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2 - Oracle Database 11g SQL Fundamentals I Vol 2
2 - Oracle Database 11g SQL Fundamentals I Vol 2
Fundamentals I
D49996GC20
Edition 2.0
October 2009
D63148
Authors Copyright 2009, Oracle. All rights reserved.
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Manipulating Data
Objective
In this lesson, you learn how to use the data manipulation language (DML) statements to insert rows
into a table, update existing rows in a table, and delete existing rows from a table. You also learn
how to control transactions with the COMMIT, SAVEPOINT, and ROLLBACK statements.
New
DEPARTMENTS row
Method Description
Implicit Omit the column from the column list.
Explicit Specify the NULL keyword in the VALUES list;
specify the empty string ('') in the VALUES list for character strings
and dates.
Be sure that you can use null values in the targeted column by verifying the Null status with the
DESCRIBE command.
The Oracle server automatically enforces all data types, data ranges, and data integrity constraints.
Any column that is not listed explicitly obtains a null value in the new row.
Common errors that can occur during user input are checked in the following order:
Mandatory value missing for a NOT NULL column
Duplicate value violating any unique or primary key constraint
Any value violating a CHECK constraint
Referential integrity maintained for foreign key constraint
Data type mismatches or values too wide to fit in column
Note: Use of the column list is recommended because it makes the INSERT statement more readable
and reliable, or less prone to mistakes.
Oracle Database 11g: SQL Fundamentals I 9 - 8
Inserting Special Values
Creating a Script
You can save commands with substitution variables to a file and execute the commands in the file.
The example in the slide records information for a department in the DEPARTMENTS table.
Run the script file and you are prompted for input for each of the ampersand (&) substitution
variables. After entering a value for the substitution variable, click the OK button. The values that
you input are then substituted into the statement. This enables you to run the same script file over and
over, but supply a different set of values each time you run it.
EMPLOYEES
UPDATE employees
SET department_id = 50
WHERE employee_id = 113;
Values for all the rows in the table are modified if you omit
the WHERE clause:
UPDATE copy_emp
SET department_id = 110;
For example, an employee who was an SA_REP has now changed his job to an IT_PROG.
Therefore, his JOB_ID needs to be updated and the commission field needs to be set to NULL.
UPDATE employees
SET job_id = 'IT_PROG', commission_pct = NULL
WHERE employee_id = 114;
Note: The COPY_EMP table has the same data as the EMPLOYEES table.
DEPARTMENTS
All rows in the table are deleted if you omit the WHERE
clause:
However, if you omit the WHERE clause, all rows in the table are deleted. The second example in the
slide deletes all rows from the COPY_EMP table, because no WHERE clause was specified.
Example:
Remove rows identified in the WHERE clause.
DELETE FROM employees WHERE employee_id = 114;
Example:
TRUNCATE TABLE copy_emp;
TRUNCATE Statement
A more efficient method of emptying a table is by using the TRUNCATE statement.
You can use the TRUNCATE statement to quickly remove all rows from a table or cluster. Removing
rows with the TRUNCATE statement is faster than removing them with the DELETE statement for the
following reasons:
The TRUNCATE statement is a data definition language (DDL) statement and generates no
rollback information. Rollback information is covered later in this lesson.
Truncating a table does not fire the delete triggers of the table.
If the table is the parent of a referential integrity constraint, you cannot truncate the table. You need
to disable the constraint before issuing the TRUNCATE statement. Disabling constraints is covered in
the lesson titled Using DDL Statements to Create and Manage Tables.
Database Transactions
The Oracle server ensures data consistency based on transactions. Transactions give you more
flexibility and control when changing data, and they ensure data consistency in the event of user
process failure or system failure.
Transactions consist of DML statements that constitute one consistent change to the data. For
example, a transfer of funds between two accounts should include the debit in one account and the
credit to another account of the same amount. Both actions should either fail or succeed together; the
credit should not be committed without the debit.
Transaction Types
Type Description
Data manipulation Consists of any number of DML statements that the Oracle
language (DML) server treats as a single entity or a logical unit of work
Data definition Consists of only one DDL statement
language (DDL)
Data control language Consists of only one DCL statement
(DCL)
Time COMMIT
Transaction
DELETE
SAVEPOINT A
INSERT
UPDATE
SAVEPOINT B
INSERT
ROLLBACK ROLLBACK ROLLBACK
to SAVEPOINT B to SAVEPOINT A
INSERT...
ROLLBACK TO update_done;
Status Circumstances
Automatic commit DDL statement or DCL statement issued
SQL Developer or SQL*Plus exited normally, without
explicitly issuing COMMIT or ROLLBACK commands
Automatic rollback Abnormal termination of SQL Developer or SQL*Plus or
system failure
Note: In SQL*Plus, the AUTOCOMMIT command can be toggled ON or OFF. If set to ON, each
individual DML statement is committed as soon as it is executed. You cannot roll back the changes.
If set to OFF, the COMMIT statement can still be issued explicitly. Also, the COMMIT statement is
issued when a DDL statement is issued or when you exit SQL*Plus. The SET AUTOCOMMIT
ON/OFF command is skipped in SQL Developer. DML is committed on a normal exit from SQL
Developer only if you have the Autocommit preference enabled. To enable Autocommit, perform the
following:
In the Tools menu, select Preferences. In the Preferences dialog box, expand Database and select
Worksheet Parameters.
In the right pane, select the Autocommit in SQL Worksheet option. Click OK.
Committing Data
In the example in the slide, a row is deleted from the EMPLOYEES table and a new row is inserted
into the DEPARTMENTS table. The changes are saved by issuing the COMMIT statement.
Example:
Remove departments 290 and 300 in the DEPARTMENTS table and update a row in the EMPLOYEES
table. Save the data change.
DELETE FROM departments
WHERE department_id IN (290, 300);
UPDATE employees
SET department_id = 80
WHERE employee_id = 206;
COMMIT;
ROLLBACK;
Rollback complete.
COMMIT;
Commit complete.
Statement-Level Rollback
A part of a transaction can be discarded through an implicit rollback if a statement execution error is
detected. If a single DML statement fails during execution of a transaction, its effect is undone by a
statement-level rollback, but the changes made by the previous DML statements in the transaction
are not discarded. They can be committed or rolled back explicitly by the user.
The Oracle server issues an implicit commit before and after any DDL statement. So, even if your
DDL statement does not execute successfully, you cannot roll back the previous statement because
the server issued a commit.
Terminate your transactions explicitly by executing a COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement.
Read Consistency
Database users access the database in two ways:
Read operations (SELECT statement)
Write operations (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE statements)
You need read consistency so that the following occur:
The database reader and writer are ensured a consistent view of the data.
Readers do not view data that is in the process of being changed.
Writers are ensured that the changes to the database are done in a consistent manner.
Changes made by one writer do not disrupt or conflict with the changes being made by another
writer.
The purpose of read consistency is to ensure that each user sees data as it existed at the last commit,
before a DML operation started.
Note: The same user can log in to different sessions. Each session maintains read consistency in the
manner described above, even if they are the same users.
User A
Undo
segments
Changed
SELECT * and
FROM userA.employees; Read- unchanged
consistent data
image Before
change
User B (old data)
1. True
2. False
Answer: 2
Summary
In this lesson, you should have learned how to manipulate data in the Oracle database by using the
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, and TRUNCATE statements, as well as how to control data changes by
using the COMMIT, SAVEPOINT, and ROLLBACK statements. You also learned how to use the FOR
UPDATE clause of the SELECT statement to lock rows for your changes only.
Remember that the Oracle server guarantees a consistent view of data at all times.
Practice 9: Overview
In this practice, you add rows to the MY_EMPLOYEE table, update and delete data from the table, and
control your transactions. You run a script to create the MY_EMPLOYEE table.
Objectives
In this lesson, you are introduced to the data definition language (DDL) statements. You learn the
basics of how to create simple tables, alter them, and remove them. The data types available in DDL
are shown and schema concepts are introduced. Constraints are discussed in this lesson. Exception
messages that are generated from violating constraints during DML operations are shown and
explained.
Database objects
Naming rules
CREATE TABLE statement:
Access another users tables
DEFAULT option
Data types
Overview of constraints: NOT NULL, UNIQUE, PRIMARY
KEY, FOREIGN KEY, CHECK constraints
Creating a table using a subquery
ALTER TABLE
Read-only tables
DROP TABLE statement
Object Description
Table Basic unit of storage; composed of rows
View Logically represents subsets of data from one or
more tables
Sequence Generates numeric values
Index Improves the performance of some queries
Database Objects
The Oracle Database can contain multiple data structures. Each structure should be outlined in the
database design so that it can be created during the build stage of database development.
Table: Stores data
View: Subset of data from one or more tables
Sequence: Generates numeric values
Index: Improves the performance of some queries
Synonym: Gives alternative name to an object
Oracle Table Structures
Tables can be created at any time, even when users are using the database.
You do not need to specify the size of a table. The size is ultimately defined by the amount of
space allocated to the database as a whole. It is important, however, to estimate how much space
a table will use over time.
Table structure can be modified online.
Note: More database objects are available, but are not covered in this course.
Naming Rules
You name database tables and columns according to the standard rules for naming any Oracle
database object:
Table names and column names must begin with a letter and be 130 characters long.
Names must contain only the characters AZ, az, 09, _ (underscore), $, and # (legal
characters, but their use is discouraged).
Names must not duplicate the name of another object owned by the same Oracle server user.
Names must not be an Oracle serverreserved word.
- You may also use quoted identifiers to represent the name of an object. A quoted identifier
begins and ends with double quotation marks (). If you name a schema object using a
quoted identifier, you must use the double quotation marks whenever you refer to that
object. Quoted identifiers can be reserved words, although this is not recommended.
Naming Guidelines
Use descriptive names for tables and other database objects.
Note: Names are not case-sensitive. For example, EMPLOYEES is treated to be the same name as
eMPloyees or eMpLOYEES. However, quoted identifiers are case-sensitive.
For more information, see the section on Schema Object Names and Qualifiers in the Oracle
Database SQL Language Reference 11g, Release 1 (11.1).
Database objects
Naming rules
CREATE TABLE statement:
Access another users tables
DEFAULT option
Data types
Overview of constraints: NOT NULL, UNIQUE, PRIMARY
KEY, FOREIGN KEY, CHECK constraints
Creating a table using a subquery
ALTER TABLE
Read-only tables
DROP TABLE statement
You specify:
The table name
The column name, column data type, and column size
USERA USERB
SELECT * SELECT *
FROM userB.employees; FROM userA.employees;
DEFAULT Option
When you define a table, you can specify that a column should be given a default value by using the
DEFAULT option. This option prevents null values from entering the columns when a row is inserted
without a value for the column. The default value can be a literal, an expression, or a SQL function
(such as SYSDATE or USER), but the value cannot be the name of another column or a
pseudocolumn (such as NEXTVAL or CURRVAL). The default expression must match the data type of
the column.
Consider the following examples:
INSERT INTO hire_dates values(45, NULL);
The above statement will insert the null value rather than the default value.
INSERT INTO hire_dates(id) values(35);
The above statement will insert SYSDATE for the HIRE_DATE column.
Note: In SQL Developer, click the Run Script icon or press [F5] to run the DDL statements. The
feedback messages will be shown on the Script Output tabbed page.
Creating Tables
The example in the slide creates the DEPT table with four columns: DEPTNO, DNAME, LOC, and
CREATE_DATE. The CREATE_DATE column has a default value. If a value is not provided for an
INSERT statement, the system date is automatically inserted.
To confirm that the table was created, run the DESCRIBE command.
Because creating a table is a DDL statement, an automatic commit takes place when this statement is
executed.
Note: You can view the list of tables you own by querying the data dictionary. For example:
select table_name from user_tables
Using data dictionary views, you can also find information about other database objects such as
views, indexes, and so on. You will learn about data dictionaries in detail in the Oracle Database
11g: SQL Fundaments II course.
Database objects
Naming rules
CREATE TABLE statement:
Access another users tables
DEFAULT option
Data types
Overview of constraints: NOT NULL, UNIQUE, PRIMARY
KEY, FOREIGN KEY, CHECK constraints
Creating a table using a subquery
ALTER TABLE
Read-only tables
DROP TABLE statement
Data Types
When you identify a column for a table, you need to provide a data type for the column. There are
several data types available:
Data Type Description
VARCHAR2(size) Variable-length character data (A maximum size must be
specified: minimum size is 1; maximum size is 4,000.)
CHAR [(size)] Fixed-length character data of length size bytes (Default and
minimum size is 1; maximum size is 2,000.)
NUMBER [(p,s)] Number having precision p and scale s (Precision is the total
number of decimal digits and scale is the number of digits to
the right of the decimal point; precision can range from 1 to
38, and scale can range from 84 to 127.)
DATE Date and time values to the nearest second between January 1,
4712 B.C., and December 31, 9999 A.D.
LONG Variable-length character data (up to 2 GB)
Guidelines
A LONG column is not copied when a table is created using a subquery.
A LONG column cannot be included in a GROUP BY or an ORDER BY clause.
Only one LONG column can be used per table.
No constraints can be defined on a LONG column.
You might want to use a CLOB column rather than a LONG column.
Note: These datetime data types are available with Oracle9i and later releases. The datetime data
types are discussed in detail in the lesson titled Managing Data in Different Time Zones in the
Oracle Database 11g: SQL Fundamentals II course.
Also, for more information about the datetime data types, see the sections on TIMESTAMP
Datatype, INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH Datatype, and INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND Datatype
in Oracle Database SQL Language Reference 11g, Release 1 (11.1).
Database objects
Naming rules
CREATE TABLE statement:
Access another users tables
DEFAULT option
Data types
Overview of constraints: NOT NULL, UNIQUE, PRIMARY
KEY, FOREIGN KEY, CHECK constraints
Creating a table using a subquery
ALTER TABLE
Read-only tables
DROP TABLE statement
Constraints
The Oracle server uses constraints to prevent invalid data entry into tables.
You can use constraints to do the following:
Enforce rules on the data in a table whenever a row is inserted, updated, or deleted from that
table. The constraint must be satisfied for the operation to succeed.
Prevent the deletion of a table if there are dependencies from other tables.
Provide rules for Oracle tools, such as Oracle Developer.
Data Integrity Constraints
C onstraint D escription
NO T NUL L Specifies that the colum n cannot contain a null value
Constraint Guidelines
All constraints are stored in the data dictionary. Constraints are easy to reference if you give them a
meaningful name. Constraint names must follow the standard object-naming rules, except that the
name cannot be the same as another object owned by the same user. If you do not name your
constraint, the Oracle server generates a name with the format SYS_Cn, where n is an integer so that
the constraint name is unique.
Constraints can be defined at the time of table creation or after the creation of the table. You can
define a constraint at the column or table level. Functionally, a table-level constraint is the same as a
column-level constraint.
For more information, see the section on Constraints in Oracle Database SQL Language Reference
11g, Release 1 (11.1).
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE [schema.]table
(column datatype [DEFAULT expr]
[column_constraint],
...
[table_constraint][,...]);
Defining Constraints
The slide gives the syntax for defining constraints when creating a table. You can create constraints
at either the column level or table level. Constraints defined at the column level are included when
the column is defined. Table-level constraints are defined at the end of the table definition and must
refer to the column or columns on which the constraint pertains in a set of parentheses. It is mainly
the syntax that differentiates the two; otherwise, functionally, a column-level constraint is the same
as a table-level constraint.
NOT NULL constraints must be defined at the column level.
Constraints that apply to more than one column must be defined at the table level.
In the syntax:
schema Is the same as the owners name
table Is the name of the table
DEFAULT expr Specifies a default value to be used if a value is omitted in the
INSERT statement
column Is the name of the column
datatype Is the columns data type and length
column_constraint Is an integrity constraint as part of the column definition
table_constraint Is an integrity constraint as part of the table definition
Ensures that null values are not permitted for the column:
UNIQUE constraint
EMPLOYEES
INSERT INTO
Allowed
Not allowed: already exists
UNIQUE Constraint
A UNIQUE key integrity constraint requires that every value in a column or a set of columns (key) be
uniquethat is, no two rows of a table can have duplicate values in a specified column or a set of
columns. The column (or set of columns) included in the definition of the UNIQUE key constraint is
called the unique key. If the UNIQUE constraint comprises more than one column, that group of
columns is called a composite unique key.
UNIQUE constraints enable the input of nulls unless you also define NOT NULL constraints for the
same columns. In fact, any number of rows can include nulls for columns without the NOT NULL
constraints because nulls are not considered equal to anything. A null in a column (or in all columns
of a composite UNIQUE key) always satisfies a UNIQUE constraint.
Note: Because of the search mechanism for the UNIQUE constraints on more than one column, you
cannot have identical values in the non-null columns of a partially null composite UNIQUE key
constraint.
PRIMARY KEY
DEPARTMENTS
Not allowed
(null value) INSERT INTO
Not allowed
(50 already exists)
EMPLOYEES
FOREIGN
KEY
INSERT INTO Not allowed
(9 does not
exist)
Allowed
CHECK Constraint
The CHECK constraint defines a condition that each row must satisfy. The condition can use the same
constructs as the query conditions, with the following exceptions:
References to the CURRVAL, NEXTVAL, LEVEL, and ROWNUM pseudocolumns
Calls to SYSDATE, UID, USER, and USERENV functions
Queries that refer to other values in other rows
A single column can have multiple CHECK constraints that refer to the column in its definition. There
is no limit to the number of CHECK constraints that you can define on a column.
CHECK constraints can be defined at the column level or table level.
CREATE TABLE employees
(...
salary NUMBER(8,2) CONSTRAINT emp_salary_min
CHECK (salary > 0),
...
UPDATE employees
SET department_id = 55
WHERE department_id = 110;
Violating Constraints
When you have constraints in place on columns, an error is returned if you try to violate the
constraint rule. For example, if you try to update a record with a value that is tied to an integrity
constraint, an error is returned.
In the example in the slide, department 55 does not exist in the parent table, DEPARTMENTS, and so
you receive the parent key not found violation ORA-02291.
Database objects
Naming rules
CREATE TABLE statement:
Access another users tables
DEFAULT option
Data types
Overview of constraints: NOT NULL, UNIQUE, PRIMARY
KEY, FOREIGN KEY, CHECK constraints
Creating a table using a subquery
ALTER TABLE
Read-only tables
DROP TABLE statement
DESCRIBE dept80
Database objects
Naming rules
CREATE TABLE statement:
Access another users tables
DEFAULT option
Data types
Overview of constraints: NOT NULL, UNIQUE, PRIMARY
KEY, FOREIGN KEY, CHECK constraints
Creating a table using a subquery
ALTER TABLE
Read-only tables
DROP TABLE statement
Read-Only Tables
With Oracle Database 11g, you can specify READ ONLY to place a table in the read-only mode.
When the table is in the READ-ONLY mode, you cannot issue any DML statements that affect the
table or any SELECT ... FOR UPDATE statements. You can issue DDL statements as long as
they do not modify any data in the table. Operations on indexes associated with the table are allowed
when the table is in the READ ONLY mode.
Specify READ/WRITE to return a read-only table to the read/write mode.
Note: You can drop a table that is in the READ ONLY mode. The DROP command is executed
only in the data dictionary, so access to the table contents is not required. The space used
by the table will not be reclaimed until the tablespace is made read/write again, and then the
required changes can be made to the block segment headers, and so on.
For information about the ALTER TABLE statement, see the course titled Oracle Database 10g SQL
Fundamentals II.
Database objects
Naming rules
CREATE TABLE statement:
Access another users tables
DEFAULT option
Data types
Overview of constraints: NOT NULL, UNIQUE, PRIMARY
KEY, FOREIGN KEY, CHECK constraints
Creating a table using a subquery
ALTER TABLE
Read-only tables
DROP TABLE statement
Dropping a Table
The DROP TABLE statement moves a table to the recycle bin or removes the table and all its data
from the database entirely. Unless you specify the PURGE clause, the DROP TABLE statement does
not result in space being released back to the tablespace for use by other objects, and the space
continues to count towards the users space quota. Dropping a table invalidates the dependent objects
and removes object privileges on the table.
When you drop a table, the database loses all the data in the table and all the indexes associated
with it.
Syntax
DROP TABLE table [PURGE]
In the syntax, table is the name of the table.
Guidelines
All the data is deleted from the table.
Any views and synonyms remain, but are invalid.
Any pending transactions are committed.
Only the creator of the table or a user with the DROP ANY TABLE privilege can remove a table.
Note: Use the FLASHBACK TABLE statement to restore a dropped table from the recycle bin. This is
discussed in detail in the course titled Oracle Database 11g: SQL Fundamentals II.
Answers: 1, 2, 4
In this lesson, you should have learned how to use the CREATE
TABLE statement to create a table and include constraints:
Categorize the main database objects
Review the table structure
List the data types that are available for columns
Create a simple table
Explain how constraints are created at the time of table
creation
Describe how schema objects work
Summary
In this lesson, you should have learned how to do the following:
CREATE TABLE
Use the CREATE TABLE statement to create a table and include constraints.
Create a table based on another table by using a subquery.
DROP TABLE
Remove rows and a table structure.
When executed, this statement cannot be rolled back.
Objectives
In this lesson, you are introduced to the view, sequence, synonym, and index objects. You learn the
basics of creating and using views, sequences, and indexes.
Overview of views:
Creating, modifying, and retrieving data from a view
Data manipulation language (DML) operations on a view
Dropping a view
Overview of sequences:
Creating, using, and modifying a sequence
Cache sequence values
NEXTVAL and CURRVAL pseudocolumns
Overview of indexes
Creating, dropping indexes
Overview of synonyms
Creating, dropping synonyms
Object Description
Database Objects
There are several other objects in a database in addition to tables.
With views, you can present and hide data from the tables.
Many applications require the use of unique numbers as primary key values. You can either build
code into the application to handle this requirement or use a sequence to generate unique numbers.
If you want to improve the performance of data retrieval queries, you should consider creating an
index. You can also use indexes to enforce uniqueness on a column or a collection of columns.
You can provide alternative names for objects by using synonyms.
EMPLOYEES table
What Is a View?
You can present logical subsets or combinations of data by creating views of tables. A view is a
logical table based on a table or another view. A view contains no data of its own, but is like a
window through which data from tables can be viewed or changed. The tables on which a view is
based are called base tables. The view is stored as a SELECT statement in the data dictionary.
To provide To present
data different views of
independence the same data
Advantages of Views
Views restrict access to the data because it displays selected columns from the table.
Views can be used to make simple queries to retrieve the results of complicated queries. For
example, views can be used to query information from multiple tables without the user knowing
how to write a join statement.
Views provide data independence for ad hoc users and application programs. One view can be
used to retrieve data from several tables.
Views provide groups of users access to data according to their particular criteria.
For more information, see the section on CREATE VIEW in Oracle Database SQL Language
Reference 11g, Release 1 (11.1).
Creating a View
You can create a view by embedding a subquery in the CREATE VIEW statement.
In the syntax:
OR REPLACE Re-creates the view if it already exists
FORCE Creates the view regardless of whether or not the base tables exist
NOFORCE Creates the view only if the base tables exist (This is the default.)
view Is the name of the view
alias Specifies names for the expressions selected by the views query
(The number of aliases must match the number of expressions selected by the
view.)
subquery Is a complete SELECT statement (You can use aliases for the
columns in the SELECT list.)
WITH CHECK OPTION Specifies that only those rows that are accessible to the view can
be inserted or updated
constraint Is the name assigned to the CHECK OPTION constraint
WITH READ ONLY Ensures that no DML operations can be performed on this view
Note: In SQL Developer, click the Run Script icon or press [F5] to run the data definition language
(DDL) statements. The feedback messages will be shown on the Script Output tabbed page.
Guidelines
The subquery that defines a view can contain complex SELECT syntax, including joins, groups,
and subqueries.
If you do not specify a constraint name for the view created with the WITH CHECK OPTION,
the system assigns a default name in the SYS_Cn format.
You can use the OR REPLACE option to change the definition of the view without dropping and
re-creating it, or regranting the object privileges previously granted on it.
SELECT *
FROM salvu50;
Modifying a View
With the OR REPLACE option, a view can be created even if one exists with this name already, thus
replacing the old version of the view for its owner. This means that the view can be altered without
dropping, re-creating, and regranting object privileges.
Note: When assigning column aliases in the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW clause, remember that the
aliases are listed in the same order as the columns in the subquery.
Note: No rows are updated because, if the department number were to change to 10, the view would
no longer be able to see that employee. With the WITH CHECK OPTION clause, therefore, the view
can see only the employees in department 20 and does not allow the department number for those
employees to be changed through the view.
Removing a View
You use the DROP VIEW statement to remove a view. The statement removes the view definition
from the database. However, dropping views has no effect on the tables on which the view was
based. Alternatively, views or other applications based on the deleted views become invalid. Only the
creator or a user with the DROP ANY VIEW privilege can remove a view.
In the syntax, view is the name of the view.
Overview of views:
Creating, modifying, and retrieving data from a view
DML operations on a view
Dropping a view
Overview of sequences:
Creating, using, and modifying a sequence
Cache sequence values
NEXTVAL and CURRVAL pseudocolumns
Overview of indexes
Creating, dropping indexes
Overview of synonyms
Creating, dropping synonyms
Object Description
Sequences
A sequence is a database object that creates integer values. You can create sequences and then use
them to generate numbers.
A sequence:
Can automatically generate unique numbers
Is a shareable object
Can be used to create a primary key value
Replaces application code
Speeds up the efficiency of accessing sequence values
when cached in memory
2 4 6 8 10
1 3 5 7 9
Sequences (continued)
A sequence is a user-created database object that can be shared by multiple users to generate
integers.
You can define a sequence to generate unique values or to recycle and use the same numbers again.
A typical usage for sequences is to create a primary key value, which must be unique for each row. A
sequence is generated and incremented (or decremented) by an internal Oracle routine. This can be a
time-saving object because it can reduce the amount of application code needed to write a sequence-
generating routine.
Sequence numbers are stored and generated independent of tables. Therefore, the same sequence can
be used for multiple tables.
Using a Sequence
The example in the slide inserts a new department in the DEPARTMENTS table. It uses the
DEPT_DEPTID_SEQ sequence to generate a new department number as follows.
You can view the current value of the sequence using the sequence_name.CURRVAL, as shown in the
second example in the slide. The output of the query is shown below:
Suppose that you now want to hire employees to staff the new department. The INSERT statement to
be executed for all new employees can include the following code:
INSERT INTO employees (employee_id, department_id, ...)
VALUES (employees_seq.NEXTVAL, dept_deptid_seq .CURRVAL, ...);
Note: The preceding example assumes that a sequence called EMPLOYEE_SEQ has already been
created to generate new employee numbers.
Modifying a Sequence
If you reach the MAXVALUE limit for your sequence, no additional values from the sequence are
allocated and you will receive an error indicating that the sequence exceeds the MAXVALUE. To
continue to use the sequence, you can modify it by using the ALTER SEQUENCE statement.
Syntax
ALTER SEQUENCE sequence
[INCREMENT BY n]
[{MAXVALUE n | NOMAXVALUE}]
[{MINVALUE n | NOMINVALUE}]
[{CYCLE | NOCYCLE}]
[{CACHE n | NOCACHE}];
In the syntax, sequence is the name of the sequence generator.
For more information, see the section on ALTER SEQUENCE in Oracle Database SQL Language
Reference 11g, Release 1 (11.1).
You must be the owner or have the ALTER privilege for the
sequence.
Only future sequence numbers are affected.
The sequence must be dropped and re-created to restart
the sequence at a different number.
Some validation is performed.
To remove a sequence, use the DROP statement:
DROP SEQUENCE dept_deptid_seq;
Overview of views:
Creating, modifying, and retrieving data from a view
DML operations on a view
Dropping a view
Overview of sequences:
Creating, using, and modifying a sequence
Cache sequence values
NEXTVAL and CURRVAL pseudocolumns
Overview of indexes
Creating, dropping indexes
Overview of synonyms
Creating, dropping synonyms
Object Description
Indexes
Indexes are database objects that you can create to improve the performance of some queries.
Indexes can also be created automatically by the server when you create a primary key or a unique
constraint.
An index:
Is a schema object
Can be used by the Oracle server to speed up the retrieval
of rows by using a pointer
Can reduce disk input/output (I/O) by using a rapid path
access method to locate data quickly
Is independent of the table that it indexes
Is used and maintained automatically by the Oracle server
Indexes (continued)
An Oracle server index is a schema object that can speed up the retrieval of rows by using a pointer.
Indexes can be created explicitly or automatically. If you do not have an index on the column, a full
table scan occurs.
An index provides direct and fast access to rows in a table. Its purpose is to reduce the disk I/O by
using an indexed path to locate data quickly. An index is used and maintained automatically by the
Oracle server. After an index is created, no direct activity is required by the user.
Indexes are logically and physically independent of the table that they index. This means that they
can be created or dropped at any time, and have no effect on the base tables or other indexes.
Note: When you drop a table, the corresponding indexes are also dropped.
For more information, see the section on Schema Objects: Indexes in Oracle Database Concepts
11g, Release 1 (11.1).
Creating an Index
Create an index on one or more columns by issuing the CREATE INDEX statement.
In the syntax:
index Is the name of the index
table Is the name of the table
column Is the name of the column in the table to be indexed
Specify UNIQUE to indicate that the value of the column (or columns) upon which the index is based
must be unique. Specify BITMAP to indicate that the index is to be created with a bitmap for each
distinct key, rather than indexing each row separately. Bitmap indexes store the rowids associated
with a key value as a bitmap.
For more information, see the section on CREATE INDEX in Oracle Database SQL Language
Reference 11g, Release 1 (11.1).
The table is small or most queries are expected to retrieve more than 2%
to 4% of the rows in the table
The table is updated frequently
Removing an Index
You cannot modify indexes. To change an index, you must drop it and then re-create it.
Remove an index definition from the data dictionary by issuing the DROP INDEX statement. To drop
an index, you must be the owner of the index or have the DROP ANY INDEX privilege.
In the syntax, index is the name of the index.
Note: If you drop a table, indexes and constraints are automatically dropped but views and sequences
remain.
Overview of views:
Creating, modifying, and retrieving data from a view
DML operations on a view
Dropping a view
Overview of sequences:
Creating, using, and modifying a sequence
Cache sequence values
NEXTVAL and CURRVAL pseudocolumns
Overview of indexes
Creating, dropping indexes
Overview of synonyms
Creating, dropping synonyms
Object Description
Synonyms
Synonyms are database objects that enable you to call a table by another name. You can create
synonyms to give an alternative name to a table.
Drop a synonym:
DROP SYNONYM d_sum;
Removing a Synonym
To remove a synonym, use the DROP SYNONYM statement. Only the database administrator can drop
a public synonym.
DROP PUBLIC SYNONYM dept;
For more information, see the section on DROP SYNONYM in Oracle Database SQL Language
Reference 11g, Release 1 (11.1).
Answer: 2
Note: Indexes are designed to speed up query performance. However, not all indexes are created
manually. The Oracle server automatically creates an index when you define a column in a table to
have a PRIMARY KEY or a UNIQUE constraint.
Summary
In this lesson, you should have learned about database objects such as views, sequences, indexes, and
synonyms.
In any practice, there may be exercises that are prefaced with the phrases If you have
time or If you want an extra challenge. Work on these exercises only if you have
completed all other exercises within the allocated time and would like a further challenge
to your skills.
Perform the practices slowly and precisely. You can experiment with saving and running
command files. If you have any questions at any time, ask your instructor.
Note
1) All written practices use Oracle SQL Developer as the development environment.
Although it is recommended that you use Oracle SQL Developer, you can also use
SQL*Plus that is available in this course.
2) For any query, the sequence of rows retrieved from the database may differ from the
screenshots shown.
Testing and Connecting Using the Oracle SQL Developer Database Connection
4) Test the new connection.
5) If the status is Success, connect to the database using this new connection.
Browsing the Tables in the Connections Navigator
6) In the Connections Navigator, view the objects available to you in the Tables node.
Verify that the following tables are present:
7) Browse the structure of the table.
8) View the data of the table.
Testing and Connecting Using the Oracle SQL Developer Database Connection
4) Test the new connection.
5) If the status is Success, connect to the database using this new connection.
When you create a connection, a SQL Worksheet for that connection opens
automatically.
True/False
True/False
3) There are four coding errors in the following statement. Can you identify them?
-
-
-
Part 2
Note the following points before you begin with the practices:
Save all your lab files at the following location:
---
Enter your SQL statements in a SQL Worksheet. To save a script in SQL
Developer, make sure that the required SQL worksheet is active and then from the
File menu, select Save As to save your SQL statement as a
---- script. When you are modifying an existing
script, make sure that you use Save As to save it with a different file name.
To run the query, click the Execute Statement icon in the SQL Worksheet.
Alternatively, you can press [F9]. For DML and DDL statements, use the Run
Script icon or press [F5].
After you have executed the query, make sure that you do not enter your next
query in the same worksheet. Open a new worksheet.
You have been hired as a SQL programmer for Acme Corporation. Your first task is to
create some reports based on data from the Human Resources tables.
The HR department wants a query to display the last name, job ID, hire date, and
employee ID for each employee, with the employee ID appearing first. Provide an
alias for the column. Save your SQL statement to a file
named - so that you can dispatch this file to the HR department.
6) Test your query in the - file to ensure that it runs correctly.
Note: After you have executed the query, make sure that you do not enter your next
query in the same worksheet. Open a new worksheet.
7) The HR department wants a query to display all unique job IDs from the
table.
Part 3
If you have time, complete the following exercises:
8) The HR department wants more descriptive column headings for its report on
employees. Copy the statement from - to a new SQL Worksheet.
Name the column headings , , , and , respectively.
Then run the query again.
9) The HR department has requested a report of all employees and their job IDs. Display
the last name concatenated with the job ID (separated by a comma and space) and
name the column .
True/False
True/False
3) There are four coding errors in the following statement. Can you identify them?
-
-
-
The HR department wants a query to display the last name, job ID, hire date, and
employee ID for each employee, with the employee ID appearing first. Provide an
alias for the column. Save your SQL statement to a file
named - so that you can dispatch this file to the HR department.
-
-
7) The HR department wants a query to display all unique job IDs from the
table.
-
Part 3
If you have time, complete the following exercises:
8) The HR department wants more descriptive column headings for its report on
employees. Copy the statement from - to a new SQL Worksheet.
Name the column headings , , , and , respectively.
Then run the query again.
-
-
9) The HR department has requested a report of all employees and their job IDs. Display
the last name concatenated with the job ID (separated by a comma and space) and
name the column and .
-
-
2) Open a new SQL Worksheet. Create a report that displays the last name and
department number for employee number 176. Run the query.
4) Create a report to display the last name, job ID, and hire date for employees with the
last names of Matos and Taylor. Order the query in ascending order by the hire date.
6) Modify - to display the last name and salary of employees who earn
between $5,000 and $12,000, and are in department 20 or 50. Label the columns
and , respectively. Save - as
- again. Run the statement in -.
7) The HR department needs a report that displays the last name and hire date for all
employees who were hired in 1994.
8) Create a report to display the last name and job title of all employees who do not have
a manager.
9) Create a report to display the last name, salary, and commission of all employees who
earn commissions. Sort data in descending order of salary and commissions.
Use the columns numeric position in the clause.
11) The HR department wants to run reports based on a manager. Create a query that
prompts the user for a manager ID and generates the employee ID, last name, salary,
and department for that managers employees. The HR department wants the ability
to sort the report on a selected column. You can test the data with the following
values:
manager_id = 103, sorted by last_name:
15) Modify - to display the last name, salary, and commission for all
employees whose commission is 20%. Save - as -
again. Rerun the statement in -.
2) Open a new SQL Worksheet. Create a report that displays the last name and
department number for employee number 176.
-
-
3) The HR department needs to find high-salary and low-salary employees. Modify
- to display the last name and salary for all employees whose salary
is not in the range $5,000 through $12,000. Save your SQL statement as
-.
- -
-
-
4) Create a report to display the last name, job ID, and hire date for employees with the
last names of Matos and Taylor. Order the query in ascending order by hire date.
-
-
- -
5) Display the last name and department ID of all employees in departments 20 or 50 in
ascending alphabetical order by name.
-
-
-
6) Modify - to list the last name and salary of employees who earn
between $5,000 and $12,000, and are in department 20 or 50. Label the columns
Employee and Monthly Salary, respectively. Save - as
- again. Run the statement in -.
- -
-
-
11) The HR department wants to run reports based on a manager. Create a query that
prompts the user for a manager ID and generates the employee ID, last name, salary,
and department for that managers employees. The HR department wants the ability
to sort the report on a selected column. You can test the data with the following
values:
manager _id = 103, sorted by last_name
manager_id = 201, sorted by salary
manager_id = 124, sorted by employee_id
15) Modify - to display the last name, salary, and commission for all
employees whose commission amount is 20%. Save - as
- again. Rerun the statement in -.
- -
--
-
--
2) The HR department needs a report to display the employee number, last name, salary,
and salary increased by 15.5% (expressed as a whole number) for each employee.
Label the column . Save your SQL statement in a file named
-.
3) Run your query in the - file.
4) Modify your query - to add a column that subtracts the old salary
from the new salary. Label the column -. Save the contents of the file as
-. Run the revised query.
Rewrite the query so that the user is prompted to enter a letter that the last name starts
with. For example, if the user enters H (capitalized) when prompted for a letter,
then the output should show all employees whose last name starts with the letter H.
Modify the query such that the case of the entered letter does not affect the output.
The entered letter must be capitalized before being processed by the query.
6) The HR department wants to find the duration of employment for each employee. For
each employee, display the last name and calculate the number of months between
today and the date on which the employee was hired. Label the column as
. Order your results by the number of months employed. Round the
number of months up to the closest whole number.
Note: Because this query depends on the date when it was executed, the values in the
column will differ for you.
8) Create a query that displays the first eight characters of the employees last names
and indicates the amounts of their salaries with asterisks. Each asterisk signifies a
thousand dollars. Sort the data in descending order of salary. Label the column
.
4) Modify your query - to add a column that subtracts the old salary
from the new salary. Label the column -. Save the contents of the file as
-. Run the revised query.
- -
-
- - -
-
5) Write a query that displays the last name (with the first letter in uppercase and all the
other letters in lowercase) and the length of the last name for all employees whose
name starts with the letters J, A, or M. Give each column an appropriate label.
Sort the results by the employees last names.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Rewrite the query so that the user is prompted to enter a letter that starts the last
name. For example, if the user enters (capitalized) when prompted for a letter, then
the output should show all employees whose last name starts with the letter H.
Modify the query such that the case of the entered letter does not affect the output. The
entered letter must be capitalized before being processed by the query.
-
-
-
- -
-
6) The HR department wants to find the duration of employment for each employee. For
each employee, display the last name and calculate the number of months between
today and the date on which the employee was hired. Label the column
. Order your results by the number of months employed. Round
the number of months up to the closest whole number.
Note: Because this query depends on the date when it was executed, the values in the
column will differ for you.
-
-
-
-
-
2) Display each employees last name, hire date, and salary review date, which is the
first Monday after six months of service. Label the column . Format the dates
to appear in the format similar to Monday, the Thirty-First of July, 2000.
3) Display the last name, hire date, and day of the week on which the employee started.
Label the column . Order the results by the day of the week, starting with
Monday.
2) Display each employees last name, hire date, and salary review date, which is the
first Monday after six months of service. Label the column . Format the
dates to appear in the format similar to Monday, the Thirty-First of July, 2000.
-
-
-
3) Display the last name, hire date, and day of the week on which the employee started.
Label the column . Order the results by the day of the week, starting with
Monday.
-
-
4) Create a query that displays the employees last names and commission amounts. If
an employee does not earn commission, show No Commission. Label the column
.
-
-- --
-
5) Using the function, write a query that displays the grade of all employees
based on the value of the column, using the following data:
Job Grade
Generalize the query so that the user in the HR department is prompted for a job title.
Save the script to a file named -. Run the query. Enter
when prompted.
7) Determine the number of managers without listing them. Label the column
-.
Hint: Use the column to determine the number of managers.
8) Find the difference between the highest and lowest salaries. Label the column
.
11) Create a matrix query to display the job, the salary for that job based on department
number, and the total salary for that job, for departments 20, 50, 80, and 90, giving
each column an appropriate heading.
Generalize the query so that the user in the HR department is prompted for a job title.
Save the script to a file named -. Run the query. Enter
when prompted and click OK.
-
3) The HR department needs a report of employees in Toronto. Display the last name,
job, department number, and the department name for all employees who work in
Toronto.
4) Create a report to display employees last name and employee number along with
their managers last name and manager number. Label the columns , ,
, and , respectively. Save your SQL statement as -.
Run the query.
6) Create a report for the HR department that displays employee last names, department
numbers, and all the employees who work in the same department as a given
employee. Give each column an appropriate label. Save the script to a file named
-.
7) The HR department needs a report on job grades and salaries. To familiarize yourself
with the table, first show the structure of the table. Then
create a query that displays the name, job, department name, salary, and grade for all
employees.
9) The HR department needs to find the names and hire dates of all the employees who
were hired before their managers, along with their managers names and hire dates.
Save the script to a file named -.
7) The HR department needs a report on job grades and salaries. To familiarize yourself
with the table, first show the structure of the table. Then
create a query that displays the name, job, department name, salary, and grade for all
employees.
-
-
- -
-
- -- --
If you want an extra challenge, complete the following exercises:
8) The HR department wants to determine the names of all employees who were hired
after Davies. Create a query to display the name and hire date of any employee hired
after employee Davies.
-
- - -
-- -
-
9) The HR department needs to find the names and hire dates for all employees who
were hired before their managers, along with their managers names and hire dates.
Save the script to a file named -.
- -
- -
2) Create a report that displays the employee number, last name, and salary of all
employees who earn more than the average salary. Sort the results in order of
ascending salary.
3) Write a query that displays the employee number and last name of all employees who
work in a department with any employee whose last name contains the letter u.
Save your SQL statement as -. Run your query.
Modify the query so that the user is prompted for a location ID. Save this to a file
named -.
5) Create a report for HR that displays the last name and salary of every employee who
reports to King.
6) Create a report for HR that displays the department number, last name, and job ID for
every employee in the Executive department.
7) Create a report that displays a list of all employees whose salary is more than the
salary of any employee from department 60.
If you have the time, complete the following exercise:
8) Modify the query in - to display the employee number, last name,
and salary of all employees who earn more than the average salary, and who work in
a department with any employee whose last name contains a u. Save
- as - again. Run the statement in -.
-
-
-
-
-
2) Create a report that displays the employee number, last name, and salary of all
employees who earn more than the average salary. Sort the results in order of
ascending salary.
- -
-
- -
-
-
3) Write a query that displays the employee number and last name of all employees who
work in a department with any employee whose last name contains a u. Save your
SQL statement as -. Run your query.
-
-
-
-
4) The HR department needs a report that displays the last name, department number,
and job ID of all employees whose department location ID is 1700.
-
-
-
5) Create a report for HR that displays the last name and salary of every employee who
reports to King.
- -
-
-
-
6) Create a report for HR that displays the department number, last name, and job ID for
every employee in the Executive department.
-
-
-
7) Create a report that displays a list of all employees whose salary is more than the
salary of any employee from department 60.
- -
- -
-
If you have the time, complete the following exercise:
8) Modify the query in - to display the employee number, last name,
and salary of all employees who earn more than the average salary and who work in a
department with any employee whose last name contains a u. Save
- to - again. Run the statement in -.
- -
-
-
-
- -
-
3) Produce a list of jobs for departments 10, 50, and 20, in that order. Display the job ID
and department ID by using the set operators.
4) Create a report that lists the employee IDs and job IDs of those employees who
currently have a job title that is the same as their job title when they were initially
hired by the company (that is, they changed jobs, but have now gone back to doing
their original job).
- -
4) Populate the table with the second row of the sample data from the
preceding list. This time, list the columns explicitly in the clause.
5) Confirm your addition to the table.
26) Confirm that the new row was added with correct .
- -
4) Populate the table with the second row of the sample data from the
preceding list. This time, list the columns explicitly in the clause.
- -
- -
- -
7) Populate the table with the next two rows of sample data listed in step 3 by running
the statement in the script that you created.
- -
- -
8) Confirm your additions to the table.
9) Make the data additions permanent.
21) Discard the most recent operation without discarding the earlier
operation.
-
22) Confirm that the new row is still intact.
26) Confirm that the new row was added with the correct .
2) Populate the table with data from the table. Include only
columns that you need.
3) Create the table based on the following table instance chart. Save the statement
in a script called -, and then execute the statement in the script to
create the table. Confirm that the table is created.
Column Name
Key Type
Nulls/Unique
FK Table
FK Column
Data type
Length 7 25 25 7
7) Revert the table to the read/write status. Now, try to insert the same
row again. You should get the following messages:
To confirm that the table was created and to view its structure, issue the following
command:
2) Populate the table with data from the table. Include only those
columns that you need.
-
3) Create the table based on the following table instance chart. Save the statement
in a script called -, and then execute the statement in the script to
create the table. Confirm that the table is created.
Column Name
Key Type
Nulls/Unique
FK Table
FK Column
Data type
Length 7 25 25 7
Note, you will get the Update operation not allowed on table error message.
Therefore, you will not be allowed to insert any row into the table because it is
assigned a read-only status.
-
7) Revert the table to the read/write status. Now try to insert the same row
again.
Now, because the table is assigned a status, you will be allowed to
insert a row into the table.
-
3) Using your view, write a query for the HR department to display all
employee names and department numbers.
4) Department 50 needs access to its employee data. Create a view named that
contains the employee numbers, employee last names, and department numbers for
all employees in department 50. You have been asked to label the view columns
, , and . For security purposes, do not allow an employee to
be reassigned to another department through the view.
5) Display the structure and contents of the view.
Part 2
7) You need a sequence that can be used with the column of the
table. The sequence should start at 200 and have a maximum value of 1,000. Have
your sequence increment by 10. Name the sequence .
8) To test your sequence, write a script to insert two rows in the table. Name your
script -. Be sure to use the sequence that you created for the ID
column. Add two departments: Education and Administration. Confirm your
additions. Run the commands in your script.
9) Create a nonunique index on the column in the table.
10) Create a synonym for your table. Call it .
2) Confirm that the view works. Display the contents of the view.
-
3) Using your view, write a query for the HR department to display all
employee names and department numbers.
-
4) Department 50 needs access to its employee data. Create a view named that
contains the employee numbers, employee last names, and department numbers for
all employees in department 50. They have requested that you label the view columns
, , and . For security purposes, do not allow an employee to
be reassigned to another department through the view.
-
-
The error is because the view has been created with the
constraint. This ensures that the column in the view is protected
from being changed.
8) To test your sequence, write a script to insert two rows in the table. Name your
script -. Be sure to use the sequence that you created for the ID
column. Add two departments: Education and Administration. Confirm your
additions. Run the commands in your script.
-
- -
2) The HR department needs a report of all employees. Write a query to display the last
name, department number, and department name for all employees. Run the query.
3) The HR department needs a report of employees in Toronto. Display the last name,
job, department number, and department name for all employees who work in
Toronto.
4) Create a report to display the employees last names and employee number along
with their managers last names and manager number. Label the columns ,
, , and , respectively. Save your SQL statement as
-.
6) Create a report for the HR department that displays employee last names, department
numbers, and all employees who work in the same department as a given employee.
Give each column an appropriate label. Save the script to a file named
-.
7) The HR department needs a report on job grades and salaries. To familiarize yourself
with the table, first show the structure of the table. Then
create a query that displays the name, job, department name, salary, and grade for all
employees.
9) The HR department needs to find the names and hire dates for all employees who
were hired before their managers, along with their managers names and hire dates.
Save the script to a file named -.
4) Create a report to display the employee last name and the employee number along
with the last name of the employees manager and manager number. Label the
columns , , , and , respectively. Save your SQL
statement as -.
-
-
- -
7) The HR department needs a report on job grades and salaries. To familiarize yourself
with the table, first show the structure of the table. Then
create a query that displays the name, job, department name, salary, and grade for all
employees.
-
-
- - -
- -- --
DEPARTMENTS LOCATIONS
HR department_id location_id
department_name street_address
manager_id postal_code
location_id city
state_province
country_id
JOB_HISTORY
employee_id
start_date EMPLOYEES
end_date employee_id
job_id first_name
last_name
COUNTRIES
department_id country_id
email
country_name
phone_number
region_id
hire_date
job_id
JOBS salary
job_id commission_pct
job_title manager_id
min_salary department_id REGIONS
max_salary region_id
region_name
Objectives
In this appendix, you are introduced to the graphical tool called SQL Developer. You learn how
to use SQL Developer for your database development tasks. You learn how to use SQL
Worksheet to execute SQL statements and SQL scripts.
SQL Developer
1 2
Use the File Navigator to explore the file system and open
system files.
2 4 6 8
1 3 5 7 9
Enter SQL
statements.
Results are
shown here.
F9 F5
F5
F9
Identify a location,
The contents of the saved
2 enter a file name,
3 file are visible and editable and click Save.
in your SQL Worksheet
window.
Before
formatting
After
formatting
Using Snippets
You may want to use certain code fragments when you use the SQL Worksheet or create or edit
a PL/SQL function or procedure. SQL Developer has the feature called Snippets. Snippets are
code fragments such as SQL functions, Optimizer hints, and miscellaneous PL/SQL
programming techniques. You can drag snippets into the Editor window.
To display Snippets, select View > Snippets.
The Snippets window is displayed at the right. You can use the drop-down list to select a group.
A Snippets button is placed in the right window margin, so that you can display the Snippets
window if it becomes hidden.
Inserting a
snippet
Editing the
snippet
Database Reporting
SQL Developer provides many reports about the database and its objects. These reports can be
grouped into the following categories:
About Your Database reports
Database Administration reports
Table reports
PL/SQL reports
Security reports
XML reports
Jobs reports
Streams reports
All Objects reports
Data Dictionary reports
User-Defined reports
To display reports, click the Reports tab at the left of the window. Individual reports are
displayed in tabbed panes at the right of the window; and for each report, you can select (using a
drop-down list) the database connection for which to display the report. For reports about
objects, the objects shown are only those visible to the database user associated with the selected
database connection, and the rows are usually ordered by Owner. You can also create your own
user-defined reports.
Oracle Database 11g: SQL Fundamentals I C - 26
Creating a User-Defined Report
Shortcuts to
frequently used tools
1
Links to popular
search engines and
discussion forums
Setting Preferences
You can customize many aspects of the SQL Developer interface and environment by modifying
SQL Developer preferences according to your preferences and needs. To modify SQL Developer
preferences, select Tools, then Preferences.
The preferences are grouped into the following categories:
Environment
Accelerators (Keyboard shortcuts)
Code Editors
Database
Debugger
Documentation
Extensions
File Types
Migration
PL/SQL Compilers
PL/SQL Debugger
Summary
SQL Developer is a free graphical tool to simplify database development tasks. Using SQL
Developer, you can browse, create, and edit database objects. You can use SQL Worksheet to
run SQL statements and scripts. SQL Developer enables you to create and save your own special
set of reports for repeated use.
Objectives
You might want to create SELECT statements that can be used again and again. This appendix also
covers the use of SQL*Plus commands to execute SQL statements. You learn how to format output
using SQL*Plus commands, edit SQL commands, and save scripts in SQL*Plus.
SQL statements
Server
SQL*Plus
Query results
Buffer
SQL
scripts
SQL SQL*Plus
A language An environment
ANSI-standard Oracle-proprietary
Keywords cannot be Keywords can be
abbreviated. abbreviated.
Statements manipulate Commands do not
data allow manipulation of
and table definitions in the values in the database.
database.
SQL SQL*Plus
Is a language for communicating with the Recognizes SQL statements and sends them
Oracle server to access data to the server
Is based on American National Standards Is the Oracle-proprietary interface for
Institute (ANSI)standard SQL executing SQL statements
Manipulates data and table definitions in the Does not allow manipulation of values in the
database database
Is entered into the SQL buffer on one or Is entered one line at a time, not stored in the
more lines SQL buffer
Does not have a continuation character Uses a dash () as a continuation character if
the command is longer than one line
Cannot be abbreviated Can be abbreviated
Uses a termination character to execute Does not require termination characters;
commands immediately executes commands immediately
Uses functions to perform some formatting Uses commands to format data
Log in to SQL*Plus.
Describe the table structure.
Edit your SQL statement.
Execute SQL from SQL*Plus.
Save SQL statements to files and append SQL statements
to files.
Execute saved files.
Load commands from the file to buffer to edit.
SQL*Plus
SQL*Plus is an environment in which you can:
Execute SQL statements to retrieve, modify, add, and remove data from the database
Format, perform calculations on, store, and print query results in the form of reports
Create script files to store SQL statements for repeated use in the future
SQL*Plus commands can be divided into the following main categories:
Category Purpose
Environment Affect the general behavior of SQL statements for the session
Format Format query results
File manipulation Save, load, and run script files
Execution Send SQL statements from the SQL buffer to the Oracle server
Edit Modify SQL statements in the buffer
Interaction Create and pass variables to SQL statements, print variable values, and
print messages to the screen
Miscellaneous Connect to the database, manipulate the SQL*Plus environment, and
display column definitions
sqlplus [username[/password[@database]]]
Logging In to SQL*Plus
How you invoke SQL*Plus depends on which type of operating system you are running Oracle
Database.
To log in from a Linux environment, perform the following steps:
1. Right-click your Linux desktop and select terminal.
2. Enter the sqlplus command shown in the slide.
3. Enter the username, password, and database name.
In the syntax:
username Your database username
password Your database password (Your password is visible if you enter it here.)
@database The database connect string
Note: To ensure the integrity of your password, do not enter it at the operating system prompt.
Instead, enter only your username. Enter your password at the password prompt.
DESC[RIBE] tablename
DESCRIBE departments
A[PPEND] text
C[HANGE] / old / new
C[HANGE] / text /
CL[EAR] BUFF[ER]
DEL
DEL n
DEL m n
Guidelines
If you press Enter before completing a command, SQL*Plus prompts you with a line number.
You terminate the SQL buffer either by entering one of the terminator characters (semicolon or
slash) or by pressing [Enter] twice. The SQL prompt appears.
I[NPUT]
I[NPUT] text
L[IST]
L[IST] n
L[IST] m n
R[UN]
n
n text
0 text
Command Description
I[NPUT] Inserts an indefinite number of lines
I[NPUT] text Inserts a line consisting of text
L[IST] Lists all lines in the SQL buffer
L[IST] n Lists one line (specified by n)
L[IST] m n Lists a range of lines (m to n) inclusive
R[UN] Displays and runs the current SQL statement in the buffer
n Specifies the line to make the current line
n text Replaces line n with text
0 text Inserts a line before line 1
Note: You can enter only one SQL*Plus command for each SQL prompt. SQL*Plus commands are
not stored in the buffer. To continue a SQL*Plus command on the next line, end the first line with a
hyphen (-).
LIST
1 SELECT last_name
2* FROM employees
1
1* SELECT last_name
A , job_id
1* SELECT last_name, job_id
LIST
1 SELECT last_name, job_id
2* FROM employees
LIST
1* SELECT * from employees
c/employees/departments
1* SELECT * from departments
LIST
1* SELECT * from departments
SAVE filename
GET filename
START filename
@ filename
EDIT filename
SPOOL filename
EXIT
Command Description
SAV[E] filename [.ext] Saves current contents of SQL buffer to a file. Use APPEND
[REP[LACE]APP[END]] to add to an existing file; use REPLACE to overwrite an
existing file. The default extension is .sql.
GET filename [.ext] Writes the contents of a previously saved file to the SQL
buffer. The default extension for the file name is .sql.
STA[RT] filename [.ext] Runs a previously saved command file
@ filename Runs a previously saved command file (same as START)
ED[IT] Invokes the editor and saves the buffer contents to a file
named afiedt.buf
ED[IT] [filename[.ext]] Invokes the editor to edit the contents of a saved file
SPO[OL] [filename[.ext]| Stores query results in a file. OFF closes the spool file. OUT
OFF|OUT] closes the spool file and sends the file results to the printer.
EXIT Quits SQL*Plus
LIST
1 SELECT last_name, manager_id, department_id
2* FROM employees
SAVE my_query
Created file my_query
START my_query
SERVEROUTPUT Command
Most of the PL/SQL programs perform input and output through SQL statements, to store data in
database tables or query those tables. All other PL/SQL input/output is done through APIs that
interact with other programs. For example, the DBMS_OUTPUT package has procedures, such as
PUT_LINE. To see the result outside of PL/SQL requires another program, such as SQL*Plus, to
read and display the data passed to DBMS_OUTPUT.
SQL*Plus does not display DBMS_OUTPUT data unless you first issue the SQL*Plus command SET
SERVEROUTPUT ON as follows:
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
Note
SIZE sets the number of bytes of the output that can be buffered within the Oracle Database
server. The default is UNLIMITED. n cannot be less than 2000 or greater than 1,000,000.
For additional information about SERVEROUTPUT, see Oracle Database PL/SQL User's Guide
and Reference 11g.
Option Description
APP[END] Adds the contents of the buffer to the end of the file
you specify
SET AUTOTRACE ON
-- The AUTOTRACE report includes both the optimizer
-- execution path and the SQL statement execution
-- statistics
Summary
SQL*Plus is an execution environment that you can use to send SQL commands to the database
server and to edit and save SQL commands. You can execute commands from the SQL prompt or
from a script file.
Objectives
In this appendix, you are introduced to JDeveloper. You learn how to use JDeveloper for your
database development tasks.
Oracle JDeveloper
Oracle JDeveloper is an integrated development environment (IDE) for developing and
deploying Java applications and Web services. It supports every stage of the software
development life cycle (SDLC) from modeling to deploying. It has the features to use the latest
industry standards for Java, XML, and SQL while developing an application.
Oracle JDeveloper 11g initiates a new approach to J2EE development with features that enable
visual and declarative development. This innovative approach makes J2EE development simple
and efficient.
Database Navigator
Using Oracle JDeveloper, you can store the information necessary to connect to a database in an
object called connection. A connection is stored as part of the IDE settings, and can be
exported and imported for easy sharing among groups of users. A connection serves several
purposes from browsing the database and building applications, all the way through to
deployment.
4 Click OK
Creating Connection
A connection is an object that specifies the necessary information for connecting to a specific
database as a specific user of that database. You can create and test connections for multiple
databases and for multiple schemas.
To create a database connection, perform the following steps:
1. Click the New Connection icon in the Database Navigator.
2. In the Create Database Connection window, enter the connection name. Enter the
username and password of the schema that you want to connect to. Enter the SID of the
Database you want to connect.
3. Click Test to ensure that the connection has been set correctly.
4. Click OK.
Compiling
After editing the skeleton definition, you need to compile the program unit. Right-click the
PL/SQL object that you need to compile in the Connection Navigator, and then select Compile.
Alternatively, you can also press [Ctrl] + [Shift] + [F9] to compile.
Structure Window
The Structure window offers a structural view of the data in the document currently selected in
the active window of those windows that participate in providing structure: the navigators, the
editors and viewers, and the Property Inspector.
Click View > Structure window to view the Structure window.
In the Structure window, you can view the document data in a variety of ways. The structures
available for display are based upon document type. For a Java file, you can view code structure,
UI structure, or UI model data. For an XML file, you can view XML structure, design structure,
or UI model data.
The Structure window is dynamic, tracking always the current selection of the active window
(unless you freeze the windows contents on a particular view), as is pertinent to the currently
active editor. When the current selection is a node in the navigator, the default editor is assumed.
To change the view on the structure for the current selection, click a different structure tab.
Editor Window
Double-clicking the name of a program unit opens it in the Editor window. You can view your
project files all in one single editor window, you can open multiple views of the same file, or
you can open multiple views of different files.
The tabs at the top of the editor window are the document tabs. Clicking a document tab gives
that file focus, bringing it to the foreground of the window in the current editor.
The tabs at the bottom of the editor window for a given file are the editor tabs. Selecting an
editor tab opens the file in that editor.
Application Navigator
The Applications - Navigator gives you a logical view of your application and the data it
contains. The Applications - Navigator provides an infrastructure that the different extensions
can plug in to and use to organize their data and menus in a consistent, abstract manner. While
the Applications - Navigator can contain individual files (such as Java source files), it is
designed to consolidate complex data. Complex data types such as entity objects, UML
diagrams, EJB, or Web services appear in this navigator as single nodes. The raw files that make
up these abstract nodes appear in the Structure window.
1 2 3
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Product Documentation html
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Discussion Forum 3
Objectives
This lesson explains how to obtain data from more than one table. A join is used to view information
from multiple tables. Therefore, you can join tables together to view information from more than one
table.
Note: Information about joins is found in the section on SQL Queries and Subqueries: Joins in
Oracle Database SQL Language Reference 11g, Release 1 (11.1).
EMPLOYEES DEPARTMENTS
Cartesian Products
When a join condition is invalid or omitted completely, the result is a Cartesian product, in which all
combinations of rows are displayed. In other words, all rows in the first table are joined to all rows in
the second table.
A Cartesian product tends to generate a large number of rows and the result is rarely useful.
Therefore, you should always include a valid join condition unless you have a specific need to
combine all rows from all tables.
However, Cartesian products are useful for some tests when you need to generate a large number of
rows to simulate a reasonable amount of data.
Cartesian product:
20 x 8 = 160 rows
Equijoin
Nonequijoin
Outer join
Self-join
Types of Joins
To join tables, you can use Oracles join syntax.
Note: Before the Oracle9i release, the join syntax was proprietary. The SQL:1999compliant join
syntax does not offer any performance benefits over the Oracle-proprietary join syntax.
Oracle does not have an equivalent syntax to support the FULL OUTER JOIN of the SQL:1999
compliant join syntax.
EMPLOYEES DEPARTMENTS
Primary key
Foreign key
Equijoins
To determine an employees department name, you compare the value in the DEPARTMENT_ID
column in the EMPLOYEES table with the DEPARTMENT_ID values in the DEPARTMENTS table.
The relationship between the EMPLOYEES and DEPARTMENTS tables is an equijoin; that is, values
in the DEPARTMENT_ID column in both tables must be equal. Often, this type of join involves
primary and foreign key complements.
Note: Equijoins are also called simple joins or inner joins.
EMPLOYEES JOB_GRADES
Nonequijoins
A nonequijoin is a join condition containing something other than an equality operator.
The relationship between the EMPLOYEES table and the JOB_GRADES table is an example of a
nonequijoin. The SALARY column in the EMPLOYEES table ranges between the values in the
LOWEST_SAL and HIGHEST_SAL columns of the JOB_GRADES table. Therefore, each employee
can be graded based on the salary. The relationship is obtained using an operator other than the
equality operator (=).
DEPARTMENTS EMPLOYEES
You use an outer join to see rows that do not meet the join
condition.
The outer join operator is the plus sign (+).
SELECT table1.column, table2.column
FROM table1, table2
WHERE table1.column(+) = table2.column;
Self-Join: Example
The example in the slide joins the EMPLOYEES table to itself. To simulate two tables in the FROM
clause, there are two aliases, namely worker and manager, for the same table, EMPLOYEES.
In this example, the WHERE clause contains the join that means where a workers manager number
matches the employee number for the manager.
Summary
There are multiple ways to join tables.
Types of Joins
Equijoins
Nonequijoins
Outer joins
Self-joins
Cartesian Products
A Cartesian product results in a display of all combinations of rows. This is done by omitting the
WHERE clause.
Table Aliases
Table aliases speed up database access.
Table aliases can help to keep SQL code smaller by conserving memory.
Practice F: Overview
This practice is intended to give you practical experience in extracting data from more than one table
using the Oracle join syntax.
2) The HR department needs a report of employees who earn commission. Show the last
name, job, salary, and commission of those employees. Sort the data by salary in
descending order.
3) For budgeting purposes, the HR department needs a report on projected raises. The
report should display those employees who have no commission, but who have a 10%
raise in salary (round off the salaries).
5) Show those employees who have a last name starting with the letters J, K, L,
or M.
These exercises can be used for extra practice after you have discussed the following
topics: basic statement, basic SQL Developer commands, SQL functions,
joins, and group functions.
7) Create a report that displays the department name, location ID, last name, job title,
and salary of those employees who work in a specific location. Prompt the user for
the location. For example, if the user enters , these are the results:
8) Find the number of employees who have a last name that ends with the letter n.
Create two possible solutions.
10) The HR department needs to find the job titles in departments 10 and 20. Create a
report to display the job IDs for those departments.
11) Create a report that displays the jobs that are found in the Administration and
Executive departments. Also display the number of employees for these jobs. Show
the job with the highest number of employees first.
These exercises can be used for extra practice after you have discussed the following
topics: basic statements, basic SQL Developer commands, SQL functions,
joins, group functions, and subqueries.
12) Show all the employees who were hired in the first half of the month (before the 16th
of the month).
14) Show all the employees who have managers with a salary higher than $15,000. Show
the following data: employee name, manager name, manager salary, and salary grade
of the manager.
16) Create a report to display the department number and lowest salary of the department
with the highest average salary.
17) Create a report that displays departments where no sales representatives work.
Include the department number, department name, manager ID, and the location in
the output.
19) Create a report that displays the employee number, last name, salary, department
number, and the average salary in their department for all employees.
21) Create an anniversary overview based on the hire date of the employees. Sort the
anniversaries in ascending order.
5) Show those employees who have a last name starting with the letters J, K, L, or
M.
-
-
-
These exercises can be used for extra practice after you have discussed the following
topics: basic SQL statement, basic SQL Developer commands, SQL functions,
joins, and group functions.
7) Create a report that displays the department name, location ID, name, job title, and
salary of those employees who work in a specific location. Prompt the user for the
location.
a) Enter for when prompted.
-
-
- -
8) Find the number of employees who have a last name that ends with the letter n.
Create two possible solutions.
-
-
-
-
9) Create a report that shows the name, location, and number of employees for each
department. Make sure that the report also includes departments without employees.
- -
10) The HR department needs to find the job titles in departments 10 and 20. Create a
report to display the job IDs for those departments.
-
These exercises can be used for extra practice after you have discussed the following
topics: basic SQL statements, basic SQL Developer commands, SQL functions,
joins, group functions, and subqueries.
12) Show all employees who were hired in the first half of the month (before the 16th of
the month).
-
-
13) Create a report that displays the following for all employees: last name, salary, and
salary expressed in terms of thousands of dollars.
- - - --
-
14) Show all employees who have managers with a salary higher than $15,000. Show the
following data: employee name, manager name, manager salary, and salary grade of
the manager.
- - -
- -
-
- -- --
-
16) Create a report to display the department number and lowest salary of the department
with the highest average salary.
-
-
- -
-
17) Create a report that displays the departments where no sales representatives work.
Include the department number, department name, and location in the output.
-
-
18) Create the following statistical reports for the HR department: Include the department
number, department name, and the number of employees working in each department
that:
a) Employs fewer than three employees:
- -
TITLE
for #* id
RESERVATION * title
#* res date the subject * description
of o rating
set up for o category
o release date
available as
responsible a copy
for
TITLE_COPY
MEMBER #* id
#* id * status
* last name
o first name the subject of
o address responsible
o city for made against
o phone
* join date RENTAL
created #* book date
for o act ret date
o exp ret date
Note: If you want to build the tables, you can execute the commands in the
- script in SQL Developer. If you want to drop the tables, you can execute
the commands in the - script in SQL Developer. Then you can execute the
commands in the - script in SQL Developer to create and populate the
tables.
All the three SQL scripts are present in the ---
folder.
If you use the - script to build the tables, start with step 4.
b) Table name:
Column_
Name
Key PK
Type
Null/ NN,U NN NN
Unique
Check G, PG, R, DRAMA,
NC17, NR COMEDY,
ACTION,
CHILD,
SCIFI,
DOCUMEN
TARY
Data Type
Length 10 60 400 4 20
c) Table name:
Column
Name
Key PK PK,FK
Type
Null/ NN,U NN,U NN
Unique
Check AVAILABLE,
DESTROYED,
RENTED,
RESERVED
FK Ref
Table
FK Ref
Col
Data
Type
Length 10 10 15
d) Table name:
Column
Name
Key PK PK,FK1 PK,FK2 PK,FK2
Type
Default System System Date
Value Date + 2 days
FK Ref
Table
FK Ref
Col
Data
Type
Length 10 10 10
Column
Name
Key PK PK,FK1 PK,FK2
Type
Null/ NN,U NN,U NN
Unique
FK Ref
Table
FK Ref
Column
Data Type
Length 10 10
2) Verify that the tables were created properly by checking in the Connections Navigator
in SQL Developer.
4) Add data to the tables. Create a script for each set of data to be added.
a) Add movie titles to the table. Write a script to enter the movie
information. Save the statements in a script named --. Use the
sequences to uniquely identify each title. Enter the release dates in the DD-MON-
YYYY format. Remember that single quotation marks in a character field must be
specially handled. Verify your additions.
2 RENTED 2
2 AVAILABLE 2
3 RENTED 3
Title Price
Willie and Christmas Too 25
Alien Again 35
The Glob 35
My Day Off 35
Miracles on Ice 30
Soda Gang 35
Interstellar Wars 29
b) Table name:
-
-
-
c) Table name:
--
--
-- --
e) Table name:
-
-
-
-
--
-
2) Verify that the tables were created properly by checking in the Connections Navigator
in SQL Developer.
a) In the Connections Navigator, expand Connections > myconnection > Tables.
3) Create sequences to uniquely identify each row in the table and the
table.
a) Member number for the table: Start with 101; do not allow caching of the
values. Name the sequence .
-
b) Title number for the table: Start with 92; do not allow caching of the
values. Name the sequence .
-
b) Add data to the table. Place the insert statements in a script named
--. Execute the commands in the script. Be sure to use the
sequence to add the member numbers.
- -
--
- -
- -
--
- -
-
- -
--
-
- -
--
-
-
- -
- -
--
-
5) Create a view named to show the movie titles, the availability of each
copy, and its expected return date if rented. Query all rows from the view. Order the
results by title.
Note: Your results may be different.
--