Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Thinking Through Project
Thinking Through Project
PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
Thinking Through
PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
Guiding Deeper Inquiry
Acquisitions Editors: Debra Stollenwerk and This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Associate Editor: Desire Bartlett
Editorial Assistant: Mayan White
Permissions Editor: Adele Hutchinson
Project Editor: Veronica Stapleton
Copy Editor: Kim Husband
Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Proofreader: Dennis W. Webb
Indexer: Sheila Bodell
Cover Designer: Karine Hovsepian 13 14 15 16 17 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface vii
Acknowledgments xv
About the Authors xvii
W hen Jane was a high school student, her history class took a field
trip to a historical Western town located about 50 miles from her
school. At the local museum, she and her classmates followed a docent
from exhibit to exhibit. They wandered among Native American artifacts,
a display about Chinese miners and gold prospecting, and collections of
19th-century housewares, toys, and farming implements. After the tour,
students were free to stroll the citys wooden boardwalks, visit tourist
shops, and buy treats at an old-time soda fountain. The day stands out as
a fond high school memory when Jane looks back, but not because of any
academic content she learned. The field trip was disconnected from what
was happening back in the classroom.
As an adult and veteran teacher, Jane happened to revisit the same
town. This time, she and her friends wandered off the beaten path and
found themselves at the local pioneer cemetery. Many aspects of that
place piqued their curiosity. They noticed how graves were organized
into separate sections depending on religious affiliation, with one particu-
lar section sporting the largest and most ornate headstones. They won-
dered why so many gravestones were inscribed with 1918 as the year of
death. Even though Chinese laborers made up a large part of the popula-
tion in the towns early years, there was a dearth of Chinese graves. Why
was this so?
Wearing her project-based learning hat, Jane couldnt help but
imagine what a different experience she and her classmates might have
had if they had started their tour at that cemetery. They would have
been full of questions by the time they arrived at the museum. Chances
are they would have ended their visit with a deeper understanding of
pioneer history and a desire to learn more. They would have been
primed for an engaging and academically meaningful project-based
learning experience.
vii
viii THINKING THROUGH PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
own recollections. Think back to your school days and quickly (without
filtering!) focus on an especially vivid, sticky memory.
How would you classify your memorywas it academic, social, extra-
curricular, or interpersonal in nature? Perhaps it involved a field trip,
guest speaker, performance, or other novel event? Maybe it was purely
social. In hindsight, can you tell whether this experience contributed to
any enduring understanding? What did you take away from it?
Take another moment to imagine your current students, years from
now, looking back on their K12 education. Which of todays experi-
ences do you expect will have staying power for them? Will they
remember events that were fun because they were a break from the
regular school day or experiences that whetted their curiosity and
engaged them as thinkers and learners? Can you imagine any of their
experiences becoming a springboard for lifetime of curiosity about the
world around them?
New standards that set more challenging learning goals than those
of the inch-deep, mile-wide traditional curriculum. In the United
States, Common Core State Standards present learning objectives
that address big ideas in a more holistic and interdisciplinary way.
This new approach to standards aligns with the philosophy and best
practices of project-based learning.
Continuing call for students to develop 21st-century skills that will
prepare them for college, careers, and future life challenges. The
Framework for 21st Century Skills calls for students to develop mas-
tery in the 4 Cs: communication, collaboration, creativity, and critical
thinking. We cant expect students to master these essential skills for
Preface ix
the future if they dont start gaining experience with them during
their K12 years. PBL offers arguably the best way to develop these
21st-century skills.
Growing networks of schools that are adopting PBL as a wall-to-
wall strategy for teaching and learning. These schools have been
serving as laboratories for developing best practices in PBL. Many
are eager to share field-tested resources and classroom success sto-
ries, paving the way for others to get a faster start with project-based
learning.
New networks of educators driving their own professional learning.
Connecting via Twitter, Skype, and a host of other tech tools, teach-
ers are coming together around shared interests, including project-
based learning. Many meet weekly on Twitter for a #PBLChat, while
others focus on subject-area innovation. Across these contexts,
teachers are stepping into new leadership roles as influencers and
experts. Many are natural collaborators who bring good thinking to
project design teams.
WHAT TO EXPECT
The book is organized in two sections.
Section One, Inquiry: The Engine of Deep Learning, builds a founda-
tion to help readers see how theory and concepts translate to better think-
ing in PBL. It includes five chapters:
SPECIAL FEATURES
Whether you are reading alone or reading along with colleagues,
whether you are new to project-based learning or a PBL veteran, we
hope the book inspires you to reflect deeply on your own practice.
xii THINKING THROUGH PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
Project Signposts: These just-in-time tips alert readers to try out tools
and strategies that are useful at key points during the PBL process.
Exercises: These do-it-yourself suggestions in Section One are
intended to help readers connect what they are learning to their own
practice. Mini-exercises are building blocks for the ultimate exercise,
which is planning a standards-based, inquiry-rich project that causes
students to operate as experts would when tackling a challenge or
investigation.
Tech Spotlights: Technology spotlights are presented in the subject-
specific chapters of Section Two, highlighting useful technologies
teachers and students can adopt to maximize learning opportunities
in PBL.
Project Library: Appendix A features a library of project sketches,
including projects featured throughout the book. You can scan them
quickly to find ones that match your grade level or subject area and
then borrow or adapt them to meet your context and learning goals.
Project sketches can also be useful in professional development to
give teachers a wide range of project ideas to discuss and consider
for their own classrooms.
Discussion Guide: Appendix B supports shared reading, summariz-
ing key concepts, and advising on group and individual activities.
Professional Development Guide: Appendix C is a resource for facili-
tated professional development or professional learning community
(PLC) work, this guide outlines five discussion starters for teachers
or instructional leaders.
Resources Guide: Appendix D supports further exploration. As
noted before, this book is not a PBL primer but instead delves
deep into project implementation. For those new to PBL, we
include a resource guide with a wealth of books, readings, web-
sites, and experts to help you understand and get started with
PBL.
I n the main, this book is built on the stories and experiences of teachers
and school leaders who fulfill the promise of project-based learning
every day. We are grateful to these exemplary educators for their contri-
butions to students and to our book: John Burk, Cherisse Campbell,
Kathy Cassidy, Teresa Cheung, Richard Coote, Diana Cornejo-Sanchez,
Vicki Davis, Jenna Gampel, Andrew Gloa, Mike Gwaltney, Heather
Hanson, Amy and Randy Hollinger, Laura Humphreys, Maggie
Johnston, Diana Laufenberg, Julie Lindsay, George Mayo, Lisa Moody,
Frank Noschese, Jeff Robin, Julie Robison, Terry Smith, and Neil
Stephenson.
We appreciate these educators who, as they reflect on their practice
in blogs and other publications, teach us so much: Jackie Ballarini,
Sue Boudreau, Jenna Gampel, Dan Meyer, Margaret Noble, John Pearson,
Lacey Segal, Sarah Brown Wessling, Shelly Wright, and many others who
regularly share their thinking.
Many schools, districts, and educational organizations have informed
our thinking. We wish to acknowledge: Birkdale Intermediate School,
Buck Institute for Education, Conservatory Lab Charter School, Edutopia,
High Tech High, High Tech High Media Arts, Manor New Technology
High School, National Writing Project, New Tech Network, Science
Leadership Academy, Teach 21-West Virginia Department of Education,
Technology High School, and TESLA, the Technology Engineering Science
Leadership Academy.
A chief intent of this book was to relate the mindsets and practices of
accomplished people for whom inquiry is central to their work. We are
grateful to these experts for the personal stories and advice they shared
that inform authentic practices in school: historian H. W. Bill Brands,
chemist Catherine Katie Hunt, author Rebecca Skloot, and computer
scientist Jeannette Wing.
It all starts and ends with kids. Thank you to Grace, Zoe, Eli, and
especially Michael Greenberg for your exemplary project work. A+.
xv
xvi THINKING THROUGH PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
PUBLISHERS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Corwin wishes to acknowledge the following peer reviewers for their
editorial insight and guidance.
xvii
SECTION I
Inquiry
The Engine of Deep Learning
1
The Whys and
Hows of PBL
3
4 INQUIRY: THE ENGINE OF DEEP LEARNING
I do not fall
A current or future
into one of these
employee of a
cateogories
US employer
Family member completes
form I-130 Petition for Refugee or
Alien Relative aslyee living Employer must complete
in the US form 1-140, immigrant
Petition for Alien Worker
$420
$580
No
Tortured
$355 Committed a
killed, raped,
crime, been pardoned Yes
Committed severely injured a
or exercised diplomatic
crime against person?
immunity?
Haitians, associated Withholding
Disease
with Colombian custody of a US
Yes and/or drug
terrorists, forced women to citizen child from a No Yes
addiction? No
undergo abortion against person granted
their will or involved custody?
with child No
No soldiers? Received Participated
public assistance in weapon-carrying
or will need it in Former unit, received weapon
Involved in the future? exchange Yes
Yes training, or used
trafficking No Yes visitor who has not
Yes weapons against
or religious freedom fulfilled residency
violations? someone?
requirement?
No
Yes
Knowingly
No made frivolous No
Been No
Yes
application or plan to be
for asylum? a prositute,
Plan to be Yes involved in illegal vice, Served
Avoided
No
involved trafficking or illegal in prison or labor Yes
US draft?
in espionage, sabotage, immigration? Yes camp?
No
illegal exportation or No
terrorist
Yes activities? No No
Former
Falsified
exchange Immigrant
Have information or
No visitor who has not undergoes
or plan to documents to
fulfilled residency interview
sabotage, kidnap, enter US?
requirement? with USCIS
Yes
Yes assassinate, hijack, or official and if
Participated commit other accepted:
Yes in genocide? acts of Yes No
No terror?
No Been
No Practicing Yes
Yes deported
polygamy? from US?
Likey Plan to Congratulations!
to become spy, overthrow US You have been
Yes No
a public government or export No approved as a
charge? Yes illegal goods, technology permanent resident
Convicted or sensitive of the USA and can
No of Yes information? now receive your
a felony? green card!
Affiliated
with Nazis or
Avoided No persecuted based on
deportation No race, religion, political
Yes hearing or opinion or national You may not qualify
committed origin? for a green card at
visa fraud? Are you Communist
ineligible for US this time.
or other form Yes
citizenship or have Yes of totalitarian?
you avoided No
No
a draft?
Yes
Meaning So
In project-based learning, The emphasis is on the student The teacher does less direct
experiencelearning instruction. He or she designs,
prepares, and guides projects and
learns alongside students.
students gain important Projects are the curriculumnot an The teacher designs toward and
knowledge, skills, and add-onand through them, students assesses growth in all three
dispositions develop important capabilities areas.
by investigating open- Questions activate, arousing The right question at the start
ended questions curiosity and driving students to leads to more questionsones
inquire that students can investigate.
to make meaning The learning is important, unique, Projects elicit higher-order
and holds value for the student and thinking: theorizing,
others investigating, analyzing,
creating, and drawing unique
conclusions.
that they transmit in The form the project takes matches A loose project structure
purposeful ways. the function its meant to serve allows for creative expression,
(inventing, entertaining, persuading, and transmission of knowledge
motivating, or inspiring) makes the learning stick.
Take a moment to sum up what you think projects accomplish. Capture your
thinking Twitter-stylethat is, in 140 characters or less. (Example: Kids learn by
doing in content-rich PBL.)
Sharing a headline or tweet that succinctly captures your thinking is an
assessment of your own thinking. In classroom practice, you will want to check
in on student understanding frequently during projects, using a variety of forma-
tive assessment tools. Mix it up by using exit slips at the end of class, on which
students answer a specific question. Or ask them to share a headline or tweet
that succinctly captures their thinking (and will quickly reveal any misunder-
standing).
The Whys and Hows of PBL 7
What Distinguishes PBL
As you delve into PBL, it helps to be alert to differences between PBL
and other forms of activity-based or experiential learning. Two variations
worth distinguishing from PBL are thematic teaching and problem-based
learning.
Be wary of project plans that call for too many scripted steps. Overplanning is a
symptom of teacher-directed instruction thats likely to lead to predictableand
possibly mediocreresults. Step-by-step projects leave little room for students to
wrestle with uncertainty, raise new questions, or solve problems in novel ways.
They are unlikely to challenge students to reach their full potential as capable,
creative learners. (In Chapter 5, you will learn more about where to focus your
attention for the most effective results in project planning.)
8 INQUIRY: THE ENGINE OF DEEP LEARNING
Shopping on a Budget
Middle-school students research the question, How does someone get the great-
est bang for the buck when grocery shopping? With a partner, students devise a
healthy 1-week meal plan for four based on USDA guidelines. Next, each partner
selects a store, and they comparison shop to find the best price per unit for each
ingredient or menu item. Based on their per-item and per-grocery basket com-
parison, teams reach a conclusion about the most affordable place to shop. They
get bonus points if they figure out how to put coupons to work to lower their
grocery bill.
This is a good projectrelevant to students lives and connected to core
content. But it could be better if it challenged students to think more critically
about broader issues. The next project, similar in its intention of having kids use
math, understand nutrition, and explore personal economics, is more rigorous
and builds civic understanding to boot.
explain their reasoning with evidence. The first project may sound interesting,
but the second involves rigorous thinking and deeper learning.
When you DO something, not only do you learn it better, but it just
affects you in a way that I think is a lot more influential in the long term.
High school student reflecting at the end of a project
communities around the globe are diverting bulky waste from landfills.
After reading about a project in the United Kingdom that recycles carpet-
ing and food waste and programs in the United States that deconstruct
used mattresses and construction debris, students look for opportunities
in their own community. The project continues with students working
with a reuse and recycle center to find ways to source, clean, donate, place,
and even advertise and resell used carpeting.
The first example falls in the range of problems while the second is
very much a project. With good design, the second example addresses the
learning objectives of the first (imagine students working with clients to
measure and place quantities of carpet), while taking it furtherinto the
world of math, and into the world.
In this chapter, you have heard descriptions of four projects: Navigating Bureau-
cracy, Square of Life, Deserts in Rainy Seattle, and Floor Covering Problem II.
Select one of these projects for closer consideration. (Suggestion: Pick the project
that you wish you had been able to do as a student.)
We have provided you with only a summary description of each. Jot down
your thoughts as you consider these questions:
WHATS NEXT?
Now that you have a good working definition of PBL, along with a few
project examples in mind, youre ready to dive deeper into your exploration
of inquiry. In the next chapter, youll consider why humans are such curious
creatures, how traditional schooling can extinguish the spirit of inquiry, and
what you can do to rekindle your students questioning nature.
2
The Inquiring
Human Animal
Seniors from High Tech High Media Arts brought the invisible to
light during a multimedia exhibition exposing hidden paradigms,
underground cultures, and unresolved issues. Through documen-
taries, photo/sound essays, and video installations, students criti-
cally explored topics such as graffiti, rave culture, youth activism,
self-mutilation, and the media. Students developed their projects
in HTHMAs sound lab, using technology to showcase information
they gathered from expert interviews and in-depth investigations
of local professional, cultural, and institutional communities.
13
14 INQUIRY: THE ENGINE OF DEEP LEARNING
*Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2010
16 INQUIRY: THE ENGINE OF DEEP LEARNING
PBL naturally promotes the attitudes and skills that will serve students wellnot
just in school but also in life. The table below lists several skills that are indica-
tors of executive function (Dawson & Guare, 2004). All come into play during
projects. How might you help students grow into these good habits? Complete
the right-hand column by adding your ideas. We have included a prompt (Ask
yourself...) for each box to jumpstart your thinking.
(Continued)
18 INQUIRY: THE ENGINE OF DEEP LEARNING
(Continued)
Skill or Disposition Means students can... You can encourage in PBL by...
Flexibility Adapt, improvise, shift Example: Designing projects to be
approaches on open ended with no single right
demand answer
Ask yourself: How do I show students
that I welcome divergent ideas?
Organization Use a systematic Example: Providing students with
approach for reaching tools (such as shared calendars or
goals team logs) for managing project tasks
Ask yourself: How do I encourage
students to set goals for themselves?
Self-control Control their impulses Example: Modeling and having
students practice respectful methods,
or protocols, of engaging in
discussions
Ask yourself: How can we build a
classroom culture that helps students
develop emotional maturity?
Task initiation Get started on a task Example: Asking students to blog or
without keep journals about their daily goals
procrastinating and accomplishments
Ask yourself: How can I encourage
team members to set short-term goals?
Time management Plan ahead, manage Example: Making interim (milestone)
multiple demands on assignments that help students make
time progress toward final product
Ask yourself: What tools (such as
shared calendars, online workspaces,
project logs) could I introduce to help
students improve their time-
management skills?
Metacognition Reflect on their own Example: Asking students to reflect
thinking and the frequently on their progress as
quality of their work learners
Ask yourself: How am I varying
reflection prompts or activities so they
feel fresh to students?
In the years 1860 and 1861, the Pony Express ran mail by horse and
rider between St. Louis and San Francisco. At its peak, the Pony
Express employed 80 young riders who were paid $25 a week.
In the years 1860 and 1861, the Pony Express ran mail by horse and
rider between St. Louis and San Francisco. Ads in newspapers at
either end of the line read: Wanted. Young, Skinny, Wiry fellows
above 13 but not over 18. Must be expert riders willing to risk
death daily. Orphans preferred. Wages $25 per week.
Reflection and feedback, both of which are built into the project cycle, also
help to make learning stick in long-term memory.
Learning doesnt end when the school day is over. During sleep, the
brain consolidates what it has learned, strengthening the connections
between neurons that form when we absorb new knowledge. Telling stu-
dents to sleep on it after a day of deep learning improves their ability to
grasp and retain new ideas.
You may already make a habit of launching projects with a grabber or entry
event that captures student attention and ignites curiosity. Thats goodbut be
careful not to fall into an entry event rut. Vary the style of your entry events from
one project to the next to keep things interesting. Good entry events tend to be
brief but memorable. In their novelty, these events act as a catalyst for action.
They can be entertaining, but theyre only worth doing if they directly relate to
the project content. Consider how you might start with an event thats dramatic
(role plays or scenarios), mysterious (not-easily-explained events or demonstra-
tions), or experiential (students go on a field trip, or an important person
comes to call on them for help in a project scenario). Successful events will get
kids asking questions, setting the inquiry process into motion. Well spend more
time in Chapter 4 on how to plan effective entry events.
As weve heard throughout this chapter, new learning sticks best when it makes
sense and has meaning. To make sense, a concept has to connect to ones cur-
rent understanding. To have meaning, a concept or investigation needs to mat-
ter on a personal and emotional level.
To make projects really go, take time to find out what matters most to
your students. Conduct an interest inventory, such as EDCs Fun Works
(http://thefunworks.edc.org), to find out about their out-of-school interests
and hobbies. For example, ask students to select their top three choices from
a list of options such as these:
(Continued)
Take the results into account as you consider project ideas. Compile stu-
dents individual responses to develop a class profile that reflects which activi-
ties students would most enjoy. Refer to your interest inventory when making
team assignments too to make sure each team has a good mix of interests rep-
resented.
As a next step, have your students craft their own interest inventory. Their
individual contributions to the survey might tell you as much as the results!
WHATS NEXT?
Now that youve explored some of the internal factors that drive curiosity,
lets turn your focus to the external environment for learning. How can
you customize the learning environment to encourage inquiry? Lets find
out in the next chapter.
3
Making the World
Safe for Thinking
25
26 INQUIRY: THE ENGINE OF DEEP LEARNING
Source: Photo by Jurvetson on Flickr. Source: Reprinted Courtesy of High Tech High.
CREATIVE SOLUTIONS
We heard earlier about Birkdale Intermediate School and its long tradition of
teaching through projects. The school has intentionally developed a climate
and curriculum to encourage deep thinking, which is reflected by the physi-
cal environment. Because the school values collaboration, it has built nests
where small teams can work. Like glass-walled study rooms in a university
library, nests are soundproofed spaces tucked between classrooms with
windows that allow teachers to keep track of whats happening. Coote
describes these as semi-supervised spaces, where up to a dozen students
at a time can enjoy a degree of independence. Working in the nest, students
might brainstorm solutions to a problem, rehearse for a public presentation,
construct a model, or have a script meeting to plan what they will say. They
can engage fully in teamwork without disrupting their classmates.
Similarly, the Birkdale library is specially outfitted to reinforce project
work. Displayed here are museum-quality exhibits that relate to each
project. In a Quest called The Real Pocahontas?, students compare mod-
ern representations of Pocahontas with historical accounts to arrive at
Making the World Safe for Thinking 29
some truths about her life. A library exhibit of blue Venetian glass trade
beads circa 1700, a silver shilling from 1601, a bone powder horn, and
other authentic artifactsalong with Disney snow globes and figurines
spark imagination and link project studies to the past. Developing the
exhibits has involved searching eBay and antiques stores for artifacts, but
its been well worth the effort because of the increased student engage-
ment, according to Coote.
Many teachers show similar creativity in how they expand the func-
tionality of the classroom box. For example, English teacher Susan Lucille
Davis has a space outside her office thats dubbed the Teaching and
Learning Leadership Center. As she explains in a blog post, the right space
offers an invitation to collaborate (Davis, 2012):
Working with limited budgets that dont allow for wholesale remodel-
ing, many schools are investing in no-frills makeovers that better accom-
modate the needs of project-based learning and teaching. For example,
weve seen schools that have painted interior walls with whiteboard paint,
creating giant canvases for capturing and sharing ideas. To encourage stu-
dents to make their thinking visible, teachers might encourage students to
write on their desks or the floor with dry-erase markers or provide them
with mini-whiteboards cut from melamine shower board to use while
tackling problems that may require multiple attempts to solve.
PBL teachers model creative thinking when they find workarounds or inexpensive
fixes to make their classrooms more conducive to project work. (They also model
collaboration if they enlist parent volunteers and other community members to
help!) Now its your turn to put your creativity to work. Weve started the following
list with a few examples of how you might improve on your classroom environment
to invite good thinking. What else belongs on your PBL wish list? How might you
make it happen? Follow the prompts to complete the right-hand column.
(Continued)
34 INQUIRY: THE ENGINE OF DEEP LEARNING
(Continued)
Sharing work with authentic Having a guest book for visitors to sign,
audiences curating exhibits with artist statements,
having students act as docents to greet and
guide visitors
How do you use digital publishing to reach
a larger audience for student work?
Down time (allowing students to Giving students more flexibility over how
recharge their thinking batteries they use class time
after periods of focused work) How might you incorporate short periods of
physical activity during class time?
New Tech Network includes more than 100 schools across the United
States that emphasize project-based learning, smart use of technology,
and school culture that promotes trust, respect, and responsibility.
High Tech High, the public charter school network in California
described earlier, embraces four key design principles to prepare
students for the challenges of adulthood: personalization, adult world
connection, common intellectual mission, and teacher as designer.
Science Leadership Academy, a public high school in Philadelphia,
has built its successful PBL program on five core values that are
emphasized in every class: inquiry, research, collaboration, presen-
tation, and reflection.
It takes time and deliberate effort for these values and practices to be
woven into school culture.
You may be teaching in a school in which everyone learns through
projects or one in which your classroom is an island of PBL in a sea of tra-
ditional teaching. Regardless, its worth investing time to set high expecta-
tions and establish norms with your students. Together, you can build a
positive climate for learning through projects.
WHATS NEXT?
Now that you have considered the physical environment and norms for
PBL, youre ready to look more closely at how questions themselves help
set the stage for deep inquiry. The next chapter focuses on questioning
techniques and thinking routines that are applicable across grade levels
and subject areas.
4
The Thinking-Out-
Loud-and-in-View
Classroom
37
38 INQUIRY: THE ENGINE OF DEEP LEARNING
written?
40 INQUIRY: THE ENGINE OF DEEP LEARNING
Along the same lines, the Buck Institute for Education (BIE) encour-
ages teachers to craft driving questions that are provocative or challeng-
ing, open ended, and/or complex and linked to the core of what they want
students to learn (Larmer, 2009).
To increase student engagement, BIE suggests looking for opportunities
to relate the driving question to students own lives or communities. For
example, you might revise the broad question What is a hero? to ask, Who
were the unsung heroes of the Civil Rights Movement in our community?
Building in a charge for student action is another strategy to boost engage-
ment. Revise the previous question again, for instance, to ask, How can we
honor our communitys unsung heroes from the Civil Rights Movement?
Driving questions get better with practice. Improve on the following questions
by revising them to emphasize one or more of the characteristics described in
the previous section. How might you revise them to be more open? Undermin-
ing? Rich? Connected? Practical?
Before you launch into a project with your driving question, take time to test-
drive the question with colleagues or students. Do they find the question com-
pelling enough to sustain their interest? How might they revise it to make it
more relevant, authentic, localized, or actionable? Can they see how answering
this question would lead them to learn important content or master 21st-century
skills? Pick one of the driving questions you revised in the previous exercise and
test-drive it with colleagues or students. What does their reaction tell you?
The Thinking-Out-Loud-and-in-View Classroom 41
Along with a good driving question, an effective entry event sets the
stage for a project launch. The entry event (which we discussed briefly in
Chapter 2) will be the first exposure your students have to a project. It
might unfold with a mysterious letter, jarring news, provocative video, or
other unusual event. It should be novel (to make students alert) and have
emotional resonance (to make them care).
Consider the following examples and imagine how your students
might respond:
Crafting the driving question and entry event is part art and part sci-
ence. Proponents of PBL can debate what makes the best questions and
entry events, but all agree that they must be generative, sparking inquisi-
tiveness and a need to know. The driving question and entry event should
hang together, as these do:
Entry event: An engineering class is visited by a group of marauding
Vikings who demand that the engineers design a trebuchet for an upcom-
ing siege on Paris.
Driving question: How does the design of a trebuchet influence its
accuracy?
By planning a good driving question and entry event, youve set the
stage for inquirybut dont stop there. Follow up on the project launch
with a whole-class discussion that elicits the questions students are now
wondering about. Facilitate the conversation so that you spend little time
on procedural questions (i.e., When is this due?) and get into the meatier
questions that relate to content or strategies for research. Be sure to capture
everyones questions and keep a visible record of what students need to
know right now. This list of questions will guide the next steps as students
dig into research and problem solving.
Dont overlook the thinking strategies weve explored in previous
chapters. For instance, before debriefing the entry event with students,
you might ask students to sleep on it before getting them to unpack their
need-to-know questions. After the Viking scenario described above, imagine
42 INQUIRY: THE ENGINE OF DEEP LEARNING
students going home and talking with their families about this event. Its
likely the whole family will want updates as the project unfolds. A strong
entry event can generate new directions for inquiry and strengthen the
homeschool connection.
You might say any or all of these are significant lines of inquiry, right?
And there are doubtless still more ways to interpret the question. But the
class is eighth-grade life science, and while their teacher expects students
to study the question using several different lenses, not all of these ave-
nues of inquiry fit the curriculum of life science. (Two lines of inquiry in
particular might better fit projects in other classes.)
At this point, the teacher could guide the project toward learning goals
by helping students craft investigative questions related to the three big-
gest and most appropriate topics that emerged from their discussions.
Heres what might happen next.
Students with an interest in sports want to examine the question from
the perspective of psychology, health, and physiology, asking
The teacher now has a rationale for making team assignments based on
student interests in these three topics, each of which connects to important
content in life science. Students are ready to dive deeply into their team
investigations. The inquiry project is fully launched.
They are used to being told what to do, so having to decide what a
task requires is unfamiliar.
They are used to assignments that have a clear (and likely short-term)
start and finish, so time management during extended projects is a
new challenge.
44 INQUIRY: THE ENGINE OF DEEP LEARNING
When the officer came to visit her class, Cassidy prepared him by asking
him to focus on students questions rather than using a prepared script.
Heres how the visitorConstable Mohleresponded:
Why...?
How would things be different if...?
What are the reasons...?
Suppose that...?
What if we knew...?
What is the purpose of...?
What would change if...?
When Stuck
Try a variety of ways to get unstuck.
S = Substitute
C = Combine
A = Adapt
M = Modify
P = Put to other uses
E = Eliminate or minimize
R = Rearrange or Reverse
Giving Feedback
Give classmates constructive feedback with a CLAM Sandwich. Listen
to the speaker, then ask C = Clarifying questions; describe what you L = Like;
offer A = Advice; and M = Meet in the middle (discuss).
If a visitor were to walk into your classroom, could he or she tell what kind of
thinking your students are engaged in? Would your students be able to explain
their own thinking strategies? Help students think more strategically by intro-
ducing them to thinking tools that fit specific project needs. Develop their
vocabulary for talking about thinking. If youre not sure which tools to use
when, browse the collection of guides and graphic organizers available from
the National Center for Teaching Thinking (www.nctt.net), including tools to
help thinkers:
This means you will need to be ready to think and operate in new
ways during projects, just as your students will do. As New Zealand
Principal Richard Coote suggests, a teacher becomes the meddler in the
middle during PBL.
Try these methods for effective meddling in order to expose and
support good thinking. Many are PBL adaptations of the thinking routines
developed by Project Zero at Harvard.
Focusing
Ask: What is going on here? What are you trying to accomplish? What
is important to understand?
Extending
Say: Yes, and what else?
Ask: How does this help us understand the bigger picture? Have you
considered...? What would happen if...?
The Thinking-Out-Loud-and-in-View Classroom 49
Justifying
Ask: How can you be certain that...? What evidence backs up your
statement that...?
Provoking
Ask: Why do you think so? Why does that matter? What would ___ say?
Observing
Set an expectation that activity doesnt stop because you appeared on
the scene.
Say: Go aheadIm just interested in watching and listening.
Monitoring
Ask: Show me what youre doing. Where are you in the process? What
happened right before I arrived? What do you plan to do next?
Evaluating
Say: Show me how you arrived at that conclusion.
Ask: Why do you think so?
Its important for her students to build a strong foundation of the proj-
ect skills they will use throughout their 4 years at HTH. By the time they
are seniors, they will be designing their own inquiry projects. But as fresh-
men, they start with the basics. For their first project, the teacher makes
most of the decisions about project design.
Cornejo-Sanchez explains: When I introduce the project, I give students
a detailed description sheet. It explains why were doing it, what it will
involve, the community resources they may want to take advantage of, the
skills they will need. And theres a very detailed timeline that helps them
with time management. I include everything were going to do so they can
see the steps: interviewing, drafting, giving feedback, working on photogra-
phy, learning from expert visitors. In later projects, students will need less
direction as they gradually take on more responsibility for their own learn-
ing. But for their first PBL experience, she says, Its all there, day by day.
Because Cornejo-Sanchez wants to learn about the strengths and inter-
ests of each student at the start of the year, she has them produce indi-
vidual products. Students also team up on aspects of the project, however,
which gives them opportunities to build collaboration skills.
Students learn to work collaboratively through a series of planned
activities, such as interviewing a partner and providing critical feedback to
inform revision. Here, too, the teacher is deliberate about teaching collabo-
ration skills.
We might spend two or three days talking about why you critique
each others work, why its scary, the kind of feedback you would like to
receive. She models the process by sharing with students feedback she
received on her writing from a college professor.
Field trips and guest speakers are routinely incorporated into projects
at HTH. Once again, Cornejo-Sanchez deliberately guides students to take
advantage of these resources. A Hero in My Eyes, for instance, involves
producing a photo portrait that captures a heroic moment. Theres no pho-
tography teacher on campus, so Cornejo-Sanchez takes students to a local
museum of photography and invites a local photographer to come work
with students. Through her facilitation, they are learning how to access
resources. Thats a skill they will continue to draw on throughout high
school. She adds, Our students learn how to ask experts for specific help.
Thats part of our school culture.
For their culminating event, students present their work in a gallery
setting. Standing next to their exhibits, students talk with parents and
other community members about what defines a hero to them (using pre-
sentation skills they have practiced in class with their peers). Once again,
this is a right-sized event that gets them ready for the larger audiences
they will share their work with later in the year.
By the end of the year, these ninth-graders have developed the confi-
dence and competence to perform before an audience of 200 as part of a
spoken-word project. Its no accident that the ambitious final project is also
about identity. It brings the year to a full closure, Cornejo-Sanchez says,
and it takes us all year to build up to it.
The Thinking-Out-Loud-and-in-View Classroom 51
If you have used starter projects with your students in the past, think
about how well the projects have met these goals. How might you improve
your starter ideas?
If you are new to PBL, investigate examples of short-term projects that
you might want to borrow or adapt to introduce students to the project
approach:
A Hero in My Eyes is a good example for the high school level (read
more and see student work samples at http://www.hightechhigh
.org/unboxed/issue3/cards/3.php).
Middle-school science teacher Sue Boudreau blogs about introduc-
ing students to PBL at the Take Action Science Projects Blog (http://
takeactionscience.wordpress.com/2012/04/04/yeah-yeah-yeah-
but-how-do-you-get-started-with-pbl/).
Elementary teachers might want to consider joining the Monster
Project (http://www.smithclass.org/proj/Monsters/), a well-
structured project that emphasizes collaborative problem solving
with a fun challenge.
WHATS NEXT?
Before moving into subject-specific project discussions in Part II, we con-
clude the first half of the book with an overview of project design princi-
ples. If you are brand new to PBL, you may want to explore additional
resources for more detailed planning advice. If you are a PBL veteran,
Chapter 5 offers a reminder of the key considerations to keep in mind for
effective project design.
5
Designing Rich
Learning
Experiences
53
54 INQUIRY: THE ENGINE OF DEEP LEARNING
Entry event. Plan to start off the project with a grabber, a mysterious
letter, jarring news, a provocative video, or other attention-getting
event. As we discussed in Chapter 4, make sure it is novel (to make stu-
dents alert) and has emotional significance (to make them care). Read these
examples and imagine how your students might respond. Then plan an
entry event for your project.
Driving question. Kick off your project with a research question stu-
dents will feel compelled to investigate. Imagine a driving question that
leads to more questions, which, in their answering, contribute to greater
understanding. Good questions grab student interest (they are provoca-
tive, intriguing, or urgent), are open ended (you cant Google your way to
an answer), and connect to key learning goals.
Consider how to write a good question based on these remodeled
examples (Larmer, 2009):
WHATS NEXT?
This chapter concludes Part I. In Part II, we will dive deeper into subject
areas for inquiry projects. If you teach a specific content area, we encour-
age you to also read the chapters that focus on other disciplines and look
for interdisciplinary project opportunities. Chapter 6 sets the stage with an
exploration of interdisciplinary thinking.
58
Table 5.1 Thinking That Went Into Designing Several Projects
(Continued)
59
60
Table 5.1(Continued)
(Continued)
61
62
Table 5.1(Continued)
(Continued)
63
64
Table 5.1(Continued)
Taking a Page
From the Experts
6
Thinking Across
Disciplines
67
68 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
result from people with different kinds of expertise contributing their best
thinkingand building on each others ideas. Learning to collaborate
with team members is one important outcome of projects. Just as important
is the chance to walk in the shoes of expert problem solvers.
This chapter sets the stage for the second half of the book, in which we
will explore project-based learning in four core academic disciplines. It
might be tempting to think of these fieldslanguage arts, mathematics,
science, and social studiesas separate areas of a library, each containing
its own collection of content that students need to master. But that would
be short sighted. Along with important content, each discipline also offers
a distinct set of lenses for viewing the world, investigating questions, and
evaluating evidence. As students become more deeply steeped in the dis-
ciplines, they learn both rich content and expert ways of thinking.
When students are confronted with real-world problems, they may
need more than one set of disciplinary lenses to see a complex issue or
design a solution. Constructing an answer may require them to integrate
ideas or approaches from diverse perspectives.
Before we dive deeply into discussing inquiry strategies for projects in
language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies, lets take time to
consider the nature of interdisciplinary thinking and the role it plays in
expert problem solving.
These qualities are worth considering at the project design stage, when
teachers are determining the key learning goals they aim to achieve
through a project. Is a project idea grounded in a specific content area, or
does it allow for meaningful connections across disciplines?
Collaborating with colleagues from other content areas can help
teachers recognize natural connections in their content standards. In
Meeting Standards Through Integrated Curriculum, authors Susan Drake and
Rebecca Burns suggest, Teachers can chunk the standards together into
meaningful clusters both within and across disciplines. Once teachers
understand how standards are connected, their perception of interdisci-
plinary curriculum shifts dramatically. Indeed, they emphasize that
some teachers see it as the only way to teach and to cover the standards
(Drake & Burns, 2004).
The Common Core State Standards take a similarly holistic view of
learning, with a call for integrating the English language arts and incor-
porating critical thinking and nonfiction reading across the curriculum.
Allowing students latitude in deciding how they will approach a proj-
ect may also open the door for more interdisciplinary work, as students
will naturally draw on the knowledge, skills, and interests they have
developed in other studies and through life experiences.
Many of todays students are likely to enter career fields that overlap one or
more disciplines. Take a close look at the Venn diagram in Figure 6.1. It shows
overlaps between various careers and the four core content areas. Youll notice
that the English language arts are represented in this model as common ground.
Being able to communicate and explain your thinking is essential in every field.
Think about the current interests of your students. Which career opportuni-
ties mesh with their passions? How could a project give them a chance to
explore these career fields now?
Think, too, about the careers you dont see represented here. New specialties
are emerging all the time. What kinds of thinkers will be needed for future
careers in computational biology, food politics, cybersecurity, or space travel?
How could projects prepare students for these opportunities?
Figure 6.1 V
enn diagram shows overlap between core content areas and careers. Language arts
(LA) is represented as the common ground for each of the other three: social studies
(SS), mathematics (M), and science (S).
graphic
musician talent teacher novelist
agent
business financial poet
accountant analyst
graphic owner
artist venture writer
entrepreneur banker
costume capitalist database editor
concert insurance
designer adjusters administrator
promoter blogger
costumer geographer
actuary
songwriter real estate agent surveyor reporter
travel consumer statistician
dancer agent advocate engineer chemist
forester author
marketing city research
director planner librarian zookeeper
art historian flight engineers
emergency
screenwriter philanthropist mgmt. director anthropologist illustrator
paleontologist
computer agriculture
coach
lobbyist economist architect programmer scientist
biographer museum
technical
curator teacher transportation forensic veterinarian writer
lawyer planner
tour epidemiologist scientist
politician
guide teacher
dietician environmentalist visual
op-ed columnist effects
social worker
news genealogist patent attorney artist
linguist meteorologist
analyst
judge meteorologist
detective draftsperson science
advertising
docent executive park ranger writer
cartographer
documentarian
librarian
web/social teacher
media producer
S SS M LA
72 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
WHATS NEXT?
In the next four chapters, we take a close look at inquiry in each of these
core content areas: language arts, social studies, science, and math. You
will hear from experts working in each discipline about what inspired
them to pursue their professions and how they have honed their speciali
zed thinking skills. If you are a content-area specialist, we encourage you
to read outside your discipline and look for interdisciplinary project
opportunities. In Chapter 7, we start with language artsan area that
touches all disciplines.
7
Language Arts
L ife isnt always what you want it to be. Sometimes, your parents get
divorced. Sometimes, you have to start over in a new city, state, or
even country. Sometimes, you have to seek professional help for emotional
issues.
These insights come from an eighth-grader named Zoe (Nerdy Book
Club, 2012). She took part in a publishing project in which student writers
shared their wisdom to help other children learn from lifes challenges.
Transitions, their beautifully illustrated book of stories, is available for sale
on Amazon.com. Whats the authors strategy to help children develop
better coping skills? You have to speak their language, Zoe explains.
The Transitions project offers a powerful example of students using
language for authentic purposes. Reading, writing, speaking, and listening
skills all belong in the toolkit of a literate person in todays world. Students
applied these skills, along with visual literacy, creativity, empathy, and
an understanding of media arts, during this ambitious interdisciplinary
project.
As the Common Core State Standards for Language Arts and other
21st-century frameworks make clear, literacy involves a complex set of
competencies. Students who meet the standards know how to read care-
fully for understanding. They can critically assess the quality of informa-
tion. They are able to engage with a variety of texts and make well-reasoned
arguments. They can harness their own creativity and use digital tools to
produce original work that engages audiences.
Project-based learning offers an excellent vehicle to help students reach
these important goalsand not only in the English classroom. Perhaps
more so than any other core content area, the foundational skills of the
language arts reach across the curriculum. The deep and authentic connec-
tions between literacy and other subjects set the stage for interdisciplinary
73
74 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
Before they moved on to their final drafts, the eighth graders took time
to invite critique from a class of third graders. Just as Hollywood directors
invite focus-group feedback before films are released, these authors
enjoyed the benefit of honest review from younger readers. The authors
relied on comments to polish their writing, improve clarity, and fine-tune
their illustrations. Their attention to detail shows in the final product,
which is sold on Amazon.com. They understood that their work is going
for the whole world to see, the teacher said during the interview, and
that makes a difference.
In this project, both students and teacher made an important discovery:
The process of writing and revising based on feedback is similar to the way
visual artists work. Whats more, students had to make their words and
pictures work in tandem. Neither was a stand-alone product. Art wasnt
added at the end but integrated as part of the creative process. Teams had
to evaluate multiple suggestions and come to consensus about the best way
to convey their ideas, drawing on their expertise in two disciplines.
When you are planning interdisciplinary projects that include lan-
guage arts, look for opportunities to integrate disciplines in similarly
meaningful ways. The Common Core State Standards emphasize integrat-
ing English language arts into history, science, social studies, and technical
subjects. When we look more closely at how the language arts and critical
thinking are used in the world beyond the classroom, its easy to see the
wisdom of this approach.
They are writing to understand, just as experts do. As author Joan Didion
(1976) reminds us: I write entirely to find out what Im thinking, what
Im looking at, what I see and what it means.
LITERACY-BUILDING ENVIRONMENT
A language arts teacher we met recently was eager to give her students
opportunities for more authentic literacy experiences. She signed up for a
PBL workshop we conducted for her district. By the end of our 2 days
together, she seemed like an enthusiastic convert to project-based instruc-
tion. During a follow-up call a few weeks later, however, she was voicing
doubts. Why? She worried about letting go of classroom strategies that
had always served her students well. For instance, she encouraged a love
of literature by asking students to read at least one book each term for pure
enjoyment. When we asked why she was jettisoning this fine tradition,
she said, It just isnt part of the project.
Time for a course correction! We asked her to picture an accomplished
person who works with languageperhaps a journalist, songwriter, or
documentary filmmaker. Wouldnt this person keep a stack of books or
magazines on the nightstand (or perhaps downloaded on an e-reader) and
read for pleasure? Isnt this someone who would choose words with care,
drawing on a vocabulary that continues to expand through personal
engagement with literature, film, and other media? Reassured, the teacher
reinstituted her reading-for-pleasure assignment, which she now saw as
part of the larger context for helping her students become proficient readers,
writers, and critical thinkers.
A good project environment doesnt eliminate proven strategies for
increasing literacy. Instead, projects offer students motivating reasons to
expand their language arts skills.
At Manor New Technology High School in Texas, for example, stu-
dents were drawn into reading classic literature by a project that inte-
grated science and engineering. Their challenge: improve on the weaponry
used by the losing side in The Epic of Gilgamesh so that the vanquished
might emerge as victors. To succeed, students had to understand the epic
poem in detail.
In a few carefully phrased sentences, the Common Core State Standards for
English Language Arts describe the skills and dispositions of a literate person:
today in print and digitally. They actively seek the wide, deep, and
thoughtful engagement with high-quality literary and informa-
tional texts that builds knowledge, enlarges experience, and
broadens worldviews. They reflexively demonstrate the cogent
reasoning and use of evidence that is essential to both private
deliberation and responsible citizenship in a democratic republic.
(National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council
of Chief State School Officers, 2010, p. 3)
Whats more, the standards call for increasing rigor and critical think-
ing as students progress from grade to grade. By their senior year in high
school, students are expected to spend 70% of their reading and writing
time on nonfiction. Meeting these goals is unlikely without an emphasis
on increasingly challenging yet engaging literacy experiences throughout
a students K12 years.
The National Council of Teachers of English, in a publication that
addresses the CCSS, emphasizes that it remains up to teachers to deter-
mine how to meet these learning goals:
CURATING CONTENT
Early in her teaching career, Sarah Brown Wessling, 2010 National Teacher
of the Year, started designing reading experiences in such a way that texts
would talk to each other. This approach helps students understand that
reading doesnt happen in isolation; understanding comes from making
connections. As she explains:
Tech Spotlight
Tech Spotlight
WHATS NEXT?
Chapter 8 focuses on inquiry in the social studies. A professional historian
reflects on the thinking skills and dispositions that are essential in his field.
We hope you will journey with us into this exploration of the social studies
even if its not the subject you teach. Much like language arts, social studies
offers authentic opportunities for interdisciplinary projects.
8
Social Studies
C anadian history teacher Neil Stephenson sees the world as one big
learning opportunity. When he came across the museum exhibit
Canada in a Box: Cigar Containers that Store Our Past, he knew hed
struck it rich. Collected and curated by Dr. Sheldon Posen of the Canadian
Museum of Civilization, the cigar box exhibit covers a large swath of
Canadian history, with each box telling a bit of what Canadians are about,
who and what they value, what they think is funny, and what it means to
be Canadian. Thus, Stephensons Cigar Box Project was born.
Stephensons 12- and 13-year old students set to work, operating as
historians do to understand Canadas colorful history. They examined the
commercial art on cigar boxes, researched the people and events they por-
trayed, and sought to interpret the stories the panels illustrated. They met
with museum curator and historian Posen to share their interpretations,
ask questions, and go deeper.
Students started to wonder, as historians do, about the stories the
boxes didnt tell. Intent on revealing a more comprehensive account of the
past, students pulled on gloves and wielded magnifying glasses to study
other artifacts of history. Through iterative cycles of questioning, research,
and interpretation, a more nuanced story of Canada emerged, one that
included human events that often escape the history books.
Now Stephensons students were ready to present their interpretations
of the past in cigar boxes of their own. They studied graphic design and
learned to use a digital editing program to create illustrated panels that
were historically accurate and beautiful to behold.
At first glance it would appear the theme of cigar boxes was the glue that
held the project together, but at a deeper level it was the disciplinary prac-
tices of historians that shaped the investigation. With Stephensons guidance
and mentoring from their colleague Dr. Posen, students donned the
87
88 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
mantle of the expert, inquiring, investigating, using the tools and methods
of the discipline, holding up their conclusions for the scrutiny of others, and
presenting their interpretations in meaningful ways.
Even those of us who are not history teachers can appreciate the power
of the Cigar Box Project. Stephensons students learned deeply because
they inquired as experts do. They honed new skills, many of the 21st-
century variety. They worked in earnest to produce high-quality and
memorable work.
Many social studies teachers, like Stephenson, are retooling their learn-
ing environments and creating opportunities for students to work as
economists, lawyers, city planners, folklorists, activists, philosophers,
anthropologists, and philanthropists.
Subjects of the social studies lend themselves to the project approach.
Because they are based in the human experience, real-world connections
abound. In this chapter we examine three principles for designing quality
projects. They include
A SUBJECT AT RISK
Given stringent testing mandates for other subjects, social studies sub-
jects risk being put in the back seat of the school curriculum. With
lengthened periods or even double doses of reading and math, students
spend less time studying the arts, science, physical education, and social
studies.
A 2007 report by the Center on Education Policy describes the shift in
time in instruction among subjects as school districts responded to the No
Child Left Behind mandate.
Grades K5. Among districts that reported increasing time for English/
language arts and math (i.e., most of them), 72% indicated that their ele-
mentary schools reduced time by a total of at least 75 minutes per week for
one or more other subjects. Of these, more than half (53%) cut instructional
time in social studies from 239 to 164 minutes, or exactly 75 minutes.
Grades 612. Middle and high school programs have increased credit
requirements for math and science and, in low-performing schools,
increased the number of reading/language arts credits students must take.
Reporting for these grade bands isnt as tidy as for K5, but any way you
look at it, for most of their school career, todays students are spending less
time learning social studies.
Why is this a problem? Competence in these subjects has a benefit that
goes beyond the individual. The ideals embodied in the study of culture,
history, economics, government, geography, and global issues are central
to a functioning society. Quality learning experiences help students learn
Social Studies 89
more than a body of knowledge based on facts and dates; they help them
develop character, a sense of connectedness, and civic responsibility.
Factoid 1. There are nine Facebook fan pages called, I Hate Social
Studies.
Factoid 2. On Twitter, teachers discuss ways to make social studies
pertinent to students lives so they will care and learn. Follow their
conversations by filtering tweets using the hashtag #sschat.
90 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
(Continued)
Professor of History, he teaches both undergraduates and graduate students.
Teaching and writing are quite closely connected. I think of my readers as
students I just havent met yet.
Engaging young people in the study of history can be a challenge. For a
teenager to be thinking about history is relatively unnatural, he admits.
Theyre thinking about the future, not the past. The older we get, the more
history of our own we have, the more naturally history comes to us. When
Brands lectures to public audiences, its not unusual for the average age
to be 70.
How might we help history come alive for the current generation of stu-
dents? What helps young people learn to think about problems in the way that
historians do? Brands offers some pointers.
Start with the present. I have a better chance of engaging students inter-
est if I talk about something thats happening today. I often teach from todays
headlines. Its relatively easy to go from the events of the day to ask: So how did
this situation come about? How did we get here?
Make it personal. If I can get students to read old diaries or old letters, if
they can see that people in history were people like them, then they may find
that engaging. A student might read the letters of young Abraham Lincoln and
realize, here was somebody who was also dealing with issues of, Who am I?
What career should I follow?
Evaluate information. With so much information available on the Internet,
we can access materials today that werent available 10 years ago except to
people with specialized credentials and research budgets. This also means that
evaluating of evidence is more important than it used to be. Theres so much
stuff online, and much of it is noisy and can be self-interested. Theres almost no
expense to publish it. I encourage students to ask: How reliable is this? Is the
source somebody with an ax to grind? Even with an authoritative-looking pub-
lished book, you still just have the authors word to go on. Do you require cor-
roborating evidence? Is there a reason to believe it?
Talk it out. Sometimes students get stuck. They dont know what topic to
research. But theres got to be something that interests them. So well talk. Ill
ask, What brought you into this class? Maybe they have an interest in a par-
ticular president. If I can get them talking about their interests, theyll realize
that there was more in their head than they knew was there. That helps if theyre
having a hard time getting ideas down on paper, too. Almost no one has a
speaking block.
Be inspiring. Information is the death of interest in history if information
comes first. I tell my students, if I fill you with information but bore you, youll
start to forget your information as soon as you walk out of the final exam. On
other hand, if I inspire you with interest in history, then you will continue to
teach yourself history for the rest of your life. History is a very accessible subject.
Its not like chemistry or physics. If youre interested in history and you can read,
the world is open to you.
Brands doesnt expect all his students to go into what he calls the history
business. What they gain from studying the discipline are reasoning and com-
munication skills that will serve them well in life, regardless of their career
choices. If you can think and communicate, then youll have a leg up.
Social Studies 93
What else belongs in a historians toolkit? Here are four tools Brands consid-
ers essential:
1. Curiosity: History is for the curious. If you want to know why the U.S. is the
way it is, if you want to know why the position of women in Africa is the
way it is, if you want to know why this world exists, then history is for you.
2. Empathy: If youre going to understand the past, you have to be able
to put yourself in the position of people who lived in the pastthe people
youre studying. If you simply go to the past seeking confirmation for
your current prejudices, you might find the confirmation but youre cer-
tainly not going to understand the past.
3. Facility with reading: If reading is a chore, then youre probably not
going to make a very good historian. You have to read through lots of
stuff. And if you take this on as a job, you cant read every book from
start to finish. There will be parts that have information you need and
parts that do not. In fact, youll find yourself putting down books that
you find interesting because you have to work to do!
4. Love of writing: I have some colleagues who dont particularly like to
write. The fun part for them is tracking down the information. Then its
like pulling teeth getting them to write. But the rest of the world cant
evaluate the kind of research you did until you write it down. Im often
asked, how is it you do so much writing? The simple answer is, I like
doing it. Every morning, I get to get up and do this thing I like to do.
(Continued)
94 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
Table 8.1(Continued)
Resources
Access to photography archives. See local or state historical socie
ties and museums, the Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/
pictures), and the National Archives (http://www.archives.gov).
Experts: historians, archivists, photographers
Maps, reference books, online materials
Collaborative projects such as HistoryPin (www.historypin.com/)
GPS devices
Digital cameras
Skills
Database and other Internet research
Photography, photo editing
Navigation using maps and GPS devices
Visual storytelling
Experts
Photographers
Historians
Archivists
Docents, tour guides
Social Studies 97
Do you see opportunities for interdisciplinary connections? Which
subjects might you want to include in such a project?
We talk a lot about helping kids do investigations where they make new mean-
ing, but its challenging to design learning experiences in which they actually
do this. The computational knowledge engine Wolfram Alpha (www.wolframal
pha.com) is a great resource for students who are investigating social studies
topics that involve data. Students hone their critical thinking skills as they learn
to craft good questions and evaluate and synthesize information they get from
Wolfram Alpha.
Bhutan 708,000
Sri Lanka 20.4 million
Pakistan 185 million
Bangladesh 164 million
They notice that Bhutan has as many people as a mid-sized Indian city, Sri
Lanka is comparatively small, and Pakistan and Bangladeshare big.
Next, they wonder about the economic health of the countries. With help from
their teacher, they identify per capita income, gross domestic product, and other
comparative data that are indicators of economic health. A search of per capita
income shows
(Continued)
98 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
(Continued)
Interestingly, Sri Lanka and Bhutan have greater per capita income but they
are much smaller than Pakistan and Bangladesh in sheer numbers of people.
The team wonders how this compares to their country. India comes in the middle
at $1,077 per capita income per year, and it has a lot of successful Caf Coffee
Day franchise stores. They note this, and then move ahead.
They make this query in Wolfram Alpha: Compare GDP of Bhutan, Sri Lanka,
Pakistan, and Bangladesh. It returns this information:
So far, Pakistan seems to be a good choice. Its the most populous country,
and its GDP and per-capita income are high compared to Bangladesh, the sec-
ond-most-populated country.
A question occurs to the team: Do people in these countries drink coffee?
They type: Compare coffee consumption of Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and
Bangladesh. The search returns this result:
They wonder what these numbers mean. Does any one person drink a lot of
coffee or only a little? They wonder if they can use these numbers to calculate
per capita coffee consumption. Wolfram Alpha is a step ahead. Scrolling down
the same search page, students find:
Sri Lanka might deserve a second look! Or maybe Caf Coffee Day should
expand its tea offerings. What should the team do next? What else have they to
consider in making an informed decision? (Think: supply chainstransportation,
roads, fuel costs; business climatepolicies around foreign business, civil strife,
government, and economic stability.)
Not all of aspects of business climate can be understood using Wolfram
Alpha, but you can see how it gives students a start in constructing an argument
for selecting a new business location.
Imagine their next step is to present a case for their choice. They can down-
load the data from Wolfram Alpha in the form of a spreadsheet and use a visual
display tool like Many Eyes (www-958.ibm.com/software/data/cognos/many-
eyes/) or Tableau Public (www.tableausoftware.com/public/) to represent these
data graphically so they tell a story.
After they make their case for locating the business in another country, their
next task might be to investigate cultural issues to understand what kind of
marketing campaign would work best in that country.
Wolfram Alpha has two major functions. One is responding to queries with
information from its vast databases, as in the Caf Coffee Day example. If you
want to know the properties of a specific star cluster, the cost of a gallon of
gasoline in Minnesota, or what languages are spoken in Sierra Leone, you can
find out. As you saw in Caf Coffee Day, Wolfram Alpha can make comparisons
of like data. It can also draw from disparate data sets to derive an answer.
For instance, if you want to find out whether there is a correlation between
gas prices and the number of cars on the road in Minnesota, you might write:
Minnesota passenger cars in use vs. price of a gallon of gasoline, to which
Wolfram Alpha responds with a graph showing the relationship of those data
over time.
Wolfram Alpha is also a powerful computing tool. It can simplify an algebraic
expression, plot a reciprocal polynomial, or compare a set of ions. It has a type
pad for scientific notation and returns graphical representations when those are
indicated.
Getting queries right is a bit of a challenge at first, but Wolfram Alpha pro-
vides a helping hand. After you submit a query, the engine shows how it inter-
preted your input. In its way, it lets you know how it thinks, which makes writing
interpretable queries easier with practice. Explore Wolfram Alpha at www.wolfra-
malpha.com and try out its functions. Visit the Examples page and learn how it
handles calculus, weather, people and history, engineering, socioeconomic data,
words and linguistics, chemistry, sports and games, colors, money and finance,
and assorted other topicsmany of which connect to the big and interesting
universe of the social studies.
100 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
WHATS NEXT?
Chapter 9 focuses on inquiry in science, a rich domain for project investiga-
tions. Well hear from a prominent scientist whose curiosity about how the
world works began at a young age. Once again, we encourage you to come
along for the journey even if you dont teach science. Your own curiosity
may be sparked by the interdisciplinary project examples ahead.
9
Science
Does the white bird conserve momentum when it drops its bomb?
Why would the game designer want the white bird to drop its bomb
the way that it does?
101
102 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
The yellow bird changes velocity with the tap of a finger. Analyze
more than one flight path to answer this: What are the details of its
change in velocity?
Based on a reasonable estimate for the size of an angry bird, deter-
mine the value of g in Angry Bird World. Why would the game
designer want to have g be different than 9.8 m/s?
Shoot an angry bird so that it bounces off one of the blocks. What is
the coefficient of restitution and the mass of the angry bird?
the population was spread out among small, rural communities, and edu-
cation was local in every sense. The movement toward compulsory educa-
tion was still 30 years away.
The Committee of Ten sought to bring coherence and rigor to educa-
tion across the nation. Chaired by Harvard University President Charles
Eliot, the Committee drew a line separating education into two domains:
the studies of school that prepared students for a classical university edu-
cation, and the practical learning that occurred in home occupations and
the tradesthat is, hands-on learning.
Their report urged high schools to adopt Latin, Greek, English, modern
languages, mathematics, physics, astronomy, chemistry, biology, zoology,
physiology, history, civil government, political economy, and geography as
the core curriculum. These were the subjects of scholars who worked with
ideas, not things.
The distinction the Committee of Ten made 120 years ago has had a
lasting influence. Engineering back then was viewed as a concern of farm-
ers, manufacturers, and machinists, not gentlemen.
Today, proponents of engineering and its modern ally computer sci-
ence fight to squeeze these subjects into the K12 curriculum. Why should
it matter whether these subjects are taught? Both are central to modern
life. We need the power of engineering and computer science to solve
long-prevailing problems and confront
new ones. As importantly, both subjects
Worth noting: Students whose teachers conduct offer the hands-on, minds-on experi-
hands-on learning activities on a weekly basis ences that develop our intellects.
outperform their peers by more than 70% of a One bright spot is the maker move-
grade level in math and 40% of a grade level in ment, a rapidly growing subculture of
science (Wenglinsky, 2000). Hands-on learning tinkerers, inventors, hackers, crafters,
experiences develop handeye coordination, spa-
and hobbyists who take the do-it-your-
tial reasoning, and problem-solving abilities. Such
self credo to heart. Schools would do well
experiences, once part of everyday life outside of
school, are less common now. As inexpensive and to adopt the maker ethos by giving time
disposable goods become the norm, activities like to making and outfitting a maker space
tinkering in basement workshops and sewing with design software, 3-D printers, sew-
from patterns have become practically extinct. ing machines, shop tools, and good old
twine and wire.
How have we reached the ridiculous point where one may be con-
sidered illiterate if she does not know how many legs a grasshop-
per has, yet is considered perfectly ne in not understanding how
the water comes out of a faucet? Students in middle school can
spend weeks learning how a volcano works, and no time under-
standing how a car works. How often will they nd themselves in
a volcano? (Grasso & Brown Burkins, 2010)
COMPUTERS AS THINGS
(FOR EVERYONE) TO THINK WITH
When we think of hands-on learning, we usually focus on the manipulation
of physical stuff. Seymour Papert, deemed by many to be the father of
educational computing, thinks of computers as stuff you think with. Just
as a pendulum is a wonderful tool to think with as you explore properties
of time and motion, a computer allows you to apply precise logic. Robotics,
phone apps, diagnostic tools, networks, and computer-generated imagery
are just a few of the expressions of computer logic. Papert considers com-
puters as tools to develop the intellect and invented the LOGO computer
language so children could get started with a dead-simple user interface to
learn formal logic as it is applied in computing to make things happen.
Paperts constructionist philosophy, situated solidly in constructivism,
holds that learning to program a computer is learning not just by doing
106 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
but by making. Being able to pose a problem in such a way that a computer
can help you solve it is the cornerstone of computational thinking.
You might not think of participation in fields like engineering and
computer science as a social issue, but it is. Jobs in these professions are
growing, but few of our students are being prepared for them.
Looking just at computer science, consider this: the U.S. Department of
Labor projects that between 2008 and 2018, 1.4 million computing jobs will
have opened in the United States. For those jobs that require a bachelors
degree in computing, only 29% can be filled by U.S. computing-degree
earners (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012b). Too few students study com-
puter science and computer engineering at the college level, and rigorous
computing that gets kids ready for these majors is seldom taught in K12
schools. And, among those who do study computing and go on to techni-
cal careers, very few are women and minorities.
Why does this matter? For one, everyone benefits when the pool of
people innovating is as diverse as the people using the products of those
innovations. Point in fact: the first digitized voicemail system was cali-
brated to the male voice. Women trying to leave messages were hung up
on because their speaking voices were of higher register than the technol-
ogy was designed to capture. Had women been part of the design team,
this issue might not have been overlooked.
Second, computing jobs are plentiful and lucrative, and it is unfair that
few of our children are either exposed to computing or encouraged to par-
ticipate. (The median starting salary for a computer science major in 2012
was $56,000, just below that for the highest-paying job, engineering, at
$59,000.)
Fortunately, from the presidents Educate to Innovate initiative to the
National Science Foundations effort to train 10,000 new computer science
teachers by 2015, change is afoot. Look for opportunities to expose your
students to computing through projects that incorporate Scratch visual
programming, Arduino electronics prototyping, or LEGO robotics (to
name a few). These are low-bar approaches that teachers with no back-
ground in computing can introduce.
MOVING TOWARD
EXPERT UNDERSTANDING
A confluence of factors supports doing project-based learning in the sci-
ences as well as interdisciplinary projects that deal with scientific issues.
A call for reconsidering how students learn science comes from the
Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS). NGSS represent the continu-
ation of efforts to improve science education that started with the 2061
Science for All Americans initiative in 1985. The intent of reform, then and
now, is to promote a constructivist approach that has students investigat-
ing as scientists do. This is how they will build a foundation of core con-
cepts and at the same time come to understand the nature of science.
Science 107
NGSS are organized around core ideas and crosscutting conceptsthe
basic principles and theoretical constructs of science. Development of the
NGSS by the National Research Council has coincided with the debut of
the Common Core State Standards. The two sets of standards are mutu-
ally reinforcing. CCSS describe what it means to be scientifically literate;
NGSS describe the science experiences students should have and the core
concepts they should know.
The rationale for focusing on a few core concepts instead of a multitude
of discrete pieces of information has to do with how experts and novices
differ in their science understanding. Experts understand core principles
and the theoretical underpinnings of their subject and rely on these to make
sense when faced with new information or a novel challenge. Novices, on
the other hand, tend to hold on to many bits of isolated and sometimes
contradictory knowledge. Without a firm foundation of core concepts or a
sense of how they connect, novices have difficulty grappling with new or
complicated ideas.
NGSS recommend that students build their foundation of core con-
cepts by spending less time studying science content and more time
operating as scientists doobserving patterns, proposing explanations,
developing models based on hypotheses, designing investigations to test
their models, gathering and analyzing data, and constructing explanations
using evidence-based arguments. Such engagement helps them become
less like novices and more like experts. Open inquiry can lead science stu-
dents to better retention, improved problem solving, and a greater appre-
ciation for what science allows us to accomplish (National Research
Council, 2000). Of course, open-ended questions are also what drive learn-
ing in PBL. With teacher support and facilitation, students can engage in
projects that allow them to adopt the mantle of the scientist.
(Continued)
talking down to her, he would break down concepts to make them understand-
able. She reflects, He had a way of thinking that made you ask: Why does that
happen? How does that work? And where else could you use that in something
youre trying to do? Its all about connecting.
Not surprisingly, Hunt has followed in her fathers footsteps by becoming an
accomplished chemist herself. She has also followed the family tradition of
encouraging good thinking in budding scientists. As soon as her son started
preschool, she began paying classroom visits to help students understand what
scientists do and how they think. She engages students by relating new concepts
to something familiar, often something they can see or touch. She encourages
good questions that get to the heart of how things work.
Baby diapers, for instance, offer a good example of super-absorbent poly-
mers. During one classroom visit to middle school students, Hunt challenged
them to think about the properties of super-absorbent polymers. A discussion
about what causes the material in disposable diapers to soak up liquids led to
a conversation about pH. And that sparked a good question: How can you
change the pH? One seventh grader suggested, You let the baby pee in the
diaper. Hunt replied, Exactly! Next, she got them thinking about using super-
absorbent polymers to release water instead of holding it. Where might that be
useful? And they were off and running, thinking in the way thatscientists do.
At any age, good science comes from asking good questions.
You have to constantly put yourself into situations where you dont know
whats going on, Hunt recommends. Thats the only time youre going to
learn. She follows her own advice. When she goes to professional society meet-
ings, Hunt forces herself to get out of her comfort zone and attend sessions that
deal with unfamiliar topics.
She encourages students to study broadly, because you dont know all the
things youll need to know. She can hold her own in discussions about biotech-
nology, for example, because years ago, as a postdoc, she audited courses in
biochemistry. I was laying a foundation, even though it didnt have a direct
application to what I was doing back then.
Along with curiosity, what else belongs in a scientists toolkit? Being able to
use technology is important, but specific tools are ever changing. More stable
are the habits of mind that serve scientists well throughout their careers. Here
are a few that Hunt considers essential.
Finding your focus. When Hunt arrives for a school visit, she makes a point
of wearing street clothes. I ask the students, do I look like a scientist? No! She
morphs into a chemist by donning her lab coat, gloves, safety goggles. Like a
baseball pitcher going through pregame rituals, shes also getting her mental
muscles ready for the work ahead. Its about moving yourself, getting yourself
ready so you can focus and learn and do whatever it is you have to do. Part of
focusing is clearing your mind of day-to-day clutter so that youre ready to think.
You have to free up your brain, whether its through yoga or writing down the
things you need to remember, or whatever you do. You need to free your mind
so you have room to process new things.
Risk taking. You have to be able to take chances. You have to be willing to
be wrong, Hunt says. Everything in life doesnt come with directions. She was
reminded of this when her sons Montessori teacher advised her, You cant help
Science 109
your son do everything right the first time. Hunt says she promptly replied,
Why not? I know how to do it right. The teacher wisely said, Good point!
Remember, your sons in third grade. Is there ever a better time to fail, and then
learn from your mistakes? Theres no down side. (When Hunts son entered col-
lege, he followed the family tradition by pursuing a degree in chemistry.)
Critical thinking. The work of science often involves gathering data, but
it takes critical thinking to recognize which results are garbage data and
which are reliable. Hunt asks herself, How do you know that it was good
data? How do you know that you asked the right question? She describes one
of her favorite strategies as zooming in, and then panning out. Shell zero in
on a question she wants to research by applying the scientific method. Then
she pans out for a broader perspective, testing her hypothesis in a variety of
ways. Panning out might be by peer review, or seeing if someone else can
repeat your experiment, or reading things others have written, or challenging
what others have done.
Mystery loving. Unsolved mysteries suggest new frontiers for science. When
she talks with lay audiences, they sometimes mistakenly assume that we have
it all figured out, Hunt says. Its important to talk about all the things we
havent solved yet. Tomorrows scientists can anticipate no shortage of good
questions to investigate.
COUPLED INQUIRY
While learning though inquiry holds a lot of promise, in practice, student-
driven investigations can have uneven results. Teachers, understandably,
want to maximize learning in their classrooms and worry that student
investigations might be ineffectual and waste time. A brand of instruction
called coupled inquiry strikes the balance between teacher-directed
and student-driven inquiry, providing the right amount of structure and
guidance to assure success.
Coupled inquiry is a sequence of teaching and learning activities that
leads to solid student-driven science investigations. The approach con-
strains student activity (in a good way) so it stays focused on the learning
objective the teacher has in mind and, at the same time, encourages critical
thinking and creativity (Dunkhase, 2003).
Coupled inquiry and PBL go well together. Both begin with the invita-
tion to inquire. The project approach couches the science in a realistic con-
text, and the coupled inquiry method ensures students engage in effective
processes of inquiry.
In the example that follows, students study wind power and the func-
tion of turbines through the coupled inquiry method. Its easy to imagine
expanding from the six steps of this structured inquiry experience into a
full-blown project by involving experts and introducing real-life applica-
tions and issues around wind power.
Laura Humphreys (2011), fourth-grade teacher in Las Cruces,
New Mexico, designed this investigation. The six steps described here
110 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
show the typical phases of coupled inquiry. We have annotated her plans
(in parentheses) to show how such an inquiry exercise could expand to
become a project.
How else might you build on (and spark) students interests to plan
meaningful, engaging projects? Consider these strategies:
CITIZEN SCIENCE
As we have discussed in previous chapters, students are more motivated
when they see their projects as relevant and having a purpose. By setting
the stage for students to be citizen scientists, you will help students learn
science, learn how scientists conduct research, and appreciate how public
efforts contribute to scientific discovery.
Several clearinghouses connect scientists with the public so that they
conduct research together. In many such projects, scientists need access to
real-time data that widely dispersed citizens can help to gather.
Consider this sampling to get a sense of the kinds of projects your stu-
dents might take part in as citizen scientists.
Ancient Lives
Suitable for high school students, this archaeology project has
citizen scientists measuring and transcribing 500,000 digitized fragments
of one-thousand-year-old texts from Greco-Roman Egypt.
Benefit to science: The data will help scholars understand the literature,
culture, and lives of Greco-Romans in ancient Egypt.
Target Asteroids!
Citizens use their own telescopes (or view from remote telescopes on
loan to them) to track asteroids, cataloging the position, motion, rotation,
and changes in the light they reflect.
NoiseTube
Researchers need help tracking noise pollution. A free mobile app on
a smart phone is all participants need to measure the level of noise in
their areas.
Science 117
Benefits to science: These data help researchers understand the effects of
noise on humans and animals.
Consider, too, the many projects from Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Since
1960, Cornell Lab has relied on contributions from citizen scientists to study
problems from global climate change to avian health. Your students can
join what is possibly the worlds largest scientific research community.
Current projects involve citizens in collecting distribution and abundance
data for five endangered migratory bird species (see the project: Priority
Migrant eBird); identifying breeding behaviors by tagging photos captured
by nestcams (Cam Clickr); counting birds at feeders to help ornitholo-
gists understand population and distribution trends (Project FeederWatch);
and many others. See: http://www.birds.cornell.edu/citsci/.
Tech Spotlight
WHATS NEXT?
In Chapter 10, we examine the role of inquiry in the study of mathematics.
A computer scientist explains how her career direction was influenced
by an early love of puzzles and math games. Once again, we encourage
nonmath teachers to read along and look for project opportunities to
connect math to your subjects in authentic ways.
10
Math
T hink back to your years as a math student. Does this definition resonate
with you? If not, it may be because you spent a lot of time on the proce-
dural rather than the conceptual aspects of math. Math projects flip this
around, making math concepts important to the resolution of a problem or
challenge. The procedures of math develop in the context of projects and are
undergirded by a developing conceptual understanding and need to know.
Picture an eighth-grade class that is deciding how to spend fundrais-
ing money to help stock a local food pantry. The pantry is committed to
distributing food boxes to low-income families every week. As they plan,
it becomes clear to students that that certain questions must be explored
mathematically. Students ask:
Should we contribute food over the long term or buy it all at once? What
are the merits of each strategy?
Where should we shop, and how often?
A can of beans is less expensive than a can of tuna, but is it as nutritious?
How do we balance food cost and nutritional value?
Large packages can be cheaper per pound, but buying large packages means
we must buy fewer, so what sizes of packaged foods should we buy?
There is math here, certainly, but I have made it a goal this year to stall
the math for as long as possible, focusing on a students intuition before
her calculation, applying her internal framework for processing the world
before applying the textbooks framework for processing mathematics.
Activity
Read
Analyze
Explore
Plan
Implement
Verify
5 10 15 20
Elapsed Time (Minutes)
Activity
Read
Analyze
Explore
Plan
Implement
Verify
5 10 15 20
Elapsed Time (Minutes)
a. If the 1:20 model boat is 15 cm Toy time! Bring in Barbies, GI Joes, and
wide, how wide is the actual similar dolls and action figures and
boat? compare them to real people.
b. If the boat has a mast of height a. If each were the height of an
4m, how high is the mast on the average woman or man, what
model? would their body proportions be?
b. Design a doll or action figure
with the proportions of an
actual human (interdisciplinary
extension: advise how to market
it so it will outsell Barbie and Joe).
Representing Data
Public utility analysts graph customers monthly power and water
usage.
Pollsters collect and report voter preference prior to an upcoming
election.
counterpoint to a high school counselor who tried to steer her away from male-
dominated career fields. Meanwhile, her mother instilled confidence, encourag-
ing Wing to take risks and explore new interests.
As an undergraduate at MIT, Wing initially studied electrical engineering
but soon found herself attracted to the then-relatively-young field of computer
science. My father assured me that computer science wasnt a fad. I could count
on it being around for a while, she says with a laugh, and I never looked back.
Key traits and thinking habits are part of Wings toolkit as a computational
thinker. These traits also need to be encouraged in todays students if we hope
to prepare them to meet tomorrows challenges:
Seek expertise from the pros as you plan. Mathematicians, actuaries, statisti-
cians, and math-y people of all sorts belong to scholastic or professional societ-
ies that invest time and resources in education. These organizations and their
members are your allies. They, too, want to strengthen the pool from which the
next generations of economists, astrophysicists, biologists, and engineers come.
To find them, refer to Weddles Association Directory (http://www.weddles
.com/associations). The Directory categorizes nearly 100 professions and, for
each, lists several member organizations, some with regional affiliates near you.
(Economists alone have seven societies and associations.) Once you identify a
professional society, look to their education or outreach committees for the
expertise you seek. Dont overlook chapters on college campuses to connect your
students with near peers.
Consider, too, where you are most likely to find corollaries between math
professions and the K12 curricula.
Bring current events with math connections into the classroom. (Did
you hear? An iceberg the size of Connecticut calved off a glacier in
Greenland.) Encourage students to do the same and marvel with them.
Tell math jokes, show math comics, and present math puzzles.
Make math visual (see information about infographics later in this
chapter).
Tell life stories of mathematicians. (Eratosthenes, Gauss, and
Fibonacci are a good start.)
Muse aloud about the nature of things mathematical, especially
those that can be investigated, such as: I wonder if all green lights in
town stay green for the same amount of time. Encourage students to
wonder, too. Post these wonderings in a visible place so students
can ponder them over time.
Dont rush students when they are explaining their thinking.
Acknowledge effort, not smarts.
Math 131
Encourage inventive approaches.
Discourage speed. Encourage deliberate, iterative effort instead.
Encourage students to ask for help and praise them when they do.
Model thinking aloud. Show dead ends and redirections in your
thought processes, too.
Allow students to teach one another.
Present students work so others can appreciate and acknowledge it.
(Continued)
132 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
Table 10.2(Continued)
What project might address these standards? West Virginia Teacher Lisa
Moody designed California, Here We Come! in which fifth-grade travel
agents plan a customers air travel, taking into account time zones, dis-
tance, in-air and layover times, amenities, fares, taxes, baggage fees, and
more. They present their customer with a proposal that includes a scale
map and cost comparison table she needs to make an informed decision.
As you design, consider how standards can be batched so learners
get the most out of each project. West Virginia teachers design projects
using Power Standards, which get at the big ideas of each subject.
Life connections first. In the travel agent example, the teacher might
have arrived at the same project starting from a geography angle or with
inspiration from the Travel Channel. Many subject-matter and life connec-
tions are ripe for the math projects treatment. Take the project called An
Eye-Opening Experience, in which students across the United States and
around the world joined Connecticut fifth-grade students to count the
number of metal eyelets on their shoes. Shoes and eyelets? What kind of
math project could this be? In it, students engaged in prediction and estima-
tion; data collection, representation, and analysis; review of variables; and
134 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
calculating mean, median, and mode. In addition, they met new friends
around the world and learned about geography, culture, and differences and
similarities (for instance, no matter where laced shoes come from, the eyelets
are set in multiples of four!).
MATHEMATICAL PRACTICES
Make Sure Students Operate as Mathematicians
Whichever route you take into project planning, make sure your plan
prompts students to operate as skillful mathematicians. The Common Core
State Standards initiative combined NCTM Process Standards with the
National Research Councils Strands of Mathematical Proficiency to arrive
at one set of Mathematical Practices. Mathematical Practices describe pro-
cesses and proficiencies students should develop as they learn math. These
practices have longstanding importance in mathematics education and have
parallels in the capabilities of mathematicians that Plya described.
Your project should cause students to
How to Solve It
Four Phases of Problem Solving and Questions to Drive Each
Find the connection between the data and the unknown. You may be obliged
to consider auxiliary problems if an immediate connection cannot be found. You
should obtain eventually a plan of the solution.
Have you seen it before? Or have you seen the same problem in a slightly
different form?
Do you know a related problem? Do you know a theorem that could be
useful?
Look at the unknown! And try to think of a familiar problem having the
same or a similar unknown.
Here is a problem related to yours and solved before. Could you use it?
Could you use its result? Could you use its method? Should you introduce
some auxiliary element in order to make its use possible?
Could you restate the problem? Could you restate it still differently? Go
back to definitions.
(Continued)
136 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
(Continued)
If you cannot solve the proposed problem, try to solve first some related problem.
Could you imagine a more accessible related problem? A more general
problem? A more special problem? An analogous problem?
Could you solve a part of the problem? Keep only a part of the condition,
drop the other part; how far is the unknown then determined, how can it vary?
Could you derive something useful from the data? Could you think of
other data appropriate to determine the unknown?
Could you change the unknown or data, or both if necessary, so that the
new unknown and the new data are nearer to each other?
Did you use all the data? Did you use the whole condition? Have you
taken into account all essential notions involved in the problem?
3. Carrying out the plan
As you are carrying out your plan of the solution, check each step. Can
you see clearly that the step is correct? Can you prove that it is correct?
4. Looking back, examine the solution obtained
Can you check the result? Can you check the argument?
Can you derive the solution differently? Can you see it at a glance?
Can you use the result, or the method, for some other problem?
During math projects, get ideas out in the open through discussion,
writing, and graphical representations. The acts of speaking, writing, and
representing ideas shape the ideas themselves. Model the expression of
ideas that you want students to emulate.
Writing shapes students thinking and helps you interact with that
thinking. Do your math students write every dayabout mathematics?
NCTM Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (2000) state that
written communication should be nurtured and that math instruction
should include writing so students learn to:
Finally, use students written explanations of their strategies and math understand-
ing at the end of a project as one aspect of your final assessment. Ask them, too, to
reflect on what they learned and how they felt about the project. This final, more
affective writing can cement positive feelings and make students ready for chal-
lenges ahead.
Many projects, especially those that ask students to quantify and make sense of
the real world, involve data collection, analysis, and visual representation.
NCTM Focal Points state that instructional programs from prekindergarten
through Grade 12 should enable all students to:
create and use representations to organize, record, and communicate
mathematical ideas
select, apply, and translate among mathematical representations to solve
problems
use representations to model and interpret physical, social, and mathe-
matical phenomena
(Continued)
138 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
(Continued)
Most math teachers are familiar with common representations in math,
such as charts, tables, and graphs. One form of visual representation that is
growing in use outside of school is the infographic. Lets look at infographics and
imagine how students might work with these interesting visual displays of quan-
titative data.
SKI UTAH
y
ta
Br nce
on
s
n
de
ity
le
n
on
si
Al
ai
al
C
ht
u
ba
ny
a
nt
rV
lit
ig
k
nd
ow
So
ou
Ca
ee
Pa
Su
rM
Sn
e
Th
e
wd
Po
s
Moscou
ko
.00
0
wa
0 0
Figure 10.4 F
igurative Map of the Successive Losses in Men of the French Army in the Russian Campaign
R. 18121813. Drawn up by M. Minard,
0 0
Inspector General of Bridges and Roads in Retirement. Paris, November 20, 1869
Chjat
100.0
100
127.1
00
.00
0
33.000
Mojaisk
00
Polotzk Tarantino
.0
Gloubokoe
175
000
60
0
.
Witebsk
.0
400.000
Malo-jarosewli
00
145
Dorogobouge Wizma
87.00
96.000
00
Smolensk
55.0
Wilra
0
Be 30.000 Orscha
rez
37.00
ina
Smorgoni
R.
Lieues communes de France (carte de M.de Farensae)
24.000
00
0
Molodezno
8.000
Botr
.00
14.000
20.0
00
12.000
28
Studienska 0 5 10 15 20 25 50.
Mohilow
50.0
Minsk
1. Consider your audience and purpose. Take into account who and
what your graphs and charts are for, and design accordingly.
Imagine how the viewers will take it in. Design a graphic to be
super-detailed for a poster that people can stare at for hours. But
limit complexity if its for a presentation.
142 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
2. Check the data. If your data sets are weak, your infographics are
weak, so make sure the data are accurate and make sense. Verify or
correct any data that do not make sense.
3. Keep geometry in check. If geometry or scale is wrong, the graphics
wont tell a true story.
In the end, all of these rules can be broken for specific cases. Youll
learn where you can bend with practice.
Infographic design tools. A variety of technologies are useful for mak-
ing infographics. In his blog about creating Ski Utah, student Michael
Greenberg describes how he used graph paper, spreadsheets, and InDesign,
a desktop design software program, to create his infographic.
Greenberg uses Photoshop and Illustrator for infographics, too. These,
along with InDesign, are graphic design programs commercial artists use
that may not be in of the suite of tools used in most classrooms.
Luckily, free, Web-based tools are available. Consider using Google
Spreadsheets for data collect and manipulation. Because their spreadsheet
lives in the cloud (on Google servers), students in a team can use it at the
same time and get to it from any computer. For design software, give
Science Pipes, Tableau Public, and Inscapes a try. Finally, if your students
want to represent multiple data sets as individual elements in an info-
graphic, they may want to use Glogster, interactive poster software with
lively text, graphic, and background options.
Glogster: http://www.glogster.com
Google Spreadsheets: http://www.google.com/drive/start/apps
.html#product=sheets
Math 143
Inkscape: http://inkscape.org
IBM Many Eyes: http://www-958.ibm.com/software/data/cognos/
manyeyes/
Science Pipes (for biodiversity data): http://sciencepipes.org/beta/
home
Tableau Public: http://www.tableausoftware.com/public
PROJECT IDEAS
Finally, remember that math reaches beyond the math classroom, and proj-
ects in other subject areas will use math in significant ways. See the Project
Library in Appendix A for more ideas for projects, including ones that
incorporate math in interdisciplinary studies.
WHATS NEXT?
Now that we have explored inquiry in the four core content areas, lets see
what happens when a project takes off in unexpected directions. Chapter 11
helps you anticipate the project spiral. Thats what happens when proj-
ects expand beyond the classroom, engaging the community and perhaps
even the larger world. Are you ready for your project idea to go big?
11
The Project Spiral
H eather Hanson is always looking for material that will engage her
students at Todd County High School in South Dakota. Thats why she
took the risk of screening a network television documentary that she knew
would draw a strong emotional reaction from her students, nearly all of
whom live on the Rosebud Indian Reservation. Children of the Plains, nar-
rated by Diane Sawyer of 20/20, focused on the hardships of growing up on
the reservation, including alcoholism, poverty, and family dysfunction.
How did students respond? Some cried. Some were outraged at what
they saw as stereotypes of their Lakota Sioux culture. Others shrugged off
the one-sided portrayal as the way they always talk about us. Hanson,
who teaches speech and communication, challenged students to do some-
thing productive in response. That challenge was the entry event for a
project that took students places they couldnt have imagined, including
two trips to Washington, D.C., to use their newfound voice to speak up for
their communityand for themselves.
Project-based learning enables students to become active participants
in their world. Through projects, students may discover that they have the
ability to influence others, make meaningful contributions, or even right
wrongs. Such opportunities may not happen with every project, but savvy
teachers are ready to let a worthy project spiral out in new directions.
What do we mean by the project spiral? Its what happens when stu-
dents projects go big, creating a buzz in their community or a greater
impact than anyone expected. Its what happens when their project video
goes viral on YouTube (as happened for the students from South Dakota).
The project spiral takes learning beyond the classroom and inspires the
larger community to ask questions, reflect, consider alternatives, or take
action.
145
146 TAKING A PAGE FROM THE EXPERTS
The project spiral is also a way to describe the infectious energy that
good projects generate. An engaging project experience in one classroom
has the potential to spread interest in PBL across grade levels or across
content areas, potentially influencing the culture of a school. The project
spiral fosters professional growth, too, as PBL veterans share what they
know with peersin person or through ever-expanding online networks.
PREPARE TO SPIRAL
Lets look at three ways you can be ready for the project spiral:
Go Public
In the previous example, the press arranged to interview South Dakota
students during their trip to Washington, D.C. Some teachers make a point
of inviting the media into the classroom to learn more about students
projects.
Remember George Mayo, the middle-school teacher whose Transitions
project was described in the chapter on language arts? He lets the media
know when his students are doing newsworthy work. When I listen to
them answer a reporters questions about what inspires them to write their
stories, their answers blow me away. This is a real-world way to encourage
reflection, he said in an interview with the authors.
On the day that his young authors received their Transitions books
from the printer, for instance, a camera crew from the school district was
on hand to record the occasion. The resulting video allowed students to
share their learning experience with their families and gave other teachers
in the district a window into a project-based classroom.
Mayo also plans an event each spring when his young filmmakers
share their best work in a documentary showcase. They hold the event at
an historic movie theater and even roll out a red carpet for student film-
makers. Such grand gestures inspire students to do their best work. That
doesnt mean that the weeks leading up to the premiere are free of chal-
lenges. It gets crazy, Mayo admits, as students work furiously to edit
material they have been gathering for months. But the extra effort is worth
it when students see their final cuts presented in a professional space.
To go public with projects, look for allies at your district public infor-
mation office. Invite reporters from local media to consider writing about
noteworthy student projects. Encourage students to issue press releases
about their culminating events (developing their real-world marketing
and public relations skills), or find other ways to let the public know what
they have accomplishedand why its worth knowing about.
In your own building: Find a colleague (or several) who shares your
interest in PBL. Rely on each other as sounding boards when you
are designing projects. Offer critical feedback to improve on each
others ideas. Examine student work together. Are students meeting
the quality standards you hope to achieve, or does student work
reveal places where you need to focus improvements? Ideally, your
school culture will support these professional conversations with
The Project Spiral 149
dedicated time for teacher collaboration. Make sure school leaders
see the results of student projects and enlist them as your PBL allies.
In your online network: Thanks to social media, there are more net-
works than ever for making connections with colleagues. Here are a
few with a PBL flavor: On Twitter, follow the hashtag #pblchat and
take part in anytime discussions as well as weekly conversations
about a specific aspect of PBL. On Edmodo, join the PBL community
and tap online colleagues for ideas or inspiration. On Edutopia, take
part in the PBL discussion group. On Classroom 2.0, join the group
PBL: Better with Practice. Join the group Project Based Learning on
Diigo, an online bookmarking site, and learn what others are tagging
as useful on the web.
At special events: PBL advocates tend to be active participants in the
unconference movement. These loosely structured gatherings,
sometimes called Edcamps, give educators opportunities to meet
face-to-face for peer-led conversations.
In publications: Look for opportunities to reflect on what has worked
well or whats been challenging in projects. For example, the Digital
IS site of the National Writing Project is a storehouse of rich teacher
reflections. High Tech High produces an online, peer-reviewed jour-
nal called Unboxed, where teachers reflect on their project experi-
ences. The Buck Institute for Education invites teachers to contribute
project plans to its ever-expanding online project library.
CLOSING THOUGHTS
In our own experiences as PBL advocates, we have enjoyed the spiraling
effects of working withand learning fromteachers from around the
globe who are interested in improving learning through engaging, mean-
ingful projects. Weve seen projects grow more ambitious as teachers gain
confidence and get better connected through professional networks. Weve
seen the real-world connections grow, too, as experts and other commu-
nity members become willing partners in the project-based learning enter-
prise. The biggest beneficiaries, of course, are the students who are taking
a more active role in learning experiences that will stick with them for
years to come.
We look forward to staying connected and hearing about the exciting,
memorable learning opportunities that projects create for you, your
community, and your students.
Appendix A
Appendix A
Project Library
PROJECT SKETCHES
Many projects are described in Thinking Through Project-Based Learning.
Here they are again in an easy-to-scan digest, interspersed with additional
project sketches that will get your imagination flowing.
Projects are loosely organized by grade band under the subject matter
headings of Social Studies, Science, Math, and Language Arts. Because
good projects extend into the real world, and because real life seldom
happens in content-specific silos, most sketches describe interdisciplinary
projects.
We encourage you to read with an open mind. If you see a project that strikes
your fancy but is a grade band below or above what you teach, ask yourself, How
could I scale this up? Down? If a project has an emphasis in a subject you do not
teach, consider doing it anyway. Ask yourself, How could I adjust this project so
its sure to address significant instructional aims for my subject? Who from other
disciplines might want to collaborate?
If you are reading this book as a staff activity, gather in groups of five or six
and divide up the projects for close reading. In your groups, have each person
share two or three projects that he or she thinks deserve the groups attention.
Discuss. Together, ask yourselves, which projects resonate the most? Why? How
might we adopt or adapt these projects for our classes?
SOCIAL STUDIES
1. Come Fly With Us: p. 59 (Grades K2)
Driving Question: How do people work together to get a big job done?
After a commercial pilot visits school, a second-grade class designs its
own airport. Their challenge is to get all the parts working together so
Note: To read more about projects that are described in more detail elsewhere in the book, see
corresponding page numbers.
151
152 THINKING THROUGH PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
Appendix A
value of each familys food? Whos healthiest? How can we help those with
the most meager diet? See the What the World Eats photogallery here:
http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1626519,00.html.
ings, and more. Some memorials no longer exist and others are in poor
repair. Some students create a virtual tour using Google maps for a kiosk
at the local visitors center. Others research the stories that have gone
untold and recommend ways to commemorate people and events deserv-
ing recognition. Still others campaign for a day of recognition for unsung
heroes who walk among us.
Appendix A
neighboring countries in South Asia. She has students pretend they are
business owners who want to expand their companies to nearby countries.
(Shes setting up a task in which students compare and contrast to make
an informed judgment as they learn about South Asia. She also could have
asked them to act as philanthropists wanting to support charitable causes,
or as professional sports executives wanting to expand cricket to more cit-
ies.) They use Wolfram Alpha and other sources to study socioeconomic
data and draw conclusions about life and economy in other countries.
Driving Question: To what degree can we see the past in the present?
As students prepare for a history tour of Washington, D.C., their
teacher presents them with a challenge: Each team is to find an illustration
or photograph of a pivotal period or event in D.C. history, visit the site
where the event took place, shoot a picture (or even a picture-in-a-picture),
and write a photo essay describing the significance of the event in its time
and its relevance today. When complete, students compile photo essays
into a book published for inclusion in the school library (to inform future
tour groups) and for submission to the D.C. Historical Society.
Appendix A
21. Digiteens: p. 179 (Grades 69)
Driving Question: What does citizenship mean in the digital age?
In the Digiteens project, eighth- and ninth-grade students explore their
rights and responsibilities as digital citizens. Teams from across the globe
partner to study and then teach others about topics as wide ranging as
cyberbullying, Internet fair use, and balancing security and personal free-
dom. Credit: Flat Classroom Project. Join this years project on the Flat
Classroom website: http://www.flatclassroomproject.org.
of trade (these may include bartering, gift economics, time banks) and test
them through commerce for feasibility and fairness. Next, students study
the history of money, work in groups to design their own national curren-
cies, and then establish an exchange rate with other countries currencies
by calibrating against the value of a common basic good such as a loaf of
bread. Tariffs, embargoes, and other mitigating factors are introduced dur-
ing a final trade simulation designed by students.
Appendix A
SCIENCE
28. Blue Fender Defender: p. 79 (Grades K5, 68)
Driving Question: Can we make a difference?
Students learn that a butterfly species relies on a prairie habitat that is
rapidly diminishing. Their research leads to a letter-writing and leafleting
Appendix A
campaign that gets the communitys attention, and part of a local park is
returned to prairie.
Students in Grades 4 and 5 in the United States and Japan observe the
role of trees in their communities. They do tree surveys to identify the
numbers and kinds of native and cultivated trees. They meet with city
arborists to learn about the growing conditions necessary for healthy trees
in their location and compare these criteria. Students exchange photos,
artistic renderings, haiku poetry, and descriptions that help them compare
trees, geography, and climate in the two countries. They each find a tree
that can be grown in the other schools environment and send these to the
partner school as part of Planting Day ceremonies.
Appendix A
36. Water, Water, Everywhere? (Grades 68)
Driving Question: What problems does the world face with its water supply?
In this collaborative project, students research the worlds water prob-
lems, particularly relating to fresh water, and focus on how their personal
water use affects aquatic ecosystems in their communities. Students par-
ticipate in email exchanges as they explore the global importance of water.
See ePals http://www.epals.com/projects/info.aspx?DivID=Water_over
view. Credit: ePals.
and look for relationships among populations (example: coyote and desert
hare) over time as they investigate the question What causes an ecosys-
tem to hang together or fall apart?
Appendix A
ommendations for ridding the pavement of the school parking lot of motor
oil before it runs off into the water system.
MATH
45. Birthday Math: p. 132 (Grades K5)
Driving Question: How can we know who we are as a group?
It turns out that two students in class were born on the same day, which
causes students to speculate, How could we find out whether other kids in our
school were born on September 7? Could we find and connect all the birthday bud-
dies in the school? Small groups propose research methods such as examin-
ing school records and surveying classes and then discuss the merits of
each before settling on a plan. Once all birthday buddies are identified,
students plan a social event through which all buddies become acquainted.
tem, van rentals, use of parent cars, bicycles, and other means of travel
and examine expense, safety, and liability issues associated with each to
arrive at a recommended best mode of transportation.
Appendix A
51. A Penny Saved (Grades 68)
Driving Question: How can we use money wisely?
A local man wins a large amount of money in the lottery and asks for
advice on how to invest his winnings wisely. Students contact local tax
advisors, investment advisers, and financial institutions to understand
how the financial industry works and learn from the stories and decisions
of past lottery winners. Along the way, they learn investment terms, use
algebra to explore compound interest, and create graphs showing how dif-
ferent investment schemes play out over time.
Appendix A
dents collect temperature and sunset data for a major U.S. city and model
the averages using sinusoidal functions. They present the data in a way the
bridal couple understands so they can make an informed choice for a
wedding date.
LANGUAGE ARTS
64. Building Bridges to Tomorrow (Grades K2)
Driving Question: Whats life like for other children?
In a project of cultural understanding, young children from around the
world use digital media to collaborate around topics such as: How We
Play, Celebrating Together, Part of a Family, Making a Meal, Sharing
Stories, and Our View From the Window. Credit: Flat Classroom Project.
Join A Week in the Life at the Flat Classroom website: http://www.flatclass
roomproject.org.
Appendix A
accurately as possible so other classes can recreate it perfectly. Their
descriptions go into a shared table in a wiki so everyone can see all the
parts. Each class constructs the entire monster as well as it can based on
the descriptions. It turns out that writing precisely and interpreting what
others describe is hard! And making a head that matches a neck that
matches a body requires collaboration! Once the monsters are created, they
are photographed and the photos are uploaded to a gallery for all to enjoy.
Along the way, kids learn to read and write for a purpose, learn to work
cooperatively and collaboratively, and make new friends. Teachers acquire
new professional partners in the monster community. Credit: founders
Brian Maguire, Suzie Calvert, and Terry Smith.
Appendix A
mentaries, photo/sound essays, and video installations showcase informa-
tion gathered from on-the-street videography, expert interviews, and in-depth
investigations of local professional, cultural, and institutional communities.
Credit: Margaret Noble and Lacey Segal, San Diego, California.
Discussion Guide
Appendix B
ing these ideas with colleagues to foster professional learning and personal
reflection. This discussion guide is intended as a starting point for collegial
conversations.
173
174 THINKING THROUGH PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
Appendix B
idea and then mapping it to objectives to ensure there is a fit with
what students are expected to learn. Which approach describes
how you have planned projects in the past? Do you agree with
the authors assertion that the second approach may be more
generative?
2. Which professions relate to your subject area(s)? How might you
expand on real-life connections for projects?
3. Think about your strategies for scaffolding students critical think-
ing (such as use of thinking maps or Socratic seminars). Discuss
how you might incorporate these strategies into projects.
4. Share your project sketches with colleagues. How might you revise
your project sketch based on critical feedback?
CHAPTER 9: SCIENCE
1. How do you respond to the authors question, Do you consider
yourself a scientist? Compare your response with colleagues.
2. Dont be S-s-scared: The Truth About Snakes offers a good example
of a project that goes beyond superficial understanding of science.
Reread the project description and discuss what sets this project
apart from more elementary science assignments (such as retelling
facts about a favorite animal).
3. Chemist Katie Hunt shares some of the early life experiences that
whetted her interest in science. When she learned something new,
Appendix B
for instance, her father prompted her to ask, Where else could you
use that in something youre trying to do? How do you help stu-
dents see the connection between what they are learning today in
science and what they might want to accomplish or understand in
the future?
4. In their discussion of coupled inquiry, the authors suggest how this
approach can be extended into PBL. Discuss a science activity that
you have done in the past and imagine how you might remodel it
into a project using this approach.
5. Have you ever engaged in citizen science projectsas part of
school activities or on your own? What did you gain from the
experience? With colleagues, discuss which of the examples could
be incorporated into school projects. How might your students
attitudes change if they knew they were making real contributions
to science?
1. RANDOM REMODEL
Using the examples in the Project Library, randomly assign two or three
Appendix C
projects to each participant.
After reading silently, participants discuss sketches (in pairs or small
groups): How would you remodel these projects to suit your context? For
example, how would you want to change a project to meet grade-level or
subject-area standards? What would you keep from the sample project?
What else would you like to know about a sample project?
2. GO GLOBAL
The following projects, all included in the Project Library, offer the poten-
tial to connect students with a larger, often global community:
179
180 THINKING THROUGH PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
Participants discuss (in pairs or small groups): What would you need
to connect your students globally? For example: Access to technology tools
like Skype or webcam? Fluency in a second language or translation tools?
Membership in a global education organization like iEARN? Permission
from parents or school administrators? Do you anticipate any barriers that
could be difficult to overcome before you are ready to tackle a global proj-
ect? Where might you find help?
Select another project from the Library, or think of a project you have
done previously. How would you globalize it? What benefits would you
expect students to gain from adding global learning goals to the project?
3. FOCUS GROUP
Invite at least four students to serve as a focus group to review project ideas.
Appendix C
Participants select their favorite examples from the Project Library and
share them with students in a way thats age appropriate. (For example,
older students could read summaries from Project Library; younger stu-
dents might benefit from having teachers describe the projects to them.)
Students provide feedback about:
4. CLOSE TO HOME
Several projects described in Thinking Through Project-Based Learning
emphasize local problem solving. For example, in the project Deserts in
Rainy Seattle? (Chapter 1: The Whys and Hows of PBL, p. 3), students
addressed the issue of poor access to nutritious food in local neighbor-
hoods. In an example mentioned in Chapter 7: Language Arts (p. 73),
students created an exhibit to honor the nearly forgotten civil rights heroes
in their community.
In both examples, students had to thoroughly understand the issue
they were solving before they could design a solution. As part of their
project, they developed the skill of problem finding.
Participants discuss (in small groups or as a whole group): How can
we find the issues in our community that could form the basis for good
projects? Who might have an ear to the ground? Who can help us learn
more about local issues?
After their discussion, participants develop an action plan for problem
finding that might include
Appendix C
problem identification
5. EXPERTISE EXERCISE
In this book, we have emphasized the value of disciplinary thinking, that
is, getting students to operate in the manner of professionals for whom
certain subject matter is central to their work. See how far you can go with
identifying professions aligned to specific subjects. Start with a warm-up
and ask the group to think of professional people whose work causes them
to engage in the language arts (reading, writing, listening, and speaking).
They will easily name many occupations, from editors to politicians to mar-
keting executives to journalists. Now give the group a challenge. At table
groups, make a list of professions for which math is central to the work.
A little healthy competition adds to the fun. Stop the teams after 2 or 3 minutes
and ask them to count and report on the number of occupations on their
lists. Set a goal. Ask: Can anyone beat this table with 13? Encourage them
to keep going and stop after 5 minutes. Ask the group with the most to read
182 THINKING THROUGH PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
their list. Encourage others to challenge items and ask for justification. End
the exercise with a reminder that this was all in fun but to remember that
a generative exercise such as this is useful when they start planning proj-
ects, how their students will operate within the project, and as they seek
expertise, too.
6. PROJECT SPIRAL
Several examples in Thinking Through Project-Based Learning exemplify
what the authors describe as the project spiral. These are projects that
extend well beyond a single classroom, perhaps connecting with a wide
audience, engaging with experts or learners in other communities, or
extending across disciplines.
Participants discuss
a. Readiness: How prepared are our students for a project that lasts for
an extended time or involves more than one content area?
b. Preparation: How can we prepare our students to tackle more ambi-
tious projects? What precursor activities or mini-projects would get
them ready to tackle larger efforts?
c. Spinoffs: Examining projects that participants have done before (or
using examples from the Project Library), they discuss: Where
might these projects lead? What are the possible extensions or proj-
ect spirals? What would be the benefits to learners or the school
community if these projects were to spiral in new directions?
Appendix C
Appendix D
Project-Based
Learning Resources
PBL BOOKSHELF
Build a PBL bookshelf for your own professional reading and share titles
with colleagues to promote deeper discussions about the opportunities and
challenges of project-based learning. Here are several titles we recommend.
183
184 THINKING THROUGH PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
ONLINE RESOURCES
Buck Institute for Education (www.bie.org)
Buck Institute for Education (BIE) promotes project-based learning to
improve 21st-century teaching and learning. In addition to delivering
professional development and coaching to districts nationwide, the non-
profit organization maintains an online library of project plans and videos;
provides downloadable tools for project planning, management, and
assessment; and tracks research on the effectiveness of PBL.
Edutopia (www.edutopia.org)
Edutopia, produced by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, pro-
motes project-based learning as a key strategy to improve teaching and
learning. The website includes an extensive library of videos, articles,
blogs, research summaries, and classroom guides, along with online com-
munities where educators can connect with colleagues.
ePals (www.epals.org)
The ePals Global Community is a collaborative space for sharing project
ideas and connecting with classrooms from around the world.
iEARN (www.iearn.org)
iEARN, the International Education and Resource Network, is a
nonprofit global network that enables teachers and youth to use the
Internet and other technologies to collaborate on projects that enhance
learning and make a difference in the world.
Appendix D
References
Allington, R., & Cunningham, P. (2011). Developing effective reading curricula for
struggling readers. In Ravinski, T. (Ed.), Rebuilding the foundation: Effective
reading instruction for 21st century literacy. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.
Amaral, O., Garrison, L., & Klentschy, M., (2002). Helping English learners
increase achievement through inquiry-based science instruction. Bilingual
Research Journal, 26(2), 213239.
Applebee, A., Langer, J., Nystrand, M., & Gamoran, A. (2003). Discussion-based
approaches to developing understanding: Classroom instruction and student
performance in middle and high school English. American Educational Research
Journal, 40(3), 685730.
Barrows, H., & Tamblyn, R. (1980). Problem-based learning. New York: Springer.
Boix Mansilla, V. (2006). Interdisciplinary work at the frontier: An empirical
examination of expert interdisciplinary epistemologies. Issues in Integrative
Studies, 22, 131.
Boix Mansilla, V., & Dawes Duraising, E. (2007). Targeted assessment of students
interdisciplinary work: An empirically grounded framework proposal. Journal
of Higher Education, 78(2), 215237.
Boix Mansilla, V., & Jackson, A. (2011). Educating for global competence: Preparing our
youth to engage the world. New York: Asia Society Partnership for Global
Learning and the Council of Chief State School Officers. Available for down-
load as PDF from asiasociety.org/files/book-globalcompetence.pdf.
Boss, S. (2012, May 31). Teaching non-traditional learners. Edutopia. Retrieved
Aug. 27, 2012, from http://www.edutopia.org/blog/supporting-struggling-
students-suzie-boss.
Boss, S., Johanson, C., Arnold, S., Parker, W., Nguyen, D., Mosborg, S.; Nolen, S....
Bransford, J. (2012). The quest for deeper learning and engagement in advanced
high school courses. The Foundation Review, 3(3), 1223.
Boss, S., & Krauss, J. (2007). Reinventing project-based learning: Your field guide to
real-world projects for the digital age. Eugene, OR: International Society for
Technology in Education.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. (2012a). Occupational outlook
handbook, 201213 edition, kindergarten and elementary school teachers. Retrieved
Aug. 26, 2012, from http://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-
library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htm.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor (2012b). Occupational outlook
handbook, 201213 edition, sources of career information. Retrieved August 29, 2012,
from http://www.bls.gov/ooh/about/sources-of-career-information.htm.
Burk, J. (2011, Feb. 17). Why you should wait to teach projectile motion part 2:
Introducing projectile motion using Angry Birds [web log post]. Quantum
Progress. Retrieved Aug. 27, 2012, from https://quantumprogress.wordpress.
com/2011/02/17/why-you-should-wait-to-teach-projectile-motion-part
-2-introducing-projectile-motion-using-angry-birds/.
187
188 THINKING THROUGH PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
National Council for the Social Studies. (1994). Expectations of excellence: Curriculum
standards for social studies. Washington, DC: Author.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for
school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State
School Officers. (2010). Common core state standards English language arts.
Washington, DC: National Governors Association Center for Best Practices,
Council of Chief State School Officers.
National Research Council. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and
school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
The Nerdy Book Club. (2012, Feb. 14). Transitions: A collection of childrens stories
[web blog post]. The Nerdy Book Club. Retrieved Aug. 27, 2012, from http://
nerdybookclub.wordpress.com/2012/02/14/transitions-a-collection-of-
childrens-stories/.
Noschese, F. (2011, June 16). Angry birds in the physics classroom. [Web log post].
Action-Reaction. Retrieved Jan. 3, 2013, from http://fnoschese.wordpress.
com/2011/06/16/angry-birds-in-the-physics-classroom/.
OWP/P Cannon Design, VS Furniture, & Bruce Mau Design. (2010). The third teacher:
79 ways you can use design to transform teaching and learning. New York: Abrams.
Parker, W., Mosborg, S., Bransford, J., Vye, N., Wilkerson, J., & Abbott, R. (2011).
Rethinking advanced high school coursework: Tackling the depth/breadth
tension in the AP US Government and Politics course. Journal of Curriculum
Studies, 43(4), 533559. Retrieved Aug. 27, 2012, from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
00220272.2011.584561.
Perkins D. (2008). Making learning whole: How seven principles of teaching can trans-
form education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Perry, B. (n.d.) How the brain learns best. Scholastic website. Retrieved Aug. 26,
2012, from http://teacher.scholastic.com/professional/bruceperry/.
Plya, G. (1945). How to solve it. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Plya, G. (1957). How to solve it (2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Robin, J. (2011). Phys newtons. San Diego, CA: author. Retrieved Aug. 27, 2012, from
http://dp.hightechhigh.org/~jrobin/Projects/David_Macaulay/TitlePage
.html.
Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2003). Knowledge building. In Encyclopedia
of Education (2nd ed., pp. 13701373). New York: Macmillan Reference.
Downloaded Aug. 26, 2012, from http://ikit.org/fulltext/2003_knowledge_
building.pdf.
Schloss, A., Franz, P., Thakur, A., & Wojcicki, E. (2012). In search of things: A cur-
riculum for understanding Web search strategies, copyright, bias and credibility.
Stanford, CA: Authors.
Schoenfeld, A. (1992). Learning to think mathematically: Problem solving,
metacognition, and sense making in mathematics. In Douglas A. Grouws,
Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning, pp. 334370. New York:
Macmillan.
Segal, L., & Noble, M. (2008, Spring). Invisibility. Unboxed: A journal of adult learn-
ing in schools (1). Retrieved January 31, 2012, from http://www.hightechhigh
.org/unboxed/issue1/cards/3.php.
Skloot, R. (n.d.). FAQ. Rebecca Skloot website. Retrieved Aug. 27, 2012, from
http://rebeccaskloot.com/faq/.
Snider, L. (2012, March 4). 11-year-old publishes 200th issue of Boulder community
newspaper. Daily Camera Online. Retrieved Aug. 27, 2012, from http://www
.dailycamera.com/boulder-county-news/ci_20092950.
Stahl, R. (1994). Using think-time and wait-time skillfully in the classroom. ERIC
Document Reproduction Service: ED370885. Retrieved Aug. 26, 2012, from
http://www.ericdigests.org/19951/think.htm.
References 191
Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2010). Mind, brain, and education science: A comprehensive
guide to the new brain-based teaching. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.
Torpey, E. (2012). Math at work: Using numbers on the job.Occupational Outlook
Quarterly, 213. Retrieved January 1, 2012, from http://www.bls.gov/opub/
ooq/2012/fall/fall2012ooq.pdf.
Turckes, S. (2011, Aug. 26). What schools can learn from Google, IDEO, and Pixar.
Fast Company Co. Design. Retrieved Aug. 26, 2012, from http://www.fastcodesign
.com/1664735/what-schools-can-learn-from-google-ideo-and-pixar.
Urquhart, V. (2009). Using writing in mathematics to deepen student learning.
Retrieved January 3, 2012, from http://www.mcrel.org/~/media/Files/
McREL/Homepage/Products/01_99/prod19_Writing_in_math.ashx.
U.S. Department of Agriculture. The food desert locator. USDA Economic Research
Service website. Accessed Aug. 26, 2012, at http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-
products/food-desert-locator.aspx.
U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2012, June). Cost of food at home. USDA
Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion website. Accessed Aug. 26, 2012,
at http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/usdafoodcost-home.htm.
Wenglinsky, H. (2000). How teaching matters: Bringing the classroom back into discus-
sions of teacher quality. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Downloaded
Aug. 29, 2012, from http://www.ets.org/research/policy_research_reports/
pic-teamat.
Wessling, S. (2011). Supporting students in a time of core standards: English language
arts, grades 912. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design (Expanded 2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Willis, J. (2007, Summer). The neuroscience of joyful education. Educational Leader
ship online. Retrieved Aug. 26, 2012, from http://www.ascd.org/publications/
educational-leadership/summer07/v0164/num09/The-Neuroscience-of-Joyful-
Education.aspx.
Willis, J. (2011, June 13). Understanding how the brain thinks. Edutopia. Retrieved
Aug. 26, 2012, from http://www.edutopia.org/blog/understanding-how-
the-brain-thinks-judy-willis-md.
Woodard, J., & Baxter, J. (1999, June 30). Tools for understanding: A resource guide
for mathematical understanding in secondary schools. Website funded by U.S.
Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs. http://www2
.ups.edu/community/tofu/home.htm.
Yau, N. (2010, July 22). 7 basic rules for making charts and graphics [web log post].
Flowing Data. Retrieved Aug. 30, 2012, from http://flowingdata.com/
2010/07/22/7-basic-rules-for-making-charts-and-graphs/.
Index
193
194 THINKING THROUGH PROJECT-BASED LEARNING