Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein
Einstein redirects here. For other uses, see Albert Einstein published more than 300 scientic papers along
Einstein (disambiguation) and Einstein (disambiguation). with over 150 non-scientic works.[10][13] On 5 Decem-
ber 2014, universities and archives announced the re-
Albert Einstein (/anstan/; German: [albt an- lease of Einsteins papers,
[4] comprising more than 30,000
unique documents.[14][15] Einsteins intellectual achieve-
tan]; 14 March 1879 18 April 1955) was a German-
born theoretical physicist. He developed the general the- ments and originality have made the word Einstein syn-
onymous with "genius".[16]
ory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics
(alongside quantum mechanics).[1][5]:274 Einsteins work
is also known for its inuence on the philosophy of sci-
ence.[6][7] Einstein is best known in popular culture for 1 Biography
his massenergy equivalence formula E = mc2 (which has
been dubbed the worlds most famous equation).[8] He
received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his services
1.1 Early life and education
to theoretical physics, in particular his discovery of the
law of the photoelectric eect, a pivotal step in the evo- See also: Einstein family
lution of quantum theory.[9] Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom
1
2 1 BIOGRAPHY
The discovery and publication in 1987 of an early corre- 1.3 Patent oce
spondence between Einstein and Mari revealed that they
had had a daughter, called Lieserl in their letters, born After graduating in 1900, Einstein spent almost two
in early 1902 in Novi Sad where Mari was staying with frustrating years searching for a teaching post. He ac-
her parents. Mari returned to Switzerland without the quired Swiss citizenship in February 1901,[46] but was
child, whose real name and fate are unknown. Einstein not conscripted for medical reasons. With the help
probably never saw his daughter. The contents of his let- of Marcel Grossmann's father, Einstein secured a job
ter to Mari in September 1903 suggest that the girl was in Bern at the Federal Oce for Intellectual Property,
either adopted or died of scarlet fever in infancy.[35][36] the patent oce,[47][48] as an assistant examiner level
Einstein and Mari married in January 1903. In May III.[49][50] He evaluated patent applications for a variety
1904, their rst son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born in of devices including a gravel sorter and an electrome-
Bern, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born chanical typewriter.[50] In 1903, Einsteins position at the
in Zrich in July 1910. In April they moved to Berlin. Swiss Patent Oce became permanent, although he was
After a few months his wife returned to Zrich with their passed over for promotion until he fully mastered ma-
sons, after learning that Einsteins chief romantic attrac- chine technology.[51]:370
tion was his rst and second cousin Elsa.[37] They di- Much of his work at the patent oce related to ques-
4 1 BIOGRAPHY
Universe Newtonian Ideas Overthrown.[63] In 1922, his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine,
In 1920, he became a Foreign Member of the Royal as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour, as
Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.[64] In 1922, he visited Singapore, Ceylon and Japan, where he gave
Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. After his
for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially rst public lecture, he met the emperor and empress at
for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric eect.[9] the Imperial Palace, where thousands came to watch. In
While the general theory of relativity was still considered a letter to his sons, Einstein described his impression of
somewhat controversial, the citation also does not treat the Japanese as being modest, intelligent, considerate, and
having a true feel for art.[69]
the cited work as an explanation but merely as a discov-
ery of the law, as the idea of photons was considered out- Because of Einsteins travels to the Far East, he was un-
landish and did not receive universal acceptance until the able to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at
1924 derivation of the Planck spectrum by S. N. Bose. the Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922. In
Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Soci- his place, the banquet speech was held by a German diplo-
ety (ForMemRS) in 1921.[1] He also received the Copley mat, who praised Einstein not only as a scientist but also
Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.[1] as an international peacemaker and activist.[70]
On his return voyage, he visited Palestine for 12 days in
what would become his only visit to that region. Einstein
1.5 19211922: Travels abroad was greeted as if he were a head of state, rather than a
physicist, which included a cannon salute upon arriving at
the home of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert
Samuel. During one reception, the building was stormed
by people who wanted to see and hear him. In Einsteins
talk to the audience, he expressed happiness that the Jew-
ish people were beginning to be recognized as a force in
the world.[71]
techs students, Einstein noted that science was often in- wood by the Nazis.[76]:322
clined to do more harm than good.[75]
A month later, Einsteins works were among those universities.[85] Churchill later observed that as a result
targeted by the German Student Union in the Nazi of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered
book burnings, with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph their technical standards and put the Allies technology
Goebbels proclaiming, Jewish intellectualism is ahead of theirs.[85]
dead.[79] One German magazine included him in a list Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, includ-
of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, not ing Turkey's Prime Minister, smet nn, to whom he
yet hanged, oering a $5,000 bounty on his head.[79][81] wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unem-
In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend Max Born, ployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einsteins
who had already emigrated from Germany to England,
letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over
Einstein wrote, "... I must confess that the degree of 1,000 saved individuals.[86]
their brutality and cowardice came as something of a
surprise.[79] After moving to the U.S., he described the Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to
book burnings as a spontaneous emotional outburst extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which pe-
by those who shun popular enlightenment, and more riod Einstein made a number of public appearances de-
than anything else in the world, fear the inuence of men scribing the crisis brewing in Europe. The bill failed
of intellectual independence.[82] to become law, however, and Einstein then accepted an
earlier oer from the Princeton Institute for Advanced
Study, in the U.S., to become a resident scholar.[87]
Church, Oxford where he stayed for three short periods resistance to war. By signing the letter to Roosevelt, he
between May 1931 and June 1933 and was oered a 5 went against his pacist principles.[99] In 1954, a year be-
year Studentship,[90][91] but in 1935 he arrived at the deci-
fore his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Paul-
sion to remain permanently in the United States and apply ing, I made one great mistake in my lifewhen I signed
for citizenship.[87][92] the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom
Einsteins aliation with the Institute for Advanced bombs be made; but there was some justicationthe [100]
Study would last until his death in 1955.[93] He was one of danger that the Germans would make them ...
the four rst selected (two of the others being John von
Neumann and Kurt Gdel) at the new Institute, where 1.7.4 U.S. citizenship
he soon developed a close friendship with Gdel. The
two would take long walks together discussing their work.
Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist.
During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unied
eld theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of
quantum physics, both unsuccessfully.
Einstein in 1947
2.11 General relativity and the equivalence uence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light ex-
panding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the
principle amount of deection of light by massive bodies. Thus,
the theoretical prediction of general relativity can for the
Main article: History of general relativity rst time be tested experimentally.[150]
See also: Principle of equivalence, Theory of relativity,
and Einstein eld equations
General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was
developed by Albert Einstein between 1907 and 1915.
According to general relativity, the observed gravitational 2.11.1 Gravitational waves
attraction between masses results from the warping of
space and time by those masses. General relativity has In 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves,[151][152]
developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics.
ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate as
It provides the foundation for the current understanding waves, traveling outward from the source, transporting
of black holes, regions of space where gravitational at-
energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of grav-
traction is so strong that not even light can escape. itational waves is possible under general relativity due to
As Albert Einstein later said, the reason for the devel- its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a -
opment of general relativity was that the preference of nite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of
inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfac- gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot
tory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which pos-
of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more tulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate
satisfactory.[147] Consequently, in 1907 he published an at innite speed.
article on acceleration under special relativity. In that ar-
The rst, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came
ticle titled On the Relativity Principle and the Conclu-
in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely or-
sions Drawn from It, he argued that free fall is really in-
biting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16.[153] The explana-
ertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules
tion of the decay in their orbital period was that they
of special relativity must apply. This argument is called
were emitting gravitational waves.[153][154] Einsteins pre-
the equivalence principle. In the same article, Einsteindiction was conrmed on 11 February 2016, when re-
also predicted the phenomena of gravitational time dila-searchers at LIGO published the rst observation of grav-
tion, gravitational red shift and deection of light.[148][149]
itational waves,[155] on Earth, exactly one hundred years
In 1911, Einstein published another article On the In- after the prediction.[153][156][157][158][159]
14 2 SCIENTIFIC CAREER
2.12 Hole argument and Entwurf theory apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a
model of the expanding universe in which the density
Main article: Hole argument of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation
of matter, a process he associated with the cosmological
constant.[172][173] As he stated in the paper, In what fol-
While developing general relativity, Einstein became
lows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equa-
confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He
tion (1) that can account for Hubbels [sic] facts, and in
formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a
which the density is constant over time ... If one consid-
general relativistic eld theory is impossible. He gave up
ers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will
looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations, and
be continually leaving it. For the density to remain con-
searched for equations that would be invariant under gen-
stant, new particles of matter must be continually formed
eral linear transformations only.
in the volume from space.
In June 1913, the Entwurf (draft) theory was the re-
It thus appears that Einstein considered a steady-state
sult of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was
model of the expanding universe many years before
a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more dicult than
Hoyle, Bondi and Gold.[174][175] However, Einsteins
general relativity, with the equations of motion supple-
steady-state model contained a fundamental aw and he
mented by additional gauge xing conditions. After more
quickly abandoned the idea.[172][173][176]
than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that
the hole argument was mistaken[160] and abandoned the
theory in November 1915.
2.14 Modern quantum theory
Main article: Schrdinger equation
2.13 Cosmology Einstein was displeased with quantum theory and quan-
Main article: Cosmology
In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein tum mechanics (a theory he had helped create), despite its
referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his acceptance by other physicists, stating that God is not
biggest blunder. The astrophysicist Mario Livio has re- playing at dice.[177] Einstein continued to maintain his
cently cast doubt on this claim, suggesting that it may be disbelief in the theory, and attempted unsuccessfully to
exaggerated.[169] disprove it until he died at the age of 76.[178] In 1917, at
In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist Cormac the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an
O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that, shortly after article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the pos-
learning of Hubbles observations of the recession of the sibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that
nebulae, Einstein considered a steady-state model of the makes possible the maser and the laser.[179] This article
universe.[170][171] In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of
2.17 Unied eld theory 15
light would only be consistent with Plancks distribution best description of the energy momentum distribution in a
law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons gravitational eld. This approach has been echoed by Lev
would be enhanced statistically compared to the emis- Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become
sion of light into an empty mode. This paper was enor- standard.
mously inuential in the later development of quantum The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was
mechanics, because it was the rst paper to show that the heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrdinger and oth-
statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Einstein ers.
discovered Louis de Broglie's work, and supported his
ideas, which were received skeptically at rst. In another
major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equa- 2.17 Unied eld theory
tion for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was
the HamiltonJacobi equation of mechanics. This paper Main article: Classical unied eld theories
would inspire Schrdingers work of 1926.
Einstein at his oce, University of Berlin, 1920 The 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels, a gathering of the
worlds top physicists. Einstein in the center.
This formulation is a form of second quantization, and Niels Bohr who were two of its founders. Their de-
but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin bates are remembered because of their importance to the
Schrdinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic philosophy of science.[186][187][188] Their debates would
properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrdinger urged inuence later interpretations of quantum mechanics.
Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein
declined the invitation.[183]
2.24 EinsteinPodolskyRosen paradox
2.22.3 Einstein refrigerator Main article: EPR paradox
Main article: Einstein refrigerator
In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum
mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one of
In 1926, Einstein and his former student Le Szilrd co- two entangled particles would aect the other. He noted,
invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refriger- along with his collaborators, that by performing dierent
ator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolution- measurements on the distant particle, either of position or
ary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an momentum, dierent properties of the entangled partner
input.[184] On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent 1,781,541 could be discovered without disturbing it in any way.
was awarded to Albert Einstein and Le Szilrd for the
refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put He then used a hypothesis of local realism to conclude
into commercial production, and the most promising of that the other particle had these properties already deter-
their patents were acquired by the Swedish company mined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible
Electrolux.[185] to determine what the answer to a position or momentum
measurement would be, without in any way disturbing the
particle, then the particle actually has values of position
2.23 Bohr versus Einstein or momentum.
This principle distilled the essence of Einsteins objec-
Main article: BohrEinstein debates tion to quantum mechanics. As a physical principle, it
The BohrEinstein debates were a series of public dis- was shown to be incorrect when the Aspect experiment
of 1982 conrmed Bells theorem, which had been pro-
mulgated in 1964.
3 Non-scientic legacy
While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and
adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were
included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew Uni-
versity. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters
to be made available to the public, but requested that it
not be done until twenty years after her death (she died
in 1986[189] ). Albert Einstein had expressed his interest
in the profession of plumber and was made an honorary
member of the Plumbers and Steamtters Union.[190][191]
Barbara Wol, of The Hebrew Universitys Albert Ein-
stein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500
pages of private correspondence written between 1912
and 1955.[192]
Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, li-
censes the use of his name and associated imagery, as
agent for the university.[193]
4 In popular culture
Einstein and Niels Bohr, 1925
Main article: Albert Einstein in popular culture
putes about quantum mechanics between Albert Einstein
18 6 PUBLICATIONS
In the period before World War II, The New Yorker pub- doi:10.1002/andp.19053220607 via Wiley Online
lished a vignette in their The Talk of the Town feature Library
saying that Einstein was so well known in America that
he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him Einstein, Albert (1905b) [Completed 30 April and
to explain that theory. He nally gured out a way submitted 20 July 1905]. Written at Berne, Switzer-
to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers land, published by Wyss Buchdruckerei. Eine neue
Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Bestimmung der Molekldimensionen [A new deter-
Einstein.[194] mination of molecular dimensions] (PDF). Disserta-
tionen Universitt Zrich (PhD Thesis) (in German).
Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many Zurich, Switzerland: ETH Zrich (published 2008).
novels, lms, plays, and works of music.[195] He is a fa- doi:10.3929/ethz-a-000565688 via ETH Biblio-
vorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent- thek.
minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive
hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time Einstein, Albert (1905c) [Manuscript received: 11
magazines Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was a May 1905], written at Berne, Switzerland, "ber die
cartoonists dream come true.[196] von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wrme
geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flssigkeiten
suspendierten Teilchen [On the Motion Required
5 Awards and honors by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat of
Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid]
Main article: Einsteins awards and honors (PDF), Annalen der Physik (Berlin) (in German),
Hoboken, NJ (published 10 March 2006), 322
(8), pp. 549560, Bibcode:1905AnP...322..549E,
Einstein received numerous awards and honors and in doi:10.1002/andp.19053220806 via Wiley Online
1922 he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics Library
for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially
for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric eect. Einstein, Albert (1905d) [Manuscript received:
None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by 30 June 1905], written at Berne, Switzerland,
Alfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Krper [On the
awarded to Einstein in 1922.[9] Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies] (PDF), An-
nalen der Physik (Berlin) (in German), Hobo-
ken, NJ (published 10 March 2006), 322 (10),
6 Publications pp. 891921, Bibcode:1905AnP...322..891E,
doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004 via Wiley Online
Library
The following publications by Albert Einstein
are referenced in this article. A more complete Einstein, Albert (1905e) [Manuscript received: 27
list of his publications may be found at List of September 1905], written at Berne, Switzerland,
scientic publications by Albert Einstein. Ist die Trgheit eines Krpers von seinem En-
ergieinhalt abhngig?" [Does the Inertia of a Body
Einstein, Albert (1901) [Manuscript received: Depend Upon Its Energy Content?] (PDF), An-
16 December 1900], written at Zurich, Switzer- nalen der Physik (Berlin) (in German), Hobo-
land, Folgerungen aus den Capillarittser- ken, NJ (published 10 March 2006), 323 (13),
scheinungen [Conclusions Drawn from the pp. 639641, Bibcode:1905AnP...323..639E,
Phenomena of Capillarity] (PDF), Annalen doi:10.1002/andp.19053231314 via Wiley Online
der Physik (Berlin) (in German), Hoboken, Library
NJ (published 14 March 2006), 309 (3),
pp. 513523, Bibcode:1901AnP...309..513E, Einstein, Albert (1915) [Published 25 November
doi:10.1002/andp.19013090306 via Wiley 1915], Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation [The
Online Library Field Equations of Gravitation] (Online page im-
ages), Kniglich Preussische Akademie der Wis-
Einstein, Albert (1905a) [Manuscript received: senschaften (in German), Berlin, Germany, pp.
18 March 1905], written at Berne, Switzerland, 844847 via ECHO, Cultural Heritage Online,
"ber einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
Lichtes betreenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt
[On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Pro- Einstein, Albert (1917a), Kosmologische Betrach-
duction and Transformation of Light] (PDF), An- tungen zur allgemeinen Relativittstheorie [Cos-
nalen der Physik (Berlin) (in German), Hobo- mological Considerations in the General Theory
ken, NJ (published 10 March 2006), 322 (6), of Relativity], Kniglich Preussische Akademie der
pp. 132148, Bibcode:1905AnP...322..132E, Wissenschaften, Berlin (in German)
19
Einstein, Albert (1917b), Zur Quantentheorie der Times, Melville, New York: AIP, American Inst. of
Strahlung [On the Quantum Mechanics of Radia- Physics, ISBN 0-7354-0359-7
tion], Physikalische Zeitschrift (in German), 18, pp.
121128, Bibcode:1917PhyZ...18..121E Einstein, Albert (May 1949), Why Socialism?
(Reprise)", Monthly Review, New York: Monthly
Einstein, Albert (1923) [First published 1923, Review Foundation (published May 2009), vol. 61
in English 1967]. Written at Gothenburg. no. 01 (May), archived from the original on 11 Jan-
Grundgedanken und Probleme der Relativitts- uary 2006, retrieved 16 January 2006 via Month-
theorie [Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the lyReview.org
Theory of Relativity] (PDF) (Speech). Lecture
delivered to the Nordic Assembly of Naturalists Einstein, Albert (1950), On the Generalized The-
at Gothenburg, 11 July 1923. Nobel Lectures, ory of Gravitation, Scientic American, CLXXXII
Physics 19011921 (in German (1923) and English (4): 1317, doi:10.1038/scienticamerican0450-13
(1967)). Stockholm: Nobelprice.org (published 3
Einstein, Albert (1954), Ideas and Opinions, New
February 2015) via Nobel Media AB 2014.
York: Random House, ISBN 0-517-00393-7
Einstein, Albert (1924) [Published 10 July 1924],
Einstein, Albert (1969), Albert Einstein, Hedwig und
Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases
Max Born: Briefwechsel 19161955 (in German),
[Quantum theory of monatomic ideal gases] (On-
Munich: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung, ISBN
line page images), Sitzungsberichte der Preussis-
3-88682-005-X
chen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-
Mathematische Klasse (in German), Munich, Ger- Einstein, Albert (1979), Autobiographical Notes,
many: Kniglich Preussische Akademie der Wis- Paul Arthur Schilpp (Centennial ed.), Chicago:
senschaften, Berlin: 261267 via ECHO, Cultural Open Court, ISBN 0-87548-352-6. The chasing a
Heritage Online, Max Planck Institute for the His- light beam thought experiment is described on pages
tory of Science. First of a series of papers on this 4851.
topic.
Collected Papers: Stachel, John; Martin J. Klein; A.
Einstein, Albert (12 March 1926) [Cover Date 1 J. Kox; Michel Janssen; R. Schulmann; Diana Ko-
March 1926], written at Berlin, Die Ursache der mos Buchwald; et al., eds. (21 July 2008) [Pub-
Manderbildung der Flulufe und des sogenannten lished between 19872006], The Collected Papers
Baerschen Gesetzes [On Baers law and meanders of Albert Einstein, Einsteins Writings, Princeton
in the courses of rivers], Die Naturwissenschaften (in University Press, 110. Further information about
German), Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag, the volumes published so far can be found on the
14 (11): 223224, Bibcode:1926NW.....14..223E, webpages of the Einstein Papers Project and on the
doi:10.1007/BF01510300, ISSN 1432-1904 via Princeton University Press Einstein Page
SpringerLink
Einstein, Albert (1926b), written at Berne, Switzer-
land, R. Frth, ed., Investigations on the Theory of 7 See also
the Brownian Movement (PDF), Translated by A.
D. Cowper, USA: Dover Publications (published Political views of Albert Einstein
1956), ISBN 978-1-60796-285-4, retrieved 2015-
01-04 Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein
Jewish Nobel laureates [11] Overbye, Dennis (24 November 2015). A Century Ago,
Einsteins Theory of Relativity Changed Everything.
List of peace activists New York Times. Retrieved 24 November 2015.
Relativity priority dispute [12] Paul S. Boyer; Melvyn Dubofsky (2001). The Oxford
Companion to United States History. Oxford University
Sticky bead argument Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-19-508209-8.
Albert Einstein House in Princeton [13] Paul Arthur Schilpp, ed. (1951), Albert Einstein:
Philosopher-Scientist, II, New York: Harper and Broth-
Albert Einstein Wikipedia book ers Publishers (Harper Torchbook edition), pp. 730746.
His non-scientic works include: About Zionism: Speeches
and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein (1930), Why
War?" (1933, co-authored by Sigmund Freud), The World
8 Notes & references As I See It (1934), Out of My Later Years (1950), and a
book on science for the general reader, The Evolution of
8.1 Notes Physics (1938, co-authored by Leopold Infeld).
[1] During the German Empire, citizenship were exclusively [14] Stachel (2008).
subject of one of the 27 Bundesstaaten [15] Overbye, Dennis (4 December 2014). Thousands of Ein-
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Times. Retrieved 2015-01-04.
8.2 References
[16] Result of WordNet Search for Einstein, 3.1, The Trustees
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[2] Heilbron, John L., ed. (2003). The Oxford Companion to
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[19] Barry R. Parker, Einstein: The Passions of a Scientist,
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[21] Stachel (2008), vol. 1 (1987), doc. 5.
6.
[22] Mehra, Jagdish (2001), Albert Einsteins rst paper, The
[5] Fujia Yang; Joseph H. Hamilton (2010). Modern Atomic Golden Age of Physics, World Scientic, ISBN 981-02-
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[33] Stachel (2002), pp. 4956. [55] Einstein (1905b), Meinem Freunde Herr Dr. Marcel
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[34] Martinez, A. A., Handling evidence in history: the case cel Grossmann)".
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at the Wayback Machine. ular Dimensions.
[35] J. Renn & R. Schulmann, Albert Einstein/Mileva Mari: [57] Associate Professor at the University of Zurich und pro-
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[37] Stachel (1966).
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11.1 Text 29
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30 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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2351
11.2 Images
File:1919_eclipse_positive.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/1919_eclipse_positive.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: F. W. Dyson, A. S. Eddington, and C. Davidson, A Determination of the Deection of Light by the Suns
Gravitational Field, from Observations Made at the Total Eclipse of May 29, 1919 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical or Physical Character (1920): 291-333, on 332. Original artist: F. W. Dyson, A. S.
11.2 Images 31