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Deformation(mechanics)
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Thisarticleisaboutdeformationinmechanics.Fortheterm'suseinengineering,seeDeformation
(engineering).

Deformationincontinuummechanicsisthe
transformationofabodyfrom
areferenceconfigurationto
acurrentconfiguration.[1]Aconfigurationisa
setcontainingthepositionsofallparticlesof
thebody.

Adeformationmaybecausedbyexternal
loads,[2]bodyforces(such
asgravityorelectromagneticforces),or
changesintemperature,moisturecontent,or
chemicalreactions,etc. Thedeformationofathinstraightrodintoaclosedloop.Thelengthof
Strainisadescriptionofdeformationinterms therodremainsalmostunchangedduringthedeformation,which
indicatesthatthestrainissmall.Inthisparticularcaseofbending,
ofrelativedisplacementofparticlesinthe
displacementsassociatedwithrigidtranslationsandrotationsofmaterial
bodythatexcludesrigidbodymotions. elementsintherodaremuchgreaterthandisplacementsassociatedwith
Differentequivalentchoicesmaybemadefor straining.

Continuummechanics

Laws [show]

Solidmechanics [hide]
ormationCompatibilityFinitestrainInfinitesimalstrainElasticity(linear)PlasticityBendingHooke'slawMaterialfailuretheoryFracturemechanics
Contactmechanics(frictional)

Fluidmechanics [show]

Rheology [show]

Scientists [show]

theexpressionofastrainfielddependingonwhetheritisdefinedwithrespecttotheinitialorthefinal
configurationofthebodyandonwhetherthemetrictensororitsdualisconsidered.

Inacontinuousbody,adeformationfieldresultsfromastressfieldinducedbyappliedforcesorisduetochanges
inthetemperaturefieldinsidethebody.Therelationbetweenstressesandinducedstrainsisexpressed
byconstitutiveequations,e.g.,Hooke'slawforlinearelasticmaterials.Deformationswhicharerecoveredafterthe

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stressfieldhasbeenremovedarecalledelasticdeformations.Inthiscase,thecontinuumcompletelyrecovers
itsoriginalconfiguration.Ontheotherhand,irreversibledeformationsremainevenafterstresseshavebeen
removed.Onetypeofirreversibledeformationisplasticdeformation,whichoccursinmaterialbodiesafter
stresseshaveattainedacertainthresholdvalueknownastheelasticlimitoryieldstress,andaretheresultofslip,
ordislocationmechanismsattheatomiclevel.Anothertypeofirreversibledeformationisviscousdeformation,
whichistheirreversiblepartofviscoelasticdeformation.

Inthecaseofelasticdeformations,theresponsefunctionlinkingstraintothedeformingstressisthecompliance
tensorofthematerial.

Contents[hide]
1 Strain
1.1 Strainmeasures
1.1.1 Engineeringstrain
1.1.2 Stretchratio
1.1.3 Truestrain
1.1.4 Greenstrain
1.1.5 Almansistrain
1.2 Normalandshearstrain
1.2.1 Normalstrain
1.2.2 Shearstrain
1.3 Metrictensor
2 Descriptionofdeformation
2.1 Affinedeformation
2.2 Rigidbodymotion
3 Displacement
3.1 Displacementgradienttensor
4 Examplesofdeformations
4.1 Planedeformation
4.1.1 Isochoricplanedeformation
4.1.2 Simpleshear
5 Seealso
6 References
7 Furtherreading

Strain [ edit ]

Ithasbeen
suggestedthatthis
sectionbesplitout
intoanotherarticle
titledStrain
measures.
(Discuss)(September
2013)

Seealso:StressmeasuresandStrainrate

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Strainisameasureofdeformationrepresentingthedisplacementbetweenparticlesinthebodyrelativetoa
referencelength.

Ageneraldeformationofabodycanbeexpressedintheformx=F(X)whereXisthereferencepositionof
materialpointsinthebody.Suchameasuredoesnotdistinguishbetweenrigidbodymotions(translationsand
rotations)andchangesinshape(andsize)ofthebody.Adeformationhasunitsoflength.

Wecould,forexample,definestraintobe

whereIistheidentitytensor.Hencestrainsaredimensionlessandareusuallyexpressedasadecimalfraction,
apercentageorinpartspernotation.Strainsmeasurehowmuchagivendeformationdifferslocallyfromarigid
bodydeformation.[3]

Astrainisingeneralatensorquantity.Physicalinsightintostrainscanbegainedbyobservingthatagivenstrain
canbedecomposedintonormalandshearcomponents.Theamountofstretchorcompressionalongmaterial
lineelementsorfibersisthenormalstrain,andtheamountofdistortionassociatedwiththeslidingofplanelayers
overeachotheristheshearstrain,withinadeformingbody.[4]Thiscouldbeappliedbyelongation,shortening,or
volumechanges,orangulardistortion.[5]

Thestateofstrainatamaterialpointofacontinuumbodyisdefinedasthetotalityofallthechangesinlengthof
materiallinesorfibers,thenormalstrain,whichpassthroughthatpointandalsothetotalityofallthechangesin
theanglebetweenpairsoflinesinitiallyperpendiculartoeachother,theshearstrain,radiatingfromthispoint.
However,itissufficienttoknowthenormalandshearcomponentsofstrainonasetofthreemutually
perpendiculardirections.

Ifthereisanincreaseinlengthofthematerialline,thenormalstrainiscalledtensilestrain,otherwise,ifthereis
reductionorcompressioninthelengthofthematerialline,itiscalledcompressivestrain.

Strainmeasures [ edit ]

Dependingontheamountofstrain,orlocaldeformation,theanalysisofdeformationissubdividedintothree
deformationtheories:

Finitestraintheory,alsocalledlargestraintheory,largedeformationtheory,dealswithdeformationsinwhich
bothrotationsandstrainsarearbitrarilylarge.Inthiscase,theundeformedanddeformedconfigurationsof
thecontinuumaresignificantlydifferentandacleardistinctionhastobemadebetweenthem.Thisis
commonlythecasewithelastomers,plasticallydeformingmaterialsandotherfluidsandbiologicalsofttissue.
Infinitesimalstraintheory,alsocalledsmallstraintheory,smalldeformationtheory,smalldisplacementtheory,
orsmalldisplacementgradienttheorywherestrainsandrotationsarebothsmall.Inthiscase,theundeformed
anddeformedconfigurationsofthebodycanbeassumedidentical.Theinfinitesimalstraintheoryisusedin
theanalysisofdeformationsofmaterialsexhibitingelasticbehavior,suchasmaterialsfoundinmechanicaland
civilengineeringapplications,e.g.concreteandsteel.
Largedisplacementorlargerotationtheory,whichassumessmallstrainsbutlargerotationsand
displacements.

Ineachofthesetheoriesthestrainisthendefineddifferently.Theengineeringstrainisthemostcommon
definitionappliedtomaterialsusedinmechanicalandstructuralengineering,whicharesubjectedtoverysmall

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deformations.Ontheotherhand,forsomematerials,e.g.elastomersandpolymers,subjectedtolarge
deformations,theengineeringdefinitionofstrainisnotapplicable,e.g.typicalengineeringstrainsgreaterthan
1%,[6]thusothermorecomplexdefinitionsofstrainarerequired,suchasstretch,logarithmicstrain,Greenstrain,
andAlmansistrain.

Engineeringstrain [ edit ]

TheCauchystrainorengineeringstrainisexpressedastheratiooftotaldeformationtotheinitialdimensionof
thematerialbodyinwhichtheforcesarebeingapplied.Theengineeringnormalstrainorengineeringextensional
strainornominalstraineofamateriallineelementorfiberaxiallyloadedisexpressedasthechangein
lengthLperunitoftheoriginallengthLofthelineelementorfibers.Thenormalstrainispositiveifthematerial
fibersarestretchedandnegativeiftheyarecompressed.Thus,wehave

whereeistheengineeringnormalstrain,Listheoriginallengthofthefiberandlisthefinallengthofthefiber.
Measuresofstrainareoftenexpressedinpartspermillionormicrostrains.

Thetrueshearstrainisdefinedasthechangeintheangle(inradians)betweentwomateriallineelementsinitially
perpendiculartoeachotherintheundeformedorinitialconfiguration.Theengineeringshearstrainisdefinedas
thetangentofthatangle,andisequaltothelengthofdeformationatitsmaximumdividedbytheperpendicular
lengthintheplaneofforceapplicationwhichsometimesmakesiteasiertocalculate.

Stretchratio [ edit ]

Thestretchratioorextensionratioisameasureoftheextensionalornormalstrainofadifferentialline
element,whichcanbedefinedateithertheundeformedconfigurationorthedeformedconfiguration.Itisdefined
astheratiobetweenthefinallengthlandtheinitiallengthLofthematerialline.

Theextensionratioisapproximatelyrelatedtotheengineeringstrainby

Thisequationimpliesthatthenormalstrainiszero,sothatthereisnodeformationwhenthestretchisequalto
unity.

Thestretchratioisusedintheanalysisofmaterialsthatexhibitlargedeformations,suchaselastomers,whichcan
sustainstretchratiosof3or4beforetheyfail.Ontheotherhand,traditionalengineeringmaterials,suchas
concreteorsteel,failatmuchlowerstretchratios.

Truestrain [ edit ]

Thelogarithmicstrain,alsocalled,truestrainorHenckystrain[7](althoughnothingisparticularly"true"aboutit
comparedtoothervaliddefinitionsofstrain).Consideringanincrementalstrain(Ludwik)

thelogarithmicstrainisobtainedbyintegratingthisincrementalstrain:

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whereeistheengineeringstrain.Thelogarithmicstrainprovidesthecorrectmeasureofthefinalstrainwhen
deformationtakesplaceinaseriesofincrements,takingintoaccounttheinfluenceofthestrainpath.[4]

Greenstrain [ edit ]
Mainarticle:Finitestraintheory

TheGreenstrainisdefinedas:

Almansistrain [ edit ]
Mainarticle:Finitestraintheory

TheEulerAlmansistrainisdefinedas

Normalandshearstrain [ edit ]

Strainsareclassifiedaseithernormalorshear.
Anormalstrainisperpendiculartothefaceofan
element,andashearstrainisparalleltoit.These
definitionsareconsistentwiththoseofnormal
stressandshearstress.

Normalstrain [ edit ]

ForanisotropicmaterialthatobeysHooke'slaw,
anormalstresswillcauseanormalstrain.Normal
strainsproducedilations.

Consideratwodimensional,infinitesimal,rectangular
materialelementwithdimensionsdxdy,which,
afterdeformation,takestheformofarhombus.From Twodimensionalgeometricdeformationofaninfinitesimal
thegeometryoftheadjacentfigurewehave materialelement.

and

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Forverysmalldisplacementgradientsthesquaresofthederivativesarenegligibleandwehave

Thenormalstraininthexdirectionoftherectangularelementisdefinedby

Similarly,thenormalstrainintheyandzdirectionsbecomes

Shearstrain [ edit ]

Theengineeringshearstrain(xy)isdefinedasthechangeinangle Shearstrain
betweenlinesACandAB.Therefore, Commonsymbols or
SIunit 1,orradian

Fromthegeometryofthefigure,wehave Derivationsfrom = G
otherquantities

Forsmalldisplacementgradientswehave

Forsmallrotations,i.e.andare1wehavetan,tan.Therefore,

thus

Byinterchangingxandyanduxanduy,itcanbeshownthatxy=yx.

Similarly,fortheyzandxzplanes,wehave

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Thetensorialshearstraincomponentsoftheinfinitesimalstraintensorcanthenbeexpressedusingthe
engineeringstraindefinition,,as

Metrictensor [ edit ]
Mainarticle:FinitestraintheoryDeformationtensorsincurvilinearcoordinates

Astrainfieldassociatedwithadisplacementisdefined,atanypoint,bythechangeinlengthofthetangent
vectorsrepresentingthespeedsofarbitrarilyparametrizedcurvespassingthroughthatpoint.Abasicgeometric
result,duetoFrchet,vonNeumannandJordan,statesthat,ifthelengthsofthetangentvectorsfulfiltheaxioms
ofanormandtheparallelogramlaw,thenthelengthofavectoristhesquarerootofthevalueofthequadratic
formassociated,bythepolarizationformula,withapositivedefinitebilinearmapcalledthemetrictensor.

Descriptionofdeformation [ edit ]

Deformationisthechangeinthemetricpropertiesofacontinuousbody,meaningthatacurvedrawnintheinitial
bodyplacementchangesitslengthwhendisplacedtoacurveinthefinalplacement.Ifnoneofthecurves
changeslength,itissaidthatarigidbodydisplacementoccurred.

Itisconvenienttoidentifyareferenceconfigurationorinitialgeometricstateofthecontinuumbodywhichall
subsequentconfigurationsarereferencedfrom.Thereferenceconfigurationneednotbeonethebodyactually
willeveroccupy.Often,theconfigurationatt=0isconsideredthereferenceconfiguration,0(B).The
configurationatthecurrenttimetisthecurrentconfiguration.

Fordeformationanalysis,thereferenceconfigurationisidentifiedasundeformedconfiguration,andthecurrent
configurationasdeformedconfiguration.Additionally,timeisnotconsideredwhenanalyzingdeformation,thusthe
sequenceofconfigurationsbetweentheundeformedanddeformedconfigurationsareofnointerest.

ThecomponentsXiofthepositionvectorXofaparticleinthereferenceconfiguration,takenwithrespecttothe
referencecoordinatesystem,arecalledthematerialorreferencecoordinates.Ontheotherhand,the
componentsxiofthepositionvectorxofaparticleinthedeformedconfiguration,takenwithrespecttothespatial
coordinatesystemofreference,arecalledthespatialcoordinates

Therearetwomethodsforanalysingthedeformationofacontinuum.Onedescriptionismadeintermsofthe
materialorreferentialcoordinates,calledmaterialdescriptionorLagrangiandescription.Aseconddescriptionisof
deformationismadeintermsofthespatialcoordinatesitiscalledthespatialdescriptionorEuleriandescription.

Thereiscontinuityduringdeformationofacontinuumbodyinthesensethat:

Thematerialpointsformingaclosedcurveatanyinstantwillalwaysformaclosedcurveatanysubsequent
time.
Thematerialpointsformingaclosedsurfaceatanyinstantwillalwaysformaclosedsurfaceatany
subsequenttimeandthematterwithintheclosedsurfacewillalwaysremainwithin

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