Professional Documents
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Microbiological Guidelines Microbiological Guidelines: For For
Microbiological Guidelines Microbiological Guidelines: For For
August 2014
(revised)
Centre for Food Safety
This set of Guidelines is published by
the Centre for Food Safety, Food and Environmental Hygiene Department.
The technical content has been developed
in consultation with
the Expert Committee on Food Safety
of the Food and Environmental Hygiene Department.
Correspondence:
Risk Assessment Section
Centre for Food Safety
Food and Environmental Hygiene Department
43/F, Queensway Government Offices,
66 Queensway, Hong Kong.
Tel: (852) 2867 5699 Fax: (852) 2893 3547
Email: [email protected]
Microbiological Guidelines for Food
Preface
As part of the Governments ongoing efforts to enhance food safety for the
protection of public health and consumer interest, the Administration conducts
review on microbiological standards and guidelines for food and amends them
where necessary by taking international/ national standards and guidelines as
well as local situation into consideration.
-i-
Ad Hoc Working Group on Microbiological Safety of Food 2011
Local Experts
Dr CHEN Sheng Assistant Professor,
Department of Applied Biology & Chemical Technology,
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
- ii -
Prof. Margaret IP Professor,
Department of Microbiology,
The Chinese University of Hong Kong
- iii -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
References 22
- iv -
Introduction to Microbiological Guidelines for Food
- Recommendations for Food Safety Monitoring in Hong Kong-
-1-
listed in Chapters I to III respectively.
-2-
Chapter I. Microbiological Criteria for Ready-to-eat Food in General
- Aerobic Colony Count (ACC) and Hygiene Indicator Organisms
Introduction
-3-
5. The microbiological criteria for ACC and hygiene indicator organisms
are covered in this Chapter while those for specific foodborne pathogens are
included in Chapter II.
(b) Borderline: test results that are not unsatisfactory but are also not
satisfactory, are on the upper limit of acceptability and which indicate the
potential for development of public health problems and of unacceptable
risk.
-4-
Table 1.1 Summary on suggested actions (not exclusive) to be taken
by officers for each class in response to the results of ACC, hygiene
indicator organisms and specific foodborne pathogens in ready-to-eat
food in general
ACC Hygiene indicator Specific foodborne
organisms pathogens
(NB: Perform risk
assessment before any
further action)
Satisfactory No action required.
Borderline Consider the source Parties concerned (e.g. Risk will increase
of the food vendors) should be proportional to the levels
(producer/ retailer advised to review detected. Parties
etc.) and the stage of cooking and all hygiene concerned (e.g. vendors)
shelf life before procedures including should be advised to
determining action. cleaning. Consider investigate and find out
If other samples taking investigative the causes and to adopt
from the same food samples. Action measures to improve the
source are also of should be proportional situation. Consider
borderline quality, to the levels detected. taking investigative food
further investigation samples.
may be appropriate.
Unsatisfactory Consider Parties concerned (e.g. Immediate investigation;
investigating reasons vendors) should be Parties concerned (e.g.
for high count. advised to review vendors) should be
cooking and all hygiene instructed to stop sale of
procedures including food item in question,
cleaning. Take investigate immediately
investigative food and find out the causes
samples. and to adopt measures to
improve the situation.
Take investigative food
samples. In addition,
warning letters, source
tracing and other
enforcement actions
should be considered.
-5-
Aerobic Colony Count (ACC)
Aerobic colony count (ACC), also known as the total viable count
or standard plate count, is the total number of bacteria able to grow in an
aerobic environment in moderate temperature. It is an indicator of quality, not
safety, and cannot directly contribute towards a safety assessment of
ready-to-eat food. In addition, ACCs can provide useful information about
the general quality and remaining shelf life of the food in question, and thus
highlight potential problems of storage and handling since production; however
they are not deemed a priority in a risk based analysis.1
-6-
Table 1.2 Guidance on the interpretation of results for ACC levels [30C/48 hours] in various ready-to-eat foods
Food Category a Examples Result (colony-forming unit (cfu)/g)
Satisfactory Borderline Unsatisfactory
1. Ambient stable canned, bottled, Canned products such as tuna, salmon, corned beef, soups, stews, desserts
cartoned and pouched foods immediately and fruit; ultra-high-temperature (UHT) products <10 N/A Note c
after removal from container b
2. Foods cooked immediately prior to Takeaway food, burgers, kebabs, sausages, pizza , ready meals (cook/chill
<103 103-<105 105
sale or consumption and cook/freeze) after regeneration, dim sum, rice, noodles
3. Cooked foods chilled but with Whole pies, sausage rolls, samosas, flans, quiches, chicken portions;
minimum handling prior to sale or canned ham requiring refrigeration, pasteurised foods including fruit juice
<104 104-<107 107
consumption; canned pasteurised foods and soups; desserts
requiring refrigeration
4. Bakery and confectionery products Cakes without dairy cream, soup powders, milk powder, powdered dairy
without dairy cream, powdered foods products, other reconstituted powdered foods ready to eat after <104 104-<106 106
reconstitution or warming
5. Cooked foods chilled but with some Sliced meats, cut pies, pt, sandwiches without salad, hot smoked fish
handling prior to sale or consumption (mackerel, etc.), molluscs, crustaceans and other shellfish out of shell,
<105 105-<107 107
non-prepackaged cold beverages with solid ingredients but without dairy
components (iced green tea with red bean, etc.)
6. Non-fermented dairy products and Most butter, fresh cheese (mascarpone, paneer), trifle with dairy cream,
dairy desserts, mayonnaise and satay, cakes with dairy cream, non-prepackaged cold beverages with solid
<105 105-<107 107
mayonnaise based dressings, cooked ingredients and dairy components (iced milk tea with pearl tapioca, etc.)
sauces
7. Food mixed with dressings, dips, Coleslaw, dips, taramasalata, houmous
<106 106-<107 107
pastes
8. Extended shelf life food products Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) or vacuum packed products, e.g.
<106 106-<108 108 d
requiring refrigeration meat, fish, fruit and vegetables
9. Raw ready-to-eat meat and fish, cold Sushi, sashimi, smoked salmon, gravalax
<106 106-<107 107
smoked fish
10. Preserved food products pickled, Pickled or salted fish, cooked shellfish in vinegar, vegetables in vinegar or
N/A N/A N/A
marinated or salted oil, herbs, spices
11. Dried foods Fruits, berries, vine fruits, nuts, sunflower seeds, herbs, spices, dried fish N/A N/A N/A
12. Fresh fruit and vegetables, products Whole fruit, pre-prepared fruit salads, vegetable crudits, salads,
containing raw vegetables sandwiches with salad, mixed commodity salads containing raw
N/A N/A N/A
vegetables, non-prepackaged cold beverages with solid and fresh fruit
ingredients (chilled fresh mango juice with pomelo and sago, etc.)
-7-
Food Category a Examples Result (colony-forming unit (cfu)/g)
Satisfactory Borderline Unsatisfactory
13. Fermented, cured and dried meats, Continental sausages/salamis, jerky, sauerkraut, olives, bean curd,
N/A N/A N/A
fermented vegetables, ripened cheeses cheddar, stilton, brie, fermented milk drinks and butter, yoghurt, etc
14. Cooked meat products that may be Chinese poached chickens, roasted ducks and roasted pork
displayed for sale at ambient temperature
<105 105-<106 106
for a limited period of time e.g. siu-mei
and lo-mei
N/A denotes Not applicable
Notes:
a. For food items that are not included in these food categories, their ACC level should be interpreted taking into account the raw ingredients used, and the
nature and degree of processing before sale.
b. Most products are normally sterile when sampled from the container but if they are consumed after subsequent further preparation then assess them as
Category 5.
c. These products are Unsatisfactory if spore forming anaerobes are present but these require special tests for detection and enumeration. Spore forming
aerobes are also usually absent in foods that have been cooked in their container but low levels may occur in canned fish products.
d. Check for signs of spoilage. Lactic acid bacteria can grow well at refrigeration temperatures and do not grow well aerobically. Spoilage will eventually
occur at a level of around 109 cfu/g due to the production of lactic acid. If the predominant organisms are Gram-negative bacteria, spoilage is likely to be
noticeable at 107 to 108 cfu/g, e.g. taints, discolouration, and slime produced by pseudomonads, slime produced by other Gram-negative bacteria.
-8-
Hygiene Indicator Organisms
-9-
Table 1.3 Guidance on the interpretation of results for hygiene indicator organisms in ready-to-eat food in general
Result (colony-forming unit (cfu)/g)
Hygiene indicator organism
Satisfactory Borderline Unsatisfactory
* a
Enterobacteriaceae <102 102 - <104 > 104
Escherichia coli b <20 20 - <102 > 102
*
To be implemented when the testing capacity for this criterion is ready.
Notes:
a. The criterion listed for Enterobacteriaceae applies to heat treated food, fishes, and cheeses (excluding cheeses ripened using a culture of Hafnia alvei or
Proteus vulgaris). It does not apply to fresh fruit and vegetables or food that contains fresh fruit and vegetables as ingredients e.g. sandwiches with
salad, because these food types can contain high levels of Enterobacteriaceae as part of their normal micro-flora.
b. Criterion does not apply to cheeses made from raw milk.
- 10 -
Chapter II. Microbiological Criteria for Ready-to-eat Food in General
Specific Foodborne Pathogens
2. The symptoms of food poisoning vary from nausea and vomiting (e.g.
caused by Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin), through diarrhoea and
dehydration (e.g. caused by Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp.) to
severe conditions such as septicaemia, meningitis, paralysis and death (e.g.
caused by invasive Listeria monocytogenes and in the rare cases of botulism
caused by Clostridium botulinum toxin). The infective doses of different
foodborne pathogens vary from less than ten to more than 108 organisms.
General information on the common foodborne pathogens included in this set
of guidelines is provided in Appendix I.
- 11 -
Table 2.1 Guidance on the interpretation of results for specific foodborne pathogens in ready-to-eat food in general
Result (colony-forming unit (cfu)/g unless otherwise specified)
Criterion Unsatisfactory:
Satisfactory Borderline potentially injurious to health and/or
unfit for human consumption
Campylobacter spp. (thermotolerant) n.d. in 25g N/A Detected in 25g
Escherichia coli O157 (and *other Shiga n.d. in 25g N/A Detected in 25g
toxin-producing E. coli (STEC))
Salmonella spp. n.d. in 25g N/A Detected in 25g
Vibrio cholerae (O1 and O139) n.d. in 25g N/A Detected in 25g
Shigella spp. a n.d. in 25g N/A Detected in 25g
Listeria monocytogenes
For refrigerated food b (excluding frozen n.d. in 25g c N/A Detected in 25g c
food) or food intended for infants
For other ready-to-eat food < 10 d 10 - < 100 d > 100 d
Vibrio parahaemolyticus < 20 20 - < 103 > 103
Staphylococcus aureus and other < 20 20 - <104 > 104
coagulase-positive staphylococci
Clostridium perfringens < 10 10 - <104 > 104
Bacillus cereus < 103 103 - < 105 > 105
n.d. = not detected; N/A = not applicable
*
To be implemented when the testing capacity for this criterion is ready.
Notes:
a. Shigella spp. would be tested in the cases of food poisoning investigation or food complaint if the organism is implicated but not recommended for routine
surveillance.
b. This criterion applies to all refrigerated food (excluding frozen food) unless there is scientific evidence supporting that the food concerned does not
support the growth of Listeria monocytogenes under refrigeration. Reference can be made to the Codex Guidelines on the Application of General
- 12 -
Principles of Food Hygiene to the Control of Listeria monocytogenes in Food (CAC/GL 61-2007).
c. ISO 11290-1:1996/Amd 1:2004. Other methods that provide equivalent sensitivity, reproducibility, and reliability can be employed if they have been
appropriately validated.
d. ISO 11290-2:1998/Amd 1:2004. Other methods that provide equivalent sensitivity, reproducibility, and reliability can be employed if they have been
appropriately validated.
- 13 -
Chapter III. Microbiological Criteria for Specific Food Items
Introduction
3. Some food items that are included in Chapter III (such as bottled
waters, edible ice, non-bottled drinks, ready-to-eat spices and live or raw
bivalve molluscs intended for direct consumption) also belong to ready-to-eat
food. Hence, the microbiological criteria stipulated in Chapters I and II are
applicable to these ready-to-eat food as well except for criteria that are laid
down in this chapter.
Definition
- 14 -
directly from natural or drilled sources from underground water in which the
original microbiological purity and chemical components are guaranteed. It
is also packaged close to the point of emergence of the source under hygienic
condition and not subjected to any treatment other than those permitted.7
- 15 -
the sensory characteristics of live bivalve molluscs. Raw bivalve molluscs
are marketed in a frozen or chilled state.5
- 16 -
Interpretation of Microbiological Results
- 17 -
1. Microbiological Criteria for Bottled Waters
- 18 -
2. Microbiological Criteria for Edible Ice
Table 3.3 Microbiological criteria for ice from ice manufacturing plants
and packaged ice from retail outlets
Parameters Limits
ACC [37C/48 hours] <500 cfu/ml
E. coli n.d. in 100ml
Coliform bacteria n.d. in 100ml
cfu = colony-forming unit
n.d. = not detected
Table 3.4 Microbiological criteria for loose ice from retail outlets
Parameters Limits
ACC [37C/48 hours] <1,000 cfu/ml
E. coli n.d. in 100ml
Coliform bacteria <100 cfu/100ml
cfu = colony-forming unit
n.d. = not detected
- 19 -
4. Microbiological Criteria for Powdered Formulae for Infants and
Young Children
These products are to be distinguished from ready-to-feed liquid
formulae. Ready-to-feed liquid formulae for infants and young
children shall be a commercially sterile product.
- 20 -
5. Microbiological Criterion for Treated, Ready-to-eat Spices
Table 3.10 Salmonella spp. criterion for live or raw bivalve molluscs
Microorganisms n c m
Salmonella spp. 5 0 n.d. in 25g
This criterion will not be included in routine surveillance unless for products with considerable
manual handling.
Where n = number of samples that must conform to the criteria; c = the maximum allowable
number of defective sample units in a 2-class plan; m = a microbiological limit which, in a 2-class
plan separates good quality from defective quality.
n.d. = not detected
- 21 -
References
4. Codex, 1995. Code of Hygienic Practice for Spices and Dried Aromatic
Plants (CAC/RCP 42-1995).
http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/27/CXP_042e.pdf
(Accessed 4 March 2014).
5. Codex, 2013. Standard for Live and Raw Bivalve Molluscs (CODEX
STAN 292-2008, amendment 2013).
http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/11109/CXS_292e.pdf
(Accessed 4 March 2014).
- 22 -
Appendix I: Common Foodborne Pathogens
Salmonella spp. Typhoid fever: less than 103 Range from Food, water or
organisms 7 21days beverages contaminated
with faeces and urine of
infected people e.g.
shellfish (particularly
oysters), raw fruits and
vegetables and
unpasteurised milk and
dairy products
Nontyphoidal Salmonellosis: As few Range from Inadequately cooked
- 23 -
Common Infective dose* Incubation Associated foods**
foodborne period**
pathogens
as 1 organism 6 72 meat and poultry
hours; products; contaminated
usually raw eggs, egg products,
about fruits and vegetables;
12 36 and unpasteurised dairy
hours products
Shigella spp. As few as 10 organisms Usually 1 Contaminated raw food
3 days, but e.g. salads and
can be up to sandwiches
7 days
Staphylococcus Less than 1g preformed heat stable Range from Any food contaminated
aureus toxin ; greater than 105 organisms per 30 minutes by food handlers with
gram in food is needed to produce to 8 hours; skin infection or nasal
this toxin level usually 2 4 carriers, especially those
hours food involving manual
handling and no
reheating afterwards e.g.
sandwiches, cakes and
pastries
Vibrio Risk assessment states that the Usually 12 Seafood, salted food e.g.
parahaemolyticus median infective dose is 108 24 hours salted vegetables and
organisms; however, evidence from smoked knuckles or
an outbreak suggests an infectious other food
dose >1,000-fold less than that cross-contaminated by
seafood
Vibrio cholerae About 106 organisms Range from Contaminated fish and
a few hours shellfish
to 5 days,
usually 2 3
days
* Adapted from the U.S. FDA Bad Bug Book, Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural
Toxins Handbook, 2nd edition. (Accessed 4 March 2014).
** Adapted from (1) Diagnosis and Management of Foodborne Illnesses A Primer for Physicians and
Other Health Care Professionals: Foodborne Illnesses Table: Bacterial Agents. AMA/CDC/FDA/US
Department of Agriculture, February 2004. and (2) Communicable Diseases of Centre for Health
Protection. (Accessed 4 March 2014).
Spore-forming
Bacillus cereus
3. B. cereus can form spores which are able to resist heat and survive the cooking
temperature. It can either grow in the presence or absence of oxygen. The optimal
1
growth temperature for B. cereus is around 30C to 37C. At temperature below 10C, B.
- 24 -
cereus is unable to grow and produce toxin that causes vomiting.1 Therefore, controlling
storage temperature of food is important to prevent foodborne disease caused by this
bacterium.
4. There are two types of food poisoning caused by different toxins produced by B.
cereus. Emetic (cause vomiting) intoxication is caused by a heat-stable toxin (which can
resist 126C for 90 minutes) preformed in food.1 Symptoms including nausea and vomiting
occur in the first few hours after ingestion of incriminated food, followed by diarrhoea in
some cases. Another type of poisoning is diarrhoeal, which is characterised by watery
diarrhoea associated with abdominal pain. This type resembles the illness caused by
Clostridium perfringens in which the toxins are produced in the intestine by ingested spores
or vegetative cells. The illnesses of these two types of food poisoning are generally mild
and persist no longer than 24 hours.2,3
Campylobacter spp.
5. Campylobacter spp. contain different species and subspecies, of which the most
frequently reported in human disease is C. jejuni, and less commonly C. coli.4,5,6 These and
the other campylobacters are widely distributed in most warm-blooded animals such as
poultry, cattle, pigs, sheep and dogs.5 C. jejuni has a very varied reservoir but is
predominantly associated with poultry. C. coli is predominantly found in pigs.7
Clostridium perfringens
- 25 -
found in food, particularly gravies.8
10. Heat of cooking can activate the germination of C. perfringens spores which
survive in anaerobic conditions like inside internal cavities, rolls of meat, stuffed poultry, or
gravies. The organism can then multiply in the area where oxygen level is low; cooling of
food at ambient temperature for a long period allows rapid multiplication of the bacterium.8
Intake of the food containing large number of the organisms allows sufficient amount to
survive the passage through stomach, which subsequently form spores accompanied with
toxin in the intestine.2 Hence, foods prepared in bulk, especially cooked meat and poultry
dishes, and stored at ambient temperatures with a long cooling period after cooking are at
high risk.
12. Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) is a group of E. coli that produces one or
more verocytotoxins (VT), also known as Shiga-like toxins. This group of bacteria is also
called Verocytotoxin-producing E. coli (VTEC). 10 STEC is transmitted to humans
primarily through consumption of contaminated foods, such as raw or uncooked ground
meat products, contaminated fruits and vegetables and direct contact with animals and their
environment. Direct person-to-person transmission through the oral-faecal route can also
occur.
- 26 -
haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) in humans. Other non-O157 serogroups, including
O26, O91, O103, O104, O111, O113, O117, O118, O121, O128 and O145, have been
associated with occasional outbreaks of human disease, and others may be associated with
sporadic cases.11
14. The illness caused by STEC infection usually present with diarrhoea, often
bloody diarrhoea, abdominal cramps and vomiting. In serious cases, the infection may lead
to HUS which is a type of kidney failure. Symptoms of HUS vary, depending on the
patient's health and the extent of the infection. People of any age can become infected.
Very young children and the elderly are more likely to develop severe illness, but even
healthy older children and young adults can become seriously ill.10
15. In general, the non-O157 serogroup is less likely to cause severe illness than E.
coli O157:H7; however, some non-O157 STEC serogroups can cause the most severe
manifestations of STEC illness.10
Listeria monocytogenes
17. Ready-to-eat foods with long shelf lives under refrigeration such as soft cheeses
and ready-to-eat poultry and meat pose the greatest risk as L. monocytogenes may grow to
significant numbers at refrigeration temperatures when given sufficient time.14,15 However,
the growth of L. monocytogenes is not supported under freezing condition.
18. Foodborne listeriosis is a relatively rare but serious disease with high fatality rates
(20%30%).12 Listeria predominantly affects foetuses and newborns, elderly and
immunocompromised individuals such as patients with AIDS, diabetes mellitus or cancer.16
A person with listeriosis usually presents with fever, headache and sometimes
gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. Asymptomatic
infection probably occurs in most people. However, serious infections of L. monocytogenes
- 27 -
are manifested by meningitis and septicaemia.17 Even though symptoms may be relatively
mild in mothers, the passage of L. monocytogenes through the placenta may cause
miscarriage or stillbirth or her newborn resulting in septicaemia and meningitis.2
Salmonella spp.
19. Salmonellae are bacteria found in the intestinal tract of man and animals. More
than 2,500 serotypes of salmonellae have been identified and Salmonella Enteritidis,
followed by Salmonella Typhimurium, are the most commonly isolated serotypes in Hong
Kong.
21. Poultry and poultry products are commonly linked to Salmonella and the
bacterium can also be found in eggs. Eggs may be contaminated via two different routes:
vertical transmission through the ovary or transovarian or horizontal transmission through
the shell or trans-shell.19 Through vertical transmission, bacteria are introduced from
infected reproductive tissues to eggs prior to shell formation. Horizontal transmission
usually occurs from faecal contamination on the egg shell as the eggs are released via the
cloaca, where the excretion of faeces also takes place. It also includes contamination
through environmental vectors, such as farmers, pets and rodents. Under appropriate
conditions, bacteria on the shell can move across shell into the egg content.20
22. Enteric fever (also known as typhoid fever) is an illness caused by S. Typhi
and S. Paratyphi type A, B and C.21 Symptoms of typhoid fever include high fever,
diarrhoea or constipation, headache and sometimes a rash.2 It can be complicated by
intestinal bleeding and perforation, impaired consciousness and even death if untreated.
On the other hand, symptoms of nontyphoidal salmonellosis, which is caused by
serotypes other than S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi, include nausea, vomiting, abdominal
cramps, diarrhoea, fever, headache.2
Shigella spp.
23. Shigella bacteria are found naturally in the intestinal tracts of humans and other
- 28 -
primates. People who eat food or drink water contaminated by Shigella can become ill
with bacillary dysentery (shigellosis). In addition, the bacteria may spread from person to
person by physical contact. Contamination through food handler is one of the major
sources, and food can also become contaminated by flies carrying sewage or faeces.
24. Severity of illnesses varies with the host and the type of Shigella. The illness is
characterised by sudden onset of fever, diarrhoea with abdominal cramps and nausea or
vomiting. The stool may contain blood and mucus (dysentery). Mild and asymptomatic
illness can occur. Complications include toxic dilation of large intestine and acute kidney
disease. Shigella dysenteriae type 1 is of particular concern in developing countries, where
it spreads in epidemics and is often associated with serious disease and complications. The
casefatality rates have been as high as 20% among hospitalised cases.22 Locally, the most
23
common species isolated from patients is S. sonnei.
Staphylococcus aureus
26. Even though most cases of infection are caused by S. aureus, other
coagulase-positive Staphylococcus species, such as S. intermedius can also produce
enterotoxins that cause food poisoning.25 The bacterium can be destroyed by normal
cooking procedures or pasteurisation, while the toxins produced are more resistant to heat;
they may survive in food causing food poisoning.24
27. The most common way of contamination of food is by contact with food
handlers hands, especially in the cases where the food is handled subsequent to cooking.
Prolonged storage without refrigeration allows the bacteria to grow and form toxins. Since
the toxins are heat stable, the incriminated food may also cause food poisoning even if it is
further heat treated.
28. The main symptoms of Staphylococcus aureus poisoning are nausea, vomiting,
- 29 -
retching, abdominal cramping and prostration, often accompanied by diarrhoea and
sometimes fever. In severe cases, patients may present with headache, muscle cramping,
severe fluid and electrolytes loss with weakness and low blood pressure or shock. Patients
usually recover within two days, but can take longer in severe cases that may require
hospitalisation.26
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
29. Vibrio parahaemolyticus, similar to other Vibrio spp., occurs naturally in marine,
coastal, and estuarine (brackish) environments. The bacterium is characterised by its rapid
growth under favourable conditions.27
30. Raw, partially treated, and recontaminated seafood products have been associated
with the foodborne illnesses caused by V. parahaemolyticus. These seafood or seafood
products include crayfish, lobster, shrimp, fish-balls, boiled surf clams, fried mackerel,
mussel, tuna, seafood salad, raw oysters and clams.27
31. In addition, seafood products without proper storage during summer months are
of higher risk. A correlation exists between the probability of infection and warmer months
2
of the year. Contaminated V. parahaemolyticus will multiply on seafood products without
proper refrigeration, which increases the possibility of infection.
Vibrio cholerae
33. V. cholerae, unlike most other Vibrio spp, can survive in freshwater environment.
It is indigenous to fresh and brackish water environments worldwide. Among more than
200 O serogroups of V. cholerae, strains belonging to O1 and O139 serotypes generally
possess the ctx gene and produce cholera toxin (CT) and are responsible for epidemic
cholera. Ingested bacteria can attach to the small intestine and produce CT which results in
the watery diarrhoea associated with cholera. Epidemic cholera is confined mainly to
developing countries with warm climates. Some strains belonging to the O serogroups
other than O1 and O139 (referred as non-O1/non-O139) can cause foodborne diarrhoea that
is milder than cholera.27
- 30 -
34. Cholera is exclusively a human disease, in which contamination by faeces from
infected individual is a major cause of infection in cholera epidemics. Contamination of
food production environments (including aquaculture ponds) by faeces can indirectly
introduce the bacterium into foods. Seafood, including bivalve molluscs, crustaceans, and
finfish, are most often incriminated in foodborne cholera cases in many countries.27
35. Common symptoms of cholera may vary from a mild, watery diarrhoea to an
acute diarrhoea, with characteristic rice water stools. Other symptoms include vomiting
and dehydration; after severe fluid and electrolyte loss, death may occur.2
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA): Bad Bug Book. Foodborne Pathogenic
Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook. 2nd Edition.
http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodSafety/FoodborneIllness/FoodborneIllnessFood
bornePathogensNaturalToxins/BadBugBook/UCM297627.pdf (Accessed 4 March 2014).
Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ): Agents of Foodborne Illness. 2nd Edition.
http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/Pages/agentsoffoodborneill5155.aspx
(Accessed 4 March 2014).
- 31 -
References to Appendix I
1
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), 2005. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on
Biological Hazards on Bacillus cereus and other Bacillus spp. in Foodstuffs. The EFSA
Journal 175,1-48.
http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/doc/175.pdf (Accessed 4 March 2014).
2
U.S. FDA, 2012. Bad Bug Book. Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural
Toxins Handbook. 2nd Edition.
http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodSafety/FoodborneIllness/FoodborneIllnessFoodbo
rnePathogensNaturalToxins/BadBugBook/UCM297627.pdf (Accessed 4 March 2014).
3
American Public Health Association (APHA) and World Health Organization (WHO),
2004. Foodborne Intoxications: III Bacillus cereus Food Intoxication. p. 216 217. In
Control of Communicable Disease Manual. 18th Edition. Edited by D. L. Heymann.
American Pubic Health Association. U.S.
4
Allos B. M. and M.J. Blaser, 2010. Campylobacter jejuni and Related Species. p.
2793-2802. In GL Mandell, JE Bennett, R Dolin (eds.) Principles and Practices of
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Appendix II: Guidance Notes on Sampling Plan
for Microbiological Analysis
Sampling plan
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Two-class attributes plan:
Under this plan, sample(s) is (are) taken from the lot and tested.
As only one microbiological limit m is involved in this plan,
therefore two classes of attributes, m & > m, could be identified.
The maximum allowable number of sample(s) that yielded
unsatisfactory test results is represented by c. The lot will be
accepted or rejected as illustrated in the following diagram:
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Choice of sampling plan
Organism in concern
Measured by
No
presence or
absence (+/-) tests
Measured by count or
Yes concentration test
Accept presence of
this organism in
food?
No
Yes
c=0 c>0
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To enhance food safety and improve food quality, more
stringent microbiological limits (by decreasing values of m and/or
M) should be adopted. By changing the value(s) of c and/or n, the
stringency of sampling plan can also be adjusted.
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Microbiological
Guidelines for Food
For ready-to-eat food in
general and specific food items