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Deformation Mech
Deformation Mech
Deformation(mechanics)
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Thisarticleisaboutdeformationinmechanics.Fortheterm'suseinengineering,seeDeformation
(engineering).
Deformationincontinuummechanicsisthe
transformationofabodyfrom
areferenceconfigurationto
acurrentconfiguration.[1]Aconfigurationisa
setcontainingthepositionsofallparticlesof
thebody.
Adeformationmaybecausedbyexternal
loads,[2]bodyforces(such
asgravityorelectromagneticforces),or
changesintemperature,moisturecontent,or
chemicalreactions,etc. Thedeformationofathinstraightrodintoaclosedloop.Thelengthof
Strainisadescriptionofdeformationinterms therodremainsalmostunchangedduringthedeformation,which
indicatesthatthestrainissmall.Inthisparticularcaseofbending,
ofrelativedisplacementofparticlesinthe
displacementsassociatedwithrigidtranslationsandrotationsofmaterial
bodythatexcludesrigidbodymotions. elementsintherodaremuchgreaterthandisplacementsassociatedwith
Differentequivalentchoicesmaybemadefor straining.
Continuummechanics
Laws [show]
Solidmechanics [hide]
ormationCompatibilityFinitestrainInfinitesimalstrainElasticity(linear)PlasticityBendingHooke'slawMaterialfailuretheoryFracturemechanics
Contactmechanics(frictional)
Fluidmechanics [show]
Rheology [show]
Scientists [show]
theexpressionofastrainfielddependingonwhetheritisdefinedwithrespecttotheinitialorthefinal
configurationofthebodyandonwhetherthemetrictensororitsdualisconsidered.
Inacontinuousbody,adeformationfieldresultsfromastressfieldinducedbyappliedforcesorisduetochanges
inthetemperaturefieldinsidethebody.Therelationbetweenstressesandinducedstrainsisexpressed
byconstitutiveequations,e.g.,Hooke'slawforlinearelasticmaterials.Deformationswhicharerecoveredafterthe
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stressfieldhasbeenremovedarecalledelasticdeformations.Inthiscase,thecontinuumcompletelyrecovers
itsoriginalconfiguration.Ontheotherhand,irreversibledeformationsremainevenafterstresseshavebeen
removed.Onetypeofirreversibledeformationisplasticdeformation,whichoccursinmaterialbodiesafter
stresseshaveattainedacertainthresholdvalueknownastheelasticlimitoryieldstress,andaretheresultofslip,
ordislocationmechanismsattheatomiclevel.Anothertypeofirreversibledeformationisviscousdeformation,
whichistheirreversiblepartofviscoelasticdeformation.
Inthecaseofelasticdeformations,theresponsefunctionlinkingstraintothedeformingstressisthecompliance
tensorofthematerial.
Contents[hide]
1 Strain
1.1 Strainmeasures
1.1.1 Engineeringstrain
1.1.2 Stretchratio
1.1.3 Truestrain
1.1.4 Greenstrain
1.1.5 Almansistrain
1.2 Normalandshearstrain
1.2.1 Normalstrain
1.2.2 Shearstrain
1.3 Metrictensor
2 Descriptionofdeformation
2.1 Affinedeformation
2.2 Rigidbodymotion
3 Displacement
3.1 Displacementgradienttensor
4 Examplesofdeformations
4.1 Planedeformation
4.1.1 Isochoricplanedeformation
4.1.2 Simpleshear
5 Seealso
6 References
7 Furtherreading
Strain [ edit ]
Ithasbeen
suggestedthatthis
sectionbesplitout
intoanotherarticle
titledStrain
measures.
(Discuss)(September
2013)
Seealso:StressmeasuresandStrainrate
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Strainisameasureofdeformationrepresentingthedisplacementbetweenparticlesinthebodyrelativetoa
referencelength.
Ageneraldeformationofabodycanbeexpressedintheformx=F(X)whereXisthereferencepositionof
materialpointsinthebody.Suchameasuredoesnotdistinguishbetweenrigidbodymotions(translationsand
rotations)andchangesinshape(andsize)ofthebody.Adeformationhasunitsoflength.
Wecould,forexample,definestraintobe
whereIistheidentitytensor.Hencestrainsaredimensionlessandareusuallyexpressedasadecimalfraction,
apercentageorinpartspernotation.Strainsmeasurehowmuchagivendeformationdifferslocallyfromarigid
bodydeformation.[3]
Astrainisingeneralatensorquantity.Physicalinsightintostrainscanbegainedbyobservingthatagivenstrain
canbedecomposedintonormalandshearcomponents.Theamountofstretchorcompressionalongmaterial
lineelementsorfibersisthenormalstrain,andtheamountofdistortionassociatedwiththeslidingofplanelayers
overeachotheristheshearstrain,withinadeformingbody.[4]Thiscouldbeappliedbyelongation,shortening,or
volumechanges,orangulardistortion.[5]
Thestateofstrainatamaterialpointofacontinuumbodyisdefinedasthetotalityofallthechangesinlengthof
materiallinesorfibers,thenormalstrain,whichpassthroughthatpointandalsothetotalityofallthechangesin
theanglebetweenpairsoflinesinitiallyperpendiculartoeachother,theshearstrain,radiatingfromthispoint.
However,itissufficienttoknowthenormalandshearcomponentsofstrainonasetofthreemutually
perpendiculardirections.
Ifthereisanincreaseinlengthofthematerialline,thenormalstrainiscalledtensilestrain,otherwise,ifthereis
reductionorcompressioninthelengthofthematerialline,itiscalledcompressivestrain.
Strainmeasures [ edit ]
Dependingontheamountofstrain,orlocaldeformation,theanalysisofdeformationissubdividedintothree
deformationtheories:
Finitestraintheory,alsocalledlargestraintheory,largedeformationtheory,dealswithdeformationsinwhich
bothrotationsandstrainsarearbitrarilylarge.Inthiscase,theundeformedanddeformedconfigurationsof
thecontinuumaresignificantlydifferentandacleardistinctionhastobemadebetweenthem.Thisis
commonlythecasewithelastomers,plasticallydeformingmaterialsandotherfluidsandbiologicalsofttissue.
Infinitesimalstraintheory,alsocalledsmallstraintheory,smalldeformationtheory,smalldisplacementtheory,
orsmalldisplacementgradienttheorywherestrainsandrotationsarebothsmall.Inthiscase,theundeformed
anddeformedconfigurationsofthebodycanbeassumedidentical.Theinfinitesimalstraintheoryisusedin
theanalysisofdeformationsofmaterialsexhibitingelasticbehavior,suchasmaterialsfoundinmechanicaland
civilengineeringapplications,e.g.concreteandsteel.
Largedisplacementorlargerotationtheory,whichassumessmallstrainsbutlargerotationsand
displacements.
Ineachofthesetheoriesthestrainisthendefineddifferently.Theengineeringstrainisthemostcommon
definitionappliedtomaterialsusedinmechanicalandstructuralengineering,whicharesubjectedtoverysmall
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deformations.Ontheotherhand,forsomematerials,e.g.elastomersandpolymers,subjectedtolarge
deformations,theengineeringdefinitionofstrainisnotapplicable,e.g.typicalengineeringstrainsgreaterthan
1%,[6]thusothermorecomplexdefinitionsofstrainarerequired,suchasstretch,logarithmicstrain,Greenstrain,
andAlmansistrain.
Engineeringstrain [ edit ]
TheCauchystrainorengineeringstrainisexpressedastheratiooftotaldeformationtotheinitialdimensionof
thematerialbodyinwhichtheforcesarebeingapplied.Theengineeringnormalstrainorengineeringextensional
strainornominalstraineofamateriallineelementorfiberaxiallyloadedisexpressedasthechangein
lengthLperunitoftheoriginallengthLofthelineelementorfibers.Thenormalstrainispositiveifthematerial
fibersarestretchedandnegativeiftheyarecompressed.Thus,wehave
whereeistheengineeringnormalstrain,Listheoriginallengthofthefiberandlisthefinallengthofthefiber.
Measuresofstrainareoftenexpressedinpartspermillionormicrostrains.
Thetrueshearstrainisdefinedasthechangeintheangle(inradians)betweentwomateriallineelementsinitially
perpendiculartoeachotherintheundeformedorinitialconfiguration.Theengineeringshearstrainisdefinedas
thetangentofthatangle,andisequaltothelengthofdeformationatitsmaximumdividedbytheperpendicular
lengthintheplaneofforceapplicationwhichsometimesmakesiteasiertocalculate.
Stretchratio [ edit ]
Thestretchratioorextensionratioisameasureoftheextensionalornormalstrainofadifferentialline
element,whichcanbedefinedateithertheundeformedconfigurationorthedeformedconfiguration.Itisdefined
astheratiobetweenthefinallengthlandtheinitiallengthLofthematerialline.
Theextensionratioisapproximatelyrelatedtotheengineeringstrainby
Thisequationimpliesthatthenormalstrainiszero,sothatthereisnodeformationwhenthestretchisequalto
unity.
Thestretchratioisusedintheanalysisofmaterialsthatexhibitlargedeformations,suchaselastomers,whichcan
sustainstretchratiosof3or4beforetheyfail.Ontheotherhand,traditionalengineeringmaterials,suchas
concreteorsteel,failatmuchlowerstretchratios.
Truestrain [ edit ]
Thelogarithmicstrain,alsocalled,truestrainorHenckystrain[7](althoughnothingisparticularly"true"aboutit
comparedtoothervaliddefinitionsofstrain).Consideringanincrementalstrain(Ludwik)
thelogarithmicstrainisobtainedbyintegratingthisincrementalstrain:
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whereeistheengineeringstrain.Thelogarithmicstrainprovidesthecorrectmeasureofthefinalstrainwhen
deformationtakesplaceinaseriesofincrements,takingintoaccounttheinfluenceofthestrainpath.[4]
Greenstrain [ edit ]
Mainarticle:Finitestraintheory
TheGreenstrainisdefinedas:
Almansistrain [ edit ]
Mainarticle:Finitestraintheory
TheEulerAlmansistrainisdefinedas
Normalandshearstrain [ edit ]
Strainsareclassifiedaseithernormalorshear.
Anormalstrainisperpendiculartothefaceofan
element,andashearstrainisparalleltoit.These
definitionsareconsistentwiththoseofnormal
stressandshearstress.
Normalstrain [ edit ]
ForanisotropicmaterialthatobeysHooke'slaw,
anormalstresswillcauseanormalstrain.Normal
strainsproducedilations.
Consideratwodimensional,infinitesimal,rectangular
materialelementwithdimensionsdxdy,which,
afterdeformation,takestheformofarhombus.From Twodimensionalgeometricdeformationofaninfinitesimal
thegeometryoftheadjacentfigurewehave materialelement.
and
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Forverysmalldisplacementgradientsthesquaresofthederivativesarenegligibleandwehave
Thenormalstraininthexdirectionoftherectangularelementisdefinedby
Similarly,thenormalstrainintheyandzdirectionsbecomes
Shearstrain [ edit ]
Theengineeringshearstrain(xy)isdefinedasthechangeinangle Shearstrain
betweenlinesACandAB.Therefore, Commonsymbols or
SIunit 1,orradian
Fromthegeometryofthefigure,wehave Derivationsfrom = G
otherquantities
Forsmalldisplacementgradientswehave
Forsmallrotations,i.e.andare1wehavetan,tan.Therefore,
thus
Byinterchangingxandyanduxanduy,itcanbeshownthatxy=yx.
Similarly,fortheyzandxzplanes,wehave
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Thetensorialshearstraincomponentsoftheinfinitesimalstraintensorcanthenbeexpressedusingthe
engineeringstraindefinition,,as
Metrictensor [ edit ]
Mainarticle:FinitestraintheoryDeformationtensorsincurvilinearcoordinates
Astrainfieldassociatedwithadisplacementisdefined,atanypoint,bythechangeinlengthofthetangent
vectorsrepresentingthespeedsofarbitrarilyparametrizedcurvespassingthroughthatpoint.Abasicgeometric
result,duetoFrchet,vonNeumannandJordan,statesthat,ifthelengthsofthetangentvectorsfulfiltheaxioms
ofanormandtheparallelogramlaw,thenthelengthofavectoristhesquarerootofthevalueofthequadratic
formassociated,bythepolarizationformula,withapositivedefinitebilinearmapcalledthemetrictensor.
Descriptionofdeformation [ edit ]
Deformationisthechangeinthemetricpropertiesofacontinuousbody,meaningthatacurvedrawnintheinitial
bodyplacementchangesitslengthwhendisplacedtoacurveinthefinalplacement.Ifnoneofthecurves
changeslength,itissaidthatarigidbodydisplacementoccurred.
Itisconvenienttoidentifyareferenceconfigurationorinitialgeometricstateofthecontinuumbodywhichall
subsequentconfigurationsarereferencedfrom.Thereferenceconfigurationneednotbeonethebodyactually
willeveroccupy.Often,theconfigurationatt=0isconsideredthereferenceconfiguration,0(B).The
configurationatthecurrenttimetisthecurrentconfiguration.
Fordeformationanalysis,thereferenceconfigurationisidentifiedasundeformedconfiguration,andthecurrent
configurationasdeformedconfiguration.Additionally,timeisnotconsideredwhenanalyzingdeformation,thusthe
sequenceofconfigurationsbetweentheundeformedanddeformedconfigurationsareofnointerest.
ThecomponentsXiofthepositionvectorXofaparticleinthereferenceconfiguration,takenwithrespecttothe
referencecoordinatesystem,arecalledthematerialorreferencecoordinates.Ontheotherhand,the
componentsxiofthepositionvectorxofaparticleinthedeformedconfiguration,takenwithrespecttothespatial
coordinatesystemofreference,arecalledthespatialcoordinates
Therearetwomethodsforanalysingthedeformationofacontinuum.Onedescriptionismadeintermsofthe
materialorreferentialcoordinates,calledmaterialdescriptionorLagrangiandescription.Aseconddescriptionisof
deformationismadeintermsofthespatialcoordinatesitiscalledthespatialdescriptionorEuleriandescription.
Thereiscontinuityduringdeformationofacontinuumbodyinthesensethat:
Thematerialpointsformingaclosedcurveatanyinstantwillalwaysformaclosedcurveatanysubsequent
time.
Thematerialpointsformingaclosedsurfaceatanyinstantwillalwaysformaclosedsurfaceatany
subsequenttimeandthematterwithintheclosedsurfacewillalwaysremainwithin
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