louis the Browns swept the remaining three games and
took the championship.
A jubilant Chris Von der Ahe ordered up champagne for his players.
Spalding, on the other hand, was furious. He refused even to pay the White
Stockings' train fare back home. He, along with his manager Cap Anson,
privately blamed the club's humiliating losses on the nightly drinking sprees
of the players. He sold the main offenders (including King Kelly) to other
clubs and the next spring shipped the team off to Hot Springs, Arkansas,
with instructions for Anson to work the liquor out of the players' systems.
The strategy apparently misfired, for Chicago failed even to win the NL
nag in I887.
No rules or formulas governed the conduct of these early series. One
league champion challenged, the other accepted, and then they agreed on

1"'1
 BASEBALL

such details as the number of games, where they would be played, and
how the gate receipts would be divided. For instance, the series of 18S,
berween the Browns and the Detroits called for fifteengames to be played
in Sr. Louis, Detroit, Pittsburgh, Brooklyn, New York, Philadelphia,Wash-
ington, Boston, Baltimore, and Chicago. The series netted about $12,000
for each team. Although by 1886 the series had become a more or less
established fixture, it came to an end in r890 because soon thereafter the
AA and NL commenced another trade war. If the series proved nothing
else, it demonstrated the equality of AA teams on the playing field. The
powerful St. Louis Browns, managed by young Charles Comiskey, won
four consecutive pennants (1885-88) and a postseason championship from
the NL pennant winner in 1886.
The AA departed from the NL not only by aggressivelyand openly seek-
ing the patronage of ethnics and workingmen but by fieldingblack players
on one of its teams. Unofficial bans had prevented blacks from playing
in either the National Association or the National League, but as early
as 1872 a black player, John "Bud" Fowler, played on a white pro team
located in New Castle, Pennsylvania. For a dozen years he performed in
obscurity before surfacing again in 1884 on the roster of a club in Still-
water, Minnesota, in the Northwestern League. "The poor fellow's skin is
against him," reported Sporting Life at the end of the 1885 season. "With
his splendid abilities he would long ago have been on some good club had
his color been white instead of black. Those who know say there is no
better second baseman in the country." In the mid-I88os the color line
briefly relaxed. Along with Fowler, at leasr fifty-four other blacks played
on racially integrated professional teams between 1883 and 1898. Among
them were a pair of brothers, Moses and Welday Walker, who played in
1884 with Toledo of the AA. But the Walkers lasted only one campaign.
The season of 1887 was a turning point for race relations in hasehall.
During that summer, several events signaled a retreat from integration that
would end by the turn of the century in the total exclusion of blacks from
professional white baseball. The biggest blow came in the International
League, a top-flight minor league in which six of its ten teams fielded black
players. "How far will the mania for engaging colored players go!" queried
Sporting Life. InJuly, in the face of protests from some of the white players,
the league banned the admission of any more blacks into the circuit. Only
a few days later Cap Anson refused to allow his White Stockings ro take
the field against Newark, an International League team, in an exhibition
contest unless George Srovey, Newark's star black hurJer, was kept out of
 Q

THE FIRST PROFESSIONAL LEAGUES

59

the game. Although Srovey won a record-shartering thirty-three games, he

was dropped by Newark at the end of the season. After r887 conditions
rapidly worsened, climaxing in the complete exclusion of blacks from white
professional teams. The banning of blacks in white professional baseball
corresponded in time with a more general implementation of segregation
in the United States.

GJ G G

In the meantime, as the r880s closed, both the NL and AA faced new chal-
lenges. Internecine warfare threatened the A!'(s very existence. Although
Von dec Abe on several occasions lent financial aid to his less fortunate
fellow AA owners, he also embarked on a personal vendetta against the
Brooklyn Bridegrooms (so named because several of the players got mar-
ried, an unusual occurrence in an age when the overwhelming majority
of the players were bachelors). When the association chose a puppet of
Von der Ahe as president in r890, Brooklyn and Cincinnati angrily pulled
out of the AA and joined the NL. To accommodate the two new clubs,
the NL conveniently ignored the Tripartite Agreement that it had signed
in r882. But from the standpoint of the owners in both leagues, an even
more ominous shadow fell across baseball. In r890, the players launched
a formidable uprising of their own.

_____________ rt'III