Furamera Project Final
Furamera Project Final
Furamera Project Final
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UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGY
-PROJECT TITLE-
-Researcher-
Supervisor: Dr C. Chitsora
A third year project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the BSc
-May 2015-
Abstract
Failure of tubes in boiler of the power plants may occur due to various reasons. These include
failures due to creep, corrosion, erosion, overheating and a host of other reasons. This project
deals with the probable cause(s) of failure and also suggest remedial action to prevent similar
oxide scale thickness measurement and microstructural examination were carried to ascertain
the probable cause(s) of failure of inner leg of platen super heater tube. It was observed that
the inner surface of the failed portion of the tube was covered with a white deposit. The
elemental composition of inner surface containing adherent deposits reveals Al, Si, Mg, Fe
etc. This is possibly due to the presence of aluminium silicate, magnesium silicate, and
calcium silicate in inner surface of the tube, which results in poor conductivity. Insulating
effect of this poor conductive deposit on the inner surface caused localized overheating of
tube metal leading to accelerated creep damage and premature failure of the tube. Inferior
quality of de-superheated spray water used to control the steam temperature was identified as
pg. 2
Acknowledgements
This research constitutes of the effort, advice and inspiration of many individuals. I am truly
grateful for all the assistance that I got during the conduction of this study. My heartfelt
gratitude is to my supervisor, Dr Chitsora. I thank him for the guidance and encouragement
he gave me. I appreciate his effort in clarifying difficult concepts which I came across during
my research. Dr Chitsora gave me the freedom to express ideas, explore on my own and
always helped whenever I had problems. He helped me think outside the box. My
sincere gratitude to my classmates including the joking masters for the support. Last but
not least I would like to thank my family for the support that they have always given me
pg. 3
Contents
Abstract.................................................................................................................................................. 2
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... 3
Contents ................................................................................................................................................. 4
List of Figures........................................................................................................................................ 6
List of tables........................................................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 7
1.2 Problem Statement...................................................................................................................... 8
1.3 Justification ................................................................................................................................. 9
1.4Aim ................................................................................................................................................ 9
1.5 Objectives................................................................................................................................... 10
1.6 Assumptions............................................................................................................................... 10
1.7 Limitations ................................................................................................................................. 10
1.8 Key words in the project .......................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 11
2.0 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 ECONOMIZER TUBES .......................................................................................................... 11
2.2 COMMON BOILER TUBE MATERIALS ........................................................................... 12
2.3 FAILURE MECHANISMS IN BOILER TUBES.................................................................. 15
2.3.1 DEAERATOR CRACKING ............................................................................................. 15
2.3.2 FEEDWATER LINE EROSION ...................................................................................... 16
2.3.3 FAILURES DUE TO OVERHEATING .......................................................................... 16
2.3.4 FAILURES DUE TO CORROSION................................................................................ 18
2.4 SUPERHEATER TUBES......................................................................................................... 32
2.5 BOILER DESIGN PROBLEMS ............................................................................................. 34
2.6 PROCEDURES FOR BOILER TUBE FAILURE ANALYSIS ............................................ 35
2.6.1 METALLOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................ 41
2.7 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 45
3.1 Visual Inspection ....................................................................................................................... 45
3.1.1 Instrument/apparatus ........................................................................................................ 45
3.1.2 Procedure ............................................................................................................................ 45
3.2 Dimensional Analysis ................................................................................................................ 45
3.2.1 Instruments/Apparatus ..................................................................................................... 45
3.2.2 Procedure ............................................................................................................................ 45
3.3 Microstructural examination (Metallography) ...................................................................... 46
pg. 4
3.3.1 Reagents and apparatus .................................................................................................... 46
3.3.2 Procedure ............................................................................................................................ 47
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ..................................................................................... 49
4.1 Visual examinations .................................................................................................................. 49
4.2 Dimensional measurement ....................................................................................................... 49
4.3 Microstructural examination ................................................................................................... 50
4.4 Results and discussion .............................................................................................................. 51
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION........................................................................................................... 53
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 53
5.2 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 53
5.3 Recommendations ..................................................................................................................... 53
References ........................................................................................................................................ 56
Appendix .............................................................................................................................................. 58
pg. 5
List of Figures
Figure 1. Harare Power Station ........................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2 oxygen pitting ....................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 3 overheating Figure 4 Thick lip ................................................... 16
Figure 5 embrittlement device ........................................................................................................... 19
Figure 6 stress induced corrosion ...................................................................................................... 22
Figure 7 caustic attack ........................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 8 steam blanketing .................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 9 acid attack ............................................................................................................................ 28
Figure 10 copper corossion ................................................................................................................ 29
Figure 11 hydrogen attack ................................................................................................................. 30
Figure 12 direct oxidation .................................................................................................................. 32
Figure 13 SEM EDS image Figure 14 SEM EDS image .................. 37
Figure 15 metallographic analysis ..................................................................................................... 40
Figure 16 comparison of microstructures ......................................................................................... 41
Figure 17 summary of metallography ............................................................................................... 46
Figure 18 light microscope ................................................................................................................. 48
Figure 19 thick lip Figure 20 adherent white deposits...................................... 49
Figure 21 outer cracking .................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 22 Cross sectional view of the unetched sample showing white deposits and oxide scale at
inner surface. ....................................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 23 oriented creep cavities ....................................................................................................... 50
Figure 24 photograph showing grain boundaries ............................................................................ 51
List of tables
Table 1 Alloy grades used in tubing .................................................................................................. 13
Table 2 Alloying elements .................................................................................................................. 14
pg. 6
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of study
Harare Thermal Power Station Power station is located in the Workington area of the capital
city along Coventry road. Station 1 commissioned in 1942 had a capacity of 21MW but was
decommissioned in 1970. Station 2 had an initial capacity of 75MW when it was commissioned
in 1955, but it was de-rated to 20MW due to uneconomical units. This station consists of nine
chain-grate boilers and six turbo-alternators. Five boilers and three turbo-alternators have since
boilers. The station also has two large turbo-alternator machines producing 30MW each.
Currently one of the turbo alternators is not in service as it is awaiting turbovisory equipment
for it to return to service. Stations 2 and 3 operate independently but they are linked electrically
pg. 7
through four interconnector transformers. Presently, the dependable capacity for Station 2 is
The function of the boiler is to convert water into superheated steam, which is then delivered
to turbine to generate electricity. Pulverized coal is the common fuel used in boiler along with
preheated air. The boiler consists of different critical components like economizer, water wall,
super heater and reheater tubes. Thermal power plant boiler is one of the critical equipment for
the power generation industries. In the present situation of power generation, pulverized coal
fired power stations are the backbones of industrial development in the country, thus
necessitating their maximum availability in terms of plant load factor (PLF). At the same time
reliability and safety aspect is also to be considered. The major percentage of the forced
shutdown of the power stations is from boiler side. So it is necessary to predict the probable
root cause/ causes of the forced outages and also the remedial action to prevent the recurrence
of similar failure in future. A drum type utility Boiler for thermal power generation typically
consists of different pressure parts tubes like water wall, economizer, super heater and reheater.
Different damage mechanism like creep, fatigue, erosion and corrosion are responsible of the
As the life of the boiler tube reaches its limit, failure such as rupture will occur. Since the
boiler is operated at elevated temperature and pressure, any tube rupture will definitely cause
major physical damages to the nearby tubes and the boilers water wall. These lead to a
pg. 8
higher repair cost, an increase in the water consumption and so increased operating costs of
the power station (the Harare Thermal Power station). In some extreme cases, it may also
threaten humans life due to the high pressure explosion. Therefore, it is important to carry
1.3 Justification
The boiler and super heater tubes are the core of a thermal power station. Their failure is
therefore of great influence in the production of power. A significant amount of water is being
lost from the economiser so carrying out the investigation will find the possible causes and the
possible ways to minimise the leakages or alternatively better materials for the tubes that can
withstand the forces of degradation which come with steam. This will also help reduce the risks
faced by the workers in the boiler section. This in turn will cut the water consumption and also
increase the efficiency of power production at Harare Power Station. Operating costs of the
1.4Aim
The study aims to investigate the causes of the leakages in the boiler tubes. The main concern
is to minimise the leakages and if possible find alternative materials that can be used as
pg. 9
1.5 Objectives
To carry out tests on the samples of boiler tubes and determine the mechanical
To determine the chemical analysis of the samples of the material used in boiler tubes
1.6 Assumptions
The assumption to be made is that the sample of the metal has the same composition as all the
1.7 Limitations
Due to lack of equipment in the laboratory, more precise tests and analysis could not be done.
pg. 10
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The function of the boiler is to convert water into superheated steam, which is then delivered
common fuel used in boiler along with preheated air. The boiler consists of different critical
components like economizer, water wall, super heater and reheater tubes. Thermal power plant
boiler is one of the critical equipment for the power generation industries. In the present
situation of power generation, pulverized coal fired power stations are the backbones of
industrial development in the country, thus necessitating their maximum availability in terms
of plant load factor (PLF). At the same time reliability and safety aspect is also to be considered.
The major percentage of the forced shutdown of the power stations is from boiler side. So it is
necessary to predict the probable root cause/ causes of the forced outages and also the remedial
action to prevent the recurrence of similar failure in future. A drum type utility Boiler for
thermal power generation typically consists of different pressure parts tubes like water wall,
economizer, super heater and reheater(Bhowmick 2011). Different damage mechanism like
creep, fatigue, erosion and corrosion are responsible of the different pressure parts tube failure.
Successful, reliable operation of steam generation equipment requires the application of the
best available methods to prevent scale and corrosion. When equipment failures do occur, it
is important that the cause of the problem be correctly identified so that proper corrective
steps can be taken to prevent a recurrence. An incorrect diagnosis of a failure can lead to
pg. 11
Figure 2 oxygen pitting
Water tube economizers are often subject to the serious damage of oxygen pitting (see
Figure 2). The most severe damage occurs at the economizer inlet and, when present, at the
tube weld seams. Where economizers are installed, effective deaerating heater operation is
sodium sulphite, also helps protect this vital part of the boiler.
While oxygen pitting is the most common form of waterside corrosion that causes
economizer tube failures, caustic soda has occasionally accumulated under deposits and
caused caustic gouging. Usually, this type of attack develops in an area of an economizer
where steam generation is taking place beneath a deposit and free caustic soda is present in
the feed water. The best solution to this problem is improved treatment that will eliminate
Other common causes of economizer failure include fatigue cracking at the rolled tube ends
and fireside corrosion caused by the condensation of acid from the boiler flue gas.
Boiler tubes are usually manufactured using alloy materials which can withstand both high
temperature from the flue gases and high pressure steam generation within the tube. The use
pg. 12
of high temperature heat resistant alloys not only improves the supercritical steam quality for
better boiler efficiency, they also allow reduction in volumes of material for fabrication, both
According to Viswanathan (1993), boiler tubes are often categorised into three groups of
alloys; carbon steels, ferritic alloys and austenitic stainless alloys in which all the tubes are
then graded according to its material compositions. The material grades listed by the author
Engineers (ASME) standards. Some of the alloy grades that are commonly used as
Compositions
Of Ferritic
Alloys P S Si Cr Mo
pg. 13
*All tube grades have same compositions of Carbon at 0.15% and Manganese at 0.3-0.6%
(Viswanathan 1993)
From Table above, it is observed that different material grades consist of different percentage
improve the mechanical properties of the tube. Table below shows the function of each
alloying elements.
Alloying
Element Function
oxidation
temper embrittlement
Improve machinability
pg. 14
Silicon (Si) Increase solid-solution strength, hardness and hardenability
properties
Promotes decarburisation
In numerous deaerators, cracks have developed at welds and heat-affected zones near the
welds. The cracking most commonly occurs at the head-to-shell weld below the water level
in the storage compartment(Port et al. n.d.). However, it may also occur above the water
level and at longitudinal welds. Because cracks can develop to the point of equipment
failure, they represent a potential safety hazard requiring periodic equipment inspection and,
The mechanism of most deaerator cracking has been identified as environmentally assisted
fatigue cracking. Although the exact causes are not known, steps can be taken to minimize
the potential for cracking (e.g., stress-relieving of welds and minimization of thermal and
pg. 15
mechanical stress during operation). In addition, water chemistry should be designed to
minimize corrosion.
High-velocity water and especially water/steam mixtures cause erosion in feed water
systems. The most commonly encountered erosion problems occur at the hairpin bends in
steaming economizers. Here, the mixture of steam and water thins the elbows, leaving a
Similar problems can be encountered in feed water lines where high velocities create the
familiar thinning pattern. These problems can occur even at moderate average flow
that form the most tenacious oxide layer. However, the problems cannot be completely
associated with deposits), the cause is usually identified by the deposits which remain, as
shown in Figure 3 (Ghosh et al. 2010). An accurate analysis of the deposits indicates the
pg. 16
source of the problem and the steps needed for correction. Metallographic analyses are
conditions existed prior to failure. Such analyses are helpful also when metal quality or
manufacturing defects are suspected, although these factors are significant only in isolated
instances.
When tube failures occur due to overheating, a careful examination of the failed tube section
reveals whether the failure is due to rapid escalation in tube wall temperature or a long-term,
gradual build-up of deposit. When conditions cause a rapid elevation in metal temperature to
1600F or above, plastic flow conditions are reached and a violent rupture occurs. Ruptures
characterized by thin, sharp edges are identified as "thin-lipped" bursts (see Figure 4).
Violent bursts of the thin-lipped variety occur when water circulation in the tube is
interrupted by blockage or by circulation failure caused by low water levels. In some steam
drum designs, water level is extremely critical because the baffling may isolate a generating
section of the boiler when the steam drum water level falls below a certain point.
Thin-lipped bursts also occur in super heater tubes when steam flow is insufficient, when
deposits restrict flow, or when tubes are blocked by water due to a rapid firing rate during
boiler start-up.
Interruptions in flow do not always result in rapid failure. Depending on the metal
temperature reached, the tube can be damaged by corrosive or thinning mechanisms over a
long period of time before bulges or blisters or outright failures develop. In such instances, a
A long-term scaling condition which will lead to a tube leak is usually indicated by a
wrinkled, bulged external surface and a final thick-lipped fissure or opening. This
pg. 17
appearance is indicative of long-term creep failure created by repetitive scale formation,
causing overheating and swelling of the tube surface in the form of a bulge or blister. The
scale, in such instances, tends to crack off; water contacts the metal and cools it until further
scaling repeats the process. The iron oxide coating on the external surface cracks during the
Various corrosion mechanisms contribute to boiler tube failure. Stress corrosion may result
combination of metal stress and the presence of a corrosive(Smallman & Bishop 1999). A
metallurgical examination of the failed area is required to confirm the specific type of
pg. 18
2.2.5.2 Caustic Embrittlement
cracking of steel. Intercrystalline cracking results only when all of the following are present:
specific conditions of stress, a mechanism for concentration such as leakage, and free NaOH
in the boiler water. Therefore, boiler tubes usually fail from caustic embrittlement at points
The possibility of embrittlement may not be ignored even when the boiler is of an all-welded
design. Cracked welds or tube-end leakage can provide the mechanism by which drum metal
An embrittlement detector may be used to determine whether or not a boiler water has
embrittling tendencies. The device, illustrated in Figure 5, was developed by the United
States Bureau of Mines. If boiler water possesses embrittling characteristics, steps must be
pg. 19
Sodium nitrate is the standard treatment for inhibiting embrittlement in boilers operating at
low pressures. The ratios of sodium nitrate to sodium hydroxide in the boiler water
recommended by the Bureau of Mines depend on the boiler operating pressure. These ratios
are as follows:
Ratio
Up to 250 0.20
Up to 400 0.25
Up to 1000 0.40-0.50
The formula for calculating the sodium nitrate/sodium hydroxide ratio in the boiler water is:
pg. 20
At pressures above 900 psig, coordinated phosphate/pH control is the usual internal
treatment. When properly administered, this treatment method precludes the development of
high concentrations of caustic, eliminating the potential for caustic embrittlement.(Tcr 2004)
Transgranular cracking primarily due to cyclic stress is the most common form of cracking
is necessary to study both the design and the operating conditions of the boiler. Straight tube,
shell-and-tube waste heat boilers frequently develop tube and tube sheet failures due to the
imposition of unequal stresses. A primary cause of this is the uneven distribution of hot
gases across the face of the tube sheet. The tubes involved tend to come loose, creating
leakage problems. Even when the tubes are securely welded, imposed stresses can cause
Any design feature that allows steam pockets to form within a unit can cause cyclic
overheating and quenching. This can lead to transverse cracking of tubes and, occasionally,
shells. Such cracking always appears in the area of greatest stress and results in cracks that
Some intercrystalline cracking may develop in this type of failure whether or not free NaOH
is present. However, the predominant type of cracking is across the grain structure of the
metal. Because it is mechanically induced, the cracking occurs irrespective of boiler water
chemical concentrations. The cracks are often accompanied by a number of pits adjacent to
or in line with the cracking- another specific indicator of the mechanical stresses imposed.
Any corrosives present contribute to the formation of the pits. The normal reaction between
iron and water is sufficient to cause pitting at breaks in the thin oxide film formed on freshly
mechanical forces applied during the manufacturing and fabrication processes. Damage is
commonly visible in stressed components, such as rolled tube ends, threaded bolts, and
cyclone separators(Noor & Kadirgama 2010). However, corrosion can also occur at weld
attachments throughout the boiler (see Figure 6) and can remain undetected until failure
occurs. Regular inspection for evidence of corrosion, particularly in the windbox area of
Kraft recovery boilers, is recommended because of the potential for an explosion caused by a
tube leak.
The potential for stress-induced corrosion can be reduced if the following factors are
minimized: stresses developed in the boiler components, the number of thermal cycles, and
the number of boiler chemical cleanings. In addition, it is necessary to maintain proper water
chemistry control during operation and to provide protection from corrosion during
shutdowns.
pg. 22
Dissolved oxygen corrosion is a constant threat to feed water heater, economizer, and boiler
tube integrity. As deposit control treatment methods have improved, the need for effective
The first serious emphasis on oxygen control began when phosphate-based treatments were
introduced to replace the soda ash treatments common before that time(Kimura et al. 2011).
The dense, hard calcium carbonate scale which developed with the soda ash treatments
protected tubes and drums from serious oxygen corrosion. With the application of phosphate
treatment, the tube and drum surfaces were cleaner. Therefore, more of the surface area was
exposed to corrosives in the water. This spurred the use of improved open feed water heaters
to remove most of the oxygen prior to the entrance of water into the boiler. Today, most
plants are equipped with efficiently operated deaerating heaters. The use of oxygen
scavengers, such as catalysed sodium sulphite, hydrazine, and organic scavengers, is also
The use of chelant treatments and demineralized water has improved the cleanliness of boiler
heat transfer surfaces to such an extent that essentially bare-metal conditions are common.
Only a thin, protective, magnetic oxide film remains in such instances. As a result, oxygen
control has become even more essential today. The use of catalysed sulphite, where
The control of downtime corrosion has become increasingly important in recent years to
prevent or inhibit pitting failures. Often, cold water that has not been deaerated is used for
rapid cooling or start-up of a boiler. This is a risky operating practice, usually chosen for
economic reasons. Severe pitting can occur in such instances, especially in boilers that have
maintain clean heat transfer surfaces and eliminate the use of cold water containing
pg. 23
dissolved oxygen during cool-down and start-up periods. This practice can result in fuel
During the early years of chelant use, nearly all internal boiler corrosion problems were
labelled "chelant corrosion." However, other corrosives such as oxygen, carbon dioxide,
caustic, acid, copper plating, and water are still common causes of boiler corrosion. In
addition, mechanical conditions leading to caustic embrittlement, film boiling, and steam
blanketing are even more prevalent today than ever, as a result of increasing heat transfer
rates and the more compact design of steam generators(Keiser et al. 2006). Chelant
corrosion, or chelant attack, has some specific characteristics, and develops only under
certain conditions.
Chelant corrosion of boiler metal occurs only when excess concentration of the sodium salt
is maintained over a period of time. The attack is of a dissolving or thinning type-not pitting-
and is concentrated in areas of stress within the boiler. It causes thinning of rolled tube ends,
threaded members, baffle edges, and similar parts of stressed, unrelieved areas. Normally,
annealed tubes and drum surfaces are not attacked. When tube thinning occurs in a chelant-
treated boiler, evidence of steam blanketing and/or film boiling is sometimes present. In such
Pitting is often thought to be a result of chelant attack. However, pitting of carbon steel
boiler tubes is almost always due to the presence of uncontrolled oxygen or acid.
Infrequently, copper plating (usually the result of an improper acid cleaning operation) may
pg. 24
2.2.5.7 Caustic Attack
encountered in boilers with demineralized water and most often occurs in phosphate-treated
boilers where tube deposits form, particularly at high heat input or poor circulation
areas(Bamrotwar & Deshpande 2014). Deposits of a porous nature allow boiler water to
permeate the deposits, causing a continuous build-up of boiler water solids between the metal
Because caustic soda does not crystallize under such circumstances, caustic concentration in
the trapped liquid can reach 10,000 ppm or more. Complex caustic-ferritic compounds are
formed when the caustic dissolves the protective film of magnetic oxide. Water in contact
with iron attempts to restore the protective film of magnetite (Fe3O4). As long as the high
caustic concentrations remain, this destructive process causes a continuous loss of metal.
The thinning caused by caustic attack assumes irregular patterns and is often referred to
ascaustic gouging (see Figure 7). When deposits are removed from the tube surface during
examination, the characteristic gouges are very evident, along with the white salts deposit
which usually outlines the edges of the original deposition area. The whitish deposit is
sodium carbonate, the residue of caustic soda reacting with carbon dioxide in the air.
pg. 25
Inspections of boilers with caustic attack often show excessive accumulations of magnetic
oxide in low flow areas of drums and headers. This is caused by the flaking off, during
operation, of deposits under which the complex caustic-ferritic material has formed. When
contacted and diluted by boiler water, this unstable complex immediately reverts to free
caustic and magnetic oxide. The suspended and released magnetic oxide moves to and
accumulates in low flow or high heat flux areas of the boiler.(Ghosh et al. 2010)
While caustic attack is sometimes referred to as caustic pitting, the attack physically appears
as irregular gouging or thinning and should not be confused with the concentrated, localized
usually occurs in a low heat input zone of the boiler. This problem is influenced by the angle
of the affected tubes, along with the actual load maintained on the boiler. Stratification occurs
when, for any reason, velocity is not sufficient to maintain turbulence or thorough mixing of
water and steam during passage through the tubes. Stratification most commonly occurs in
sloped tubes (Figure 8) located away from the radiant heat zone of the boiler, where heat
input is low and positive circulation in the tubes may be lacking.(Sohail & Mustafa 2007)
pg. 26
Examination of the affected tubes usually reveals a prominent water line with general
thinning in the top area of the tube or crown. In rare instances, the bottom of the tube is
thinned. When the boiler water contains caustic, high concentrations accumulate and lead to
caustic corrosion and gouging under the deposits that accumulate at the water line.
In certain instances, stratification may occur together with input of heat to the top or crown
of the tube. This creates a high degree of superheat in the steam blanket. Direct reaction of
steam with the hot steel develops if the metal temperature reaches 750F or higher.
Corrosion of the steel will proceed under such circumstances whether or not caustic is
present. When there is doubt about the exact cause, a metallographic analysis will show if
abnormal temperature excursions contributed to the problem. Deposits usually found under
such circumstances are composed primarily of magnetic iron oxide (Fe3O4). Hydrogen is
also formed as a result of the reaction and is released with the steam.
A somewhat unusual problem related to circulation and heat input problems has been
encountered in roof tubes. These tubes are usually designed to pick up heat on the bottom
side only. Problems generally develop when the tubes sag or break away from the roof,
causing exposure of the entire surface of the tube to the hot gases. The overheating that
usually develops, along with the internal pressure, causes a gradual enlargement of the tube,
sometimes quite uniformly. Failure occurs when the expanded tube can no longer withstand
the combined effects of the thermal stress and internal pressure.(Smallman & Bishop 1999)
Super heater tubes often show the same swelling or enlargement effect. In such instances,
steam flow has been restricted for some reason, leading to overheating and eventually to
failure.
pg. 27
2.2.5.9 Acidic Attack
surfaces. This results in a visually irregular surface appearance, as shown in Figure 9. Smooth
surfaces appear at areas of flow where the attack has been intensified. In severe occurrences,
other components, such as baffling, nuts and bolts, and other stressed areas, may be badly
Severe instances of acid attack can usually be traced to either an unsatisfactory acid cleaning
regeneration acid from an ion exchange process is discharged accidentally into the boiler
feed water system. Cooling water contamination of condensate can depress boiler water pH
and cause severe deposition and pitting in areas of high heat flux. Damage can be quite
severe if immediate steps are not taken to neutralize the acid.(Zhu 2011)
decompose under boiler temperature and pressure to form organic acids. Sugar is an
excellent example of an organic which, when returned in a large quantity, can cause rapid
loss of boiler water alkalinity and reduce pH of the boiler water to 4.3 and lower. Most sugar
pg. 28
refining plants maintain standby pumping systems, to add caustic soda to neutralize these
formed during acid cleaning procedures which do not completely compensate for the amount
of copper oxides in the original deposits. Dissolved copper may be plated out on freshly
cleaned steel surfaces, eventually establishing anodic corrosion areas and forming pits very
In such instances, metallic copper plating is quite evident. In most cases, it is localized in
certain tube banks, giving rise to random pitting in those particular areas. Whenever deposits
are found containing large quantities of copper or its oxide, special precautions are required
Copper deposits and temperatures over 1600F can cause liquid metal embrittlement. Weld
repair of a tube containing copper deposits leads to the failure shown in Figure 10.
pg. 29
2.2.5.11 Hydrogen Attack or Embrittlement
industrial plant because the problem usually occurs only in units operating at pressures of
In systems of this type, the alkalinity of the boiler water is maintained at values that are quite
low compared to usual standards for lower-pressure operation. At the operating pressures
indicated and water conditions imposed, either coordinated pH/phosphate or total volatile
programs are used. Because the boiler water is relatively unbuffered, total volatile programs
are more affected by contaminants that may lower boiler water alkalinity or pH.
When contaminants lower the boiler water pH sufficiently, the acid attack of the steel
generates hydrogen. If this occurs under hard, adherent, nonporous tube deposits, the
hydrogen pressure within the deposit can build up to the point at which the hydrogen
When atomic hydrogen permeates the metal structure, it reacts with the carbon content to
form methane. Because the methane molecule is too large to diffuse through the steel,
pg. 30
excessive pressure develops within the metal structure, causing the metal to rupture along
the crystalline boundaries where methane has formed. The cracking that develops is
decarburized in the process. Failure occurs when the ruptured section can no longer
withstand the internal pressure. Ruptures are violent and sudden, and can be disastrous (see
Figure 11). Failed sections of tubing are cracked in the intergranular mode and decarburized,
but usually retain the original dimensions or thickness of the tubing material.
Although there are many causes of low boiler water pH, it most frequently occurs when
brackish water is used for condenser cooling. Small quantities of magnesium chloride, in
particular, have caused extremely low pH excursions, requiring very close supervision and
To summarize, hydrogen embrittlement occurs only when a hard, dense scale is present on
the tube surfaces, permitting hydrogen to concentrate under the deposit and permeate the
metal. Acidic contamination or low pH excursions commonly produce the conditions for
generation of hydrogen. This type of attack may develop very quickly; therefore, constant
1500 psig or higher. Although it is sometimes confused with intergranular creep cracking,
this type of failure can be positively identified by the distinctive intergranular nature of the
Surveys of units operating at these pressures and under these conditions have generally
indicated that the application of a coordinated pH/phosphate control will lessen the
possibility of hydrogen embrittlement. This is due primarily to the improved buffering of the
pg. 31
2.4 SUPERHEATER TUBES
chemical. In any instance of superheater tube failure, analysis of the deposits found is an
important factor in solving the problem. Magnetic oxide deposits at the point of failure are a
direct indication of oxidation of the tube metal (see Figure 12). This oxidation occurs during
overheating where metal temperatures exceed the design temperature and the steel enters
into a direct reaction with the steam to form magnetic iron oxide with hydrogen release.
When the deposits found in the area of failure are primarily iron oxide, it may be necessary
to explore a number of operating conditions in order to determine the initial cause. (Getwater
2015)
Oxidation may occur if the flow of steam through the tubes is restricted or if the heat input is
excessive, permitting overheating. In the case of insufficient steam flow, the restriction may
be due to conditions prevalent during the transition periods of boiler start-up or shutdown.
This occurs if adequate precautions have not been taken to protect the superheater during the
transition periods. At no time should gas temperatures exceed 900F in the area of the
superheater until the boiler is up to operating pressure and all superheater tubes are clear of
any water which may have accumulated during the downtime. Overheating conditions may
pg. 32
develop during times of low-load operation when adequate distribution of saturated steam
across the tube bank at the inlet header has not been achieved.
entrainment of boiler water solids with the steam. This can result in restricted flow.
However, overheating and direct oxidation failures may occur in areas distinctly removed
from the blockage, such as the bottom loops or the hottest areas of the superheater tubes.
In some cases, there is a very clear delineation between oxidation products in the hot area
and soluble-salts deposits at the inlet. However, in most occurrences, a high percentage of
sodium salt deposits is found in the hot areas along with the oxidation products. There is
little doubt in such instances that boiler water carryover has contributed to the problem.
during start-up and shutdown periods, usually results in thick-lipped fissures and blistering
with all the evidence of creep failure. As in the case of water tubes, a superheater tube will
fail rapidly (often violently) when flow is blocked for a short period of time and tube
failure is due to a long- or short-term situation depends essentially on the same general
Oxygen pitting of superheater tubes, particularly in the pendant loop area, is rather common
and occurs during downtime. It is caused by the exposure of water in these areas to oxygen
problems during start-up or shutdown and to prevent oxygen corrosion during downtime.
When soluble-salts deposits are found in superheater tubes, steam purity is of paramount
concern. It has been the experience of Betz Laboratories, after conducting thousands of
pg. 33
steam purity studies over many years, that soluble-salts deposits in superheaters can be
expected, with attendant problems, whenever steam solids exceed 300 ppb. Therefore, when
soluble-salts deposits are found, a thorough investigation of steam purity (and reasons for
Certain basic design flaws can contribute to tube failures. Problems which occur as a result
of a design flaw may be intensified by the boiler water chemistry. The boiler water often
contains elements that become corrosive when concentrated far beyond normal values as a
Many industrial boilers, for example, are treated in such a manner that low concentrations of
caustic soda are present in the boiler water. The caustic can become corrosive to steel when
the boiler water is allowed to concentrate to abnormally high values as a result of poor
design. Even in the absence of caustic, conditions which permit stratification or steam
blanketing and localized elevation of metal temperatures in excess of 750F allow direct
oxidation or corrosion of the steel in contact with water or steam. This causes loss of metal
Roof tubes, nose arch tubes, and convection pass tubes with slopes of less than 30 degrees
from the horizontal are more subject to deposition and stratification problems and tube
failures than vertical tubes. Whenever a chelant is present in boiler water, the sodium salts of
leaving a residue of caustic soda. The caustic soda residue from the chelant is usually an
pg. 34
A frequent contributor to waste heat boiler problems is the uneven distribution of gases
across the inlet tubes at the hot end. This causes unequal stresses and distortion and leads to
The use of horizontal hairpin tube configurations with inadequate forced circulation of water
through the tubes often permits stratification of steam and water. This often leads to steam
At times, the cause of a failure cannot be readily determined, making it difficult to determine
the appropriate corrective action. A detailed examination of the failure and associated
operating data is usually helpful in identifying the mechanism of failure so that corrective
Proper investigative procedures are needed for accurate metallurgical analyses of boiler
tubes. Depending on the specific case, macroscopic examination combined with chemical
analysis and microscopic analysis of the metal may be needed to assess the primary failure
mechanism(s). When a failed tube section is removed from a boiler, care must be taken to
prevent contamination of deposits and damage to the failed zones. Also, the tube should be
The first step in the lab investigation is a thorough visual examination. Both the fireside and
the waterside surfaces should be inspected for failure or indications of imminent failure.
correlation and interpretation of data obtained during the investigation. Particular attention
should be paid to colour and texture of deposits, fracture surface location and morphology,
pg. 35
and metal surface contour. A stereo microscope allows detailed examination under low-
power magnification.
Dimensional analysis of a failed tube is important. Callipers and point micrometres are
valuable tools that allow quantitative assessment of failure characteristics such as bulging,
wall thinning at a rupture lip, and corrosion damage. The extent of ductile expansion and/or
oxide formation can provide clues toward determining the primary failure mechanism.
External wall thinning from fireside erosion or corrosion mechanisms can result in tube
ruptures which often mimic the appearance of overheating damage. In those cases,
dimensional analysis of adjacent areas can help to determine whether or not significant
external wall thinning occurred prior to failure. A photograph of a tube cross section taken
immediately adjacent to a failure site can assist in dimensional analysis and provide clear-cut
documentation.
The extent, orientation, and frequency of tube surface cracking can be helpful in pinpointing
a failure mechanism. While overheating damage typically causes longitudinal cracks, fatigue
damage commonly results in cracks that run transverse to the tube axis. In particular, zones
adjacent to welded supports should be examined closely for cracks. Non-destructive testing
(e.g., magnetic particle or dye penetrant inspection) may be necessary to identify and assess
When proper water chemistry guidelines are maintained, the waterside surfaces of boiler
tubes are coated with a thin protective layer of black magnetite. Excessive waterside
deposition can lead to higher-than-design metal temperatures and eventual tube failure.
Quantitative analysis of the internal tube surface commonly involves determination of the
deposit-weight density (DWD) value and deposit thickness. Interpretation of these values
can define the role of internal deposits in a failure mechanism. DWD values are also used to
pg. 36
determine whether or not chemical cleaning of boiler tubing is required. In addition, the tube
surface may be thoroughly cleaned by means of glass bead blasting during DWD testing.
This facilitates accurate assessment of waterside or fireside corrosion damage (e.g., pitting,
The presence of unusual deposition patterns on a waterside surface can be an indication that
non-optimal circulation patterns exist in a boiler tube. For example, longitudinal tracking of
deposits in a horizontal roof tube may indicate steam blanketing conditions. Steam
blanketing, which results when conditions permit stratified flow of steam and water in a
given tube, can lead to accelerated corrosion damage (e.g., wall thinning and/or gouging)
When excessive internal deposits are present in a tube, accurate chemical analyses can be
used to determine the source of the problem and the steps necessary for correction.
the tube and collecting a cross section of the deposit for chemical analysis. Typically, a loss-
on-ignition (LOI) value is also determined for the waterside deposit. The LOI value, which
represents the weight loss obtained after the deposit is heated in a furnace, can be used to
pg. 37
In many cases, chemical analysis of a deposit from a specific area is desired. Scanning
allows inorganic chemical analysis on a microscopic scale. SEM-EDS analyses are shown in
Figures 13 and figure 14. For example, SEM-EDS can be useful in the following
determinations:
tube surface
Inorganic analyses through SEM-EDS can also be performed on ground and polished cross
sections of a tube covered with thick layers of waterside deposit. This testing is called
elemental mapping and is particularly valuable when the deposits are multi-layered. Similar
to the examination of rings on a tree, cross-sectional analysis of boiler deposits can identify
periods when there have been upsets in water chemistry, and thereby provides data to help
determine exactly how and when deposits formed. With elemental mapping, the spatial
A scanning electron microscope (SEM) can also be utilized to analyse the topography of
in classifying a failure mode. For example, microscopic features of a fracture surface can
reveal whether the steel failed in a brittle or ductile manner, whether cracks propagated
through grains or along grain boundaries, and whether or not fatigue (cyclic stress) was the
pg. 38
primary cause of failure. In addition, SEM-EDS testing can be used to identify the
Most water-bearing tubes used in boiler construction are fabricated from low-carbon steel.
However, steam-bearing (super heater and reheater) tubes are commonly fabricated from
low-alloy steel containing differing levels of chromium and molybdenum. Chromium and
molybdenum increase the oxidation and creep resistance of the steel. For accurate
assessment of metal overheating, it is important to have a portion of the tube analysed for
alloy chemistry. Alloy analysis can also confirm that the tubing is within specifications. In
isolated instances, initial installation of the wrong alloy type or tube repairs using the wrong
grade of steel can occur. In these cases, chemical analysis of the steel can be used to
often, this involves hardness measurement, which can be used to estimate the tensile strength
properties that occurs during metal overheating. Usually, a Rockwell hardness tester is used;
however, it is sometimes advantageous to use a micro hardness tester. For example, micro
hardness measurements can be used to obtain a hardness profile across a welded zone to
assess the potential for brittle cracking in the heat-affected zone of a weld.
pg. 39
whether cracks were caused by creep damage, corrosion fatigue, or stress-corrosion
cracking (SCC)
whether tube failure resulted from hydrogen damage or internal corrosion gouging
Proper sample orientation and preparation are critical aspects of microstructural analysis.
The orientation of the sectioning is determined by the specific failure characteristics of the
case. After careful selection, metal specimens are cut with a power hacksaw or an abrasive
cut-off wheel and mounted in a mold with resin or plastic. After mounting, the samples are
subjected to a series of grinding and polishing steps. The goal is to obtain a flat, scratch-free
surface of metal in the zone of interest. After processing, a suitable etchant is applied to the
pg. 40
(b) Grain growth caused by overheating of
(a) Normal carbon steel tube metal
carbon steel. Temperature in the range of 1575
microstructure. ASTM A178-73 Grade "A" tubing.
F and higher.
(c) Carbide spheroidization and graphitization (d) Transgranular cracking of tubing due to
indicating very long mild overheatingin the 900- thermal cyclic stress.
1025 F range.
Figure 16 comparison of microstructures
This is followed by a comparison of microstructures observed in various areas of a tube
section-for example, the heated side versus the unheated side of a water wall tube. Because
the microstructure on the unheated side often reflects the as-manufactured condition of the
steel, comparison with the microstructure in a failed region can provide valuable insight into
2.6.1 METALLOGRAPHY
Our understanding of the behaviour of materials depends on our ability to relate properties to
microstructures. The microstructure is the geometric arrangement of grains and the different
Grain Boundaries. The first thing we want to learn about any given microstructure is the size
and shape of the grains (crystals). Most engineering alloys are polycrystalline. This means
pg. 41
that each piece of a metal is made up of a great number of single crystals, or grains, each
having a regular crystal structure (for example, FCC, BCC, or HCP). Each grain will have a
between adjacent grains where the crystal lattice is disordered due to abrupt change in
crystallographic directions. This region is called the grain boundary. The grain size (i.e., the
material and thus measuring the grain size in a given microstructure is a routine practice in
materials testing. Materials specialists are interested to see the grain boundaries in order to
estimate the grain sizes. The average grain size in metals is usually in the order of several to
tens of micrometres, which can be measured only by the use of an optical or light
intense light and uses optics to collect the reflected beams of light to form the magnified
image. Magnification of optical microscopes can range from 1 to 1000X but 200X is usually
sufficient for practical purposes. Contrasts in the reflective image result from differences in
microscopes (micrographs) play a vital role in our attempts to identify the microstructure of
Second phase particles. Many engineering materials are composed of more than one phase.
A phase is defined as a part of material that is distinct from others in crystal structure (BCC,
FCC, or HCP) or in composition (Fe is a different phase than Fe3C; and Al is a different
phase than Al2O3).Second phase particles having sizes in the range of few micrometres are
present in most engineering alloys and are readily observed in an optical microscope.
Different phases will appear in micrographs at different grey scale because each reflects light
pg. 42
Microscopy can give information concerning a materials composition, previous treatment
- grain size
- phases present
- chemical homogeneity
- distribution of phases
2.7 SUMMARY
To summarise as a whole, it is identified that one of the factor behind major tube failures is
due to the waterside corrosion which causes scale deposition on the inner wall of the tube.
The formation of the scales is caused by the high temperature chemical reaction between the
treated boiler water and the tube materials. As the oxide-scale on the tube wall increases, it
acts as a thermal barrier and an effective insulator causes slow heat transfer from the hot flue
gas into the water contained in the tube, which indirectly increases the tube temperature.
Increase in tube temperature results in a distorted microstructure and weak tube material
strength which then results in creep formation on the exterior wall of the tube.
Another factor would be the fireside corrosion which leads to wall thinning of the tube.
Thinning effect on the tube exterior wall is contributed by the chipping and erosion from the
action of flying foreign matter in the hot flue gas. Moreover, the tube metal may also be
consumed by the corrosion process due to the right chemical composition of flue gas. As the
wall is thinned down to a certain limit, it could not uphold the constant amount of pressure
inside the tube. This causes a huge leap in hoop stress on the tube; to a certain limit above the
maximum allowable stress where the tube started to enter its critical state upon yielding. As
both of these effects combined, it fastens the creep rate and thus reduces the lifespan of the
pg. 43
boiler tube. From the above findings, it is important to always evaluate the wall thickness
reduction and the oxide-scale formation in order to mitigate the unwanted breakdowns and
evaluate the tubes behaviour which includes the effect of oxide-scale growth on the inner
wall and wall thinning on the exterior wall of the tube. The evaluation is carried by
incorporating most of the concepts and correlations discussed in this chapter into the iterative
analytical program.
pg. 44
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
The following test work was done to identify the probable cause/causes of failure.
- Visual examination
- Dimensional measurement
- Microstructural examination
3.1.1 Instrument/apparatus
Naked eye
Digital camera
3.1.2 Procedure
Visual inspection was done. This is the most basic failure investigation procedure where the
naked eye is the tool used for observing. A camera to capture the images of the failed
component is required.
- outside callipers
3.2.2 Procedure
A sample of the failed tube was taken and the inside and outside diameters measured using
callipers.
The unfailed sample was also measured.
pg. 45
3.3 Microstructural examination (Metallography)
Introduction
work was conducted on a sample of the failed boiler tube to observe the micro-structure.
Microscopic investigations were made to view the microstructure and photographs were
taken to highlight the different microstructure of the boiler tube sample subject to stipulated
test that are in line with the investigation. The microscopy work was also done on the sample
pg. 46
camera
grinding paper
cutting machine
polishing disk
ethanol
cotton wool
3.3.2 Procedure
Cutting
Three samples from the failed boiler tube were cut using a Discotom -2 cutter with a (50A25
Mounting
The samples were mounted with a Struers Pronto Press-20 mounting machine using Acrylic
The samples were ground with varying sizes ranging from coarse grinding media to fine
grinding media using size from 320 to 1800 in order to generate a flat and scratch free
surface.
Mechanical Polishing
The samples were polished on a rotating polishing cloth to remove grind markings and to
leave a smooth finish. A polishing paste was used to reduce friction that would have resulted
in surface scratching.
pg. 47
Etching
The metallic samples were etched with ethanol to mark out distinctly present microstructural
After which the etched sample was placed under the microscope and photographs of the
pg. 48
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
burst (Figure 19). The outside diameter surface is covered with adherent scale and a uniform
thin adherent white deposit is found on the inner side (Figure 20) Considerable swelling and
reduction in wall thickness of the tube are observed in the area of the burst.
and thick outside scale with longitudinal scale cracking at the outer surface (Figure 21). No
thin adherent white deposit was found inside in the service exposed tube.
original diameter 38.0 mm. The gross circumferential expansion of the failed tube is about 21
pg. 49
%. The wall thickness found at the region of failure is 5.4mm against the nominal wall
Figure 22 Cross sectional view of the unetched sample showing white deposits and oxide
scale at inner surface.
Metallographic specimens from the failed, adjacent unfailed service exposed tube samples
were sectioned, polished and etched (2% Nital) for microstructural analysis in optical
pg. 50
Figure 24 photograph showing grain boundaries
The microstructure at the fracture tip of the failed tube shows numerous oriented creep
cavities at the grain boundaries (Figure 23). The microstructure of the adjacent service
exposed tube shows few isolated creep cavities at the grain boundaries (Figure. 24).
outside diameter (OD) is covered with adherent scale and thin white layer of deposit
on inner surface of the tube. Considerable swelling of the tube in the area of the burst
is also observed. The gross circumferential expansion of the failed tube is up to about
The chemical composition of tube material conforms to ASME SA 213 T-22 (2.25
Analysis on the inner surface of the tube confirms the presence of Mg, Al, Si, Ca etc.
This may be possibly due to the presence of hard constituent like magnesium silicate,
aluminium silicate and calcium silicate of raw water used in attemperation of platen
The microstructure around the zone of failure shows numerous oriented creep cavities
at the grain boundaries which accounts for the severe creep damage at the failure area.
pg. 51
The microstructure of adjacent service exposed unfailed tube reveals ferrite and alloy
carbides in association with few isolated creep cavities at the grain boundaries. The
creep damage is lesser in service exposed tube compared to failed zone containing
deposits.
pg. 52
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
5.1 Introduction
The test work conducted and observations made have brought up various deductions and implications
5.2 Conclusions
Poor thermal conductivity of the deposit found on the inner surface of the tube adversely
affects the heat transfer and led to higher tube metal temperature causing premature failure of
the tube. The undesirable steam quality and specific steam parameters at the platen
superheater region facilitate precipitation of dissolved solutes in the steam on the inner
surface of the tube. The presence of hard constituents like aluminium silicate, magnesium
silicate etc. of water, used for attemperation in platen superheater region are responsible for
5.3 Recommendations
In order to increase the efficiency of power generation, most of the power plants opt for
higher quality superheated steam, which can be produced by increasing the operating
conditions. Since boiler tube life is greatly dependant to its tube temperature, it is suggested
that constant monitoring should be carried out on the flue gas temperature. This is to ensure
that the boiler could operate within the recommended manufacturer design temperature. This
precaution step is necessary to reduce the possibility of overheated tubes from occurring
which may accelerate the oxide-scale growth and creep rate. Besides that, the increase in the
loading conditions to achieve better steam quality may accelerate the wall thinning on the
tube. Therefore, it is important to operate the boiler within the recommended optimum range
specified by the manufacturer in order to attain both high quality steam and a shorter boiler
maintenance interval. Operating the boiler above the design specifications will result in
pg. 53
frequent maintenance, thus incurring more maintenance cost and downtime per year of
operation. A boiler typically operates at a fluctuating trend due to uncertain demand from
consumers. Therefore, the boiler tubes may also experience cyclic thermal stresses due to
metal expansion and contraction which leads to fatigue failure. It is recommended the feed
water used for attemperation in the platen superheater of the boiler are properly subjected
chemical treatment to avoid such undesired white deposits, which is responsible for increase
of tube metal temperature and subsequent failure of the tube.Since boiler tubes are also
exposed to elevated temperature, the combined effect of both creep and fatigue failure;
termed as creep-fatigue interaction can be studied in the future project. The program can be
expanded to include this interaction to estimate the remaining life of the boiler tube.
Since the boiler used at the power station is the outdated chain-grate boiler it is recommended
that the power station consider replacing this boiler system. Alternatively boiler tube can be
replaced using new tubes such as the Sanicro 25 tubes manufactured by Sandvik. They have
Sanicro 25
temperature properties, designed for use in advanced pulverized coal fired steam boilers.
- Good fabricability
pg. 54
Also recommended is the use of more advanced equipment for investigating failures to obtain
accurate and conclusive results. An example of high end equipment to be used are Energy
Dispersive spectrometer. Further study can be done in order to refine the outcome of this
project.
pg. 55
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pg. 57
Appendix
% = 100
% = 100
pg. 58