Introduction of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
Introduction of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
Introduction of NDT:
The inspection of metal structures such as oil and gas pipelines, rail tracks, automobile components,
welded joints and bridges or metal components in manufacturing etc is a common requirement in
industry, so there is a need for fast, reliable and cost effective surface and sub-surface defect detection
systems for inspection of materials. Flaws can affect serviceability of the material or structure, so NDT
is important for safe operation as well as for quality control and accessing plant life. The flaws may be
cracks or inclusions in welds and castings, or variation in structural properties which can lead to loss of
strength or failure in service.
Non-destructive Testing (NDT) is the examination of an object or material for detecting and evaluating
flaws in materials with technology that does not affect its future usefulness. NDT can be used without
destroying or damaging a product or material. Because it allows inspection without interfering with a
product's final use, NDT provides an excellent balance between quality control and cost-effectiveness.
Commonly used inspection techniques include visual inspection, liquid penetrant testing, ultrasonic
inspection, eddy current testing and magnetic flux leakage testing, magnetic particle testing [1].
Objective of NDT:
The object of NDT is to find flaws in the material being tested, and the successful application of the
test is largely dependent upon the skill of the operator and the equipment used. The objective of each
test method is to provide information about the following material parameters [1]-
• Discontinuities and flaw
• Structure
• Dimensions and metrology
• Physical and mechanical properties
• Composition and chemical analysis
Application of NDT:
NDT is used in a variety of settings that covers a wide range of industrial activity. NDT are applied not
only in engineering but also in medical fields. The various industries in which non-destructive testing
used are-
• Automotive industry- for testing engine parts and frame etc.
• Aerospace industry - -for testing air frames, rocket engine parts etc.
• Powerplant industry- for testing propellers, reciprocating engines, gas turbine engines,
boilers, heat exchangers etc.
• Construction industry- for testing of structures, bridges etc.
• Manufacturing industry- for testing of cast products, forged products, welded joints etc.
• Petroleum and Gas industry- for testing of pipelines, oil storage tanks, pressure vessels
etc.
• Railways- for rail inspection, wheel inspection, frame etc.
• Medical imaging applications.
When sound waves travel through a medium, a percentage of the sound energy is attenuated by either
absorption or scattering. The remaining energy can be received and processed into an indicator of the
material properties between the transmitter and receiver. A transducer is used for transmitting and
receiving the ultrasound waves.
The interaction effect of sound waves with the material is stronger when wave length is small. This
means that, for better detection of flaw the frequency of the ultrasonic waves must be high.
Due to this, ultrasonic waves with frequency range between about 0.5 MHz and 25 MHz are used. With
lower frequencies, the interaction effect of the waves with internal flaws would be so small that
detection becomes questionable.
Acoustic Impedance: The resistance offered to the propagation of an ultrasonic wave by a material is
known as the acoustic impedance. The acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is the product of its density
(ρ) and acoustic velocity (V).
Z = ρV
The greater the impedance difference at a boundary, the greater the reflection that will occur, and
therefore, the smaller the amount of energy that will be transferred.
Ultrasonic Waves:
Sound waves which have a frequency above the human hearing range are called ultrasonic waves.
Ultrasonic waves are mechanical waves and consist of vibrations of the particles of the transmitting
medium about their equilibrium positions. Ultrasonic waves can propagate in an elastic medium such
as solid, liquid or gas but not in vacuum. Like a light beam, ultrasonic waves are reflected at surfaces
and refracted when crossing an interface between two substances that have different acoustic
properties. They also lose energy by scattering at rough surfaces. Ultrasonic Waves are characterized
by the frequency, velocity, wavelength and, amplitude.
• Surface waves
Longitudinal waves: These are sound waves in which the particles of the transmitting medium vibrate
in the same direction as the propagation of the wave. The wave is propagated through the medium as a
series of alternate compressions and rarefactions. Because of its easy generation and detection, this type
of ultrasonic wave is most widely used in ultrasonic testing. Longitudinal waves have relatively high
velocity and short wavelength. As a result energy can be focused into a sharp beam with minimum
divergence. Longitudinal wave can propagate in solids, liquids and gases. The velocity of longitudinal
ultrasonic waves is about 5900 m/sec in steel, 1500m/sec in water and 330m/sec in air.
Transverse waves only propagate in solid materials never in liquids or gases because these do not have
a shear modulus and therefore do not affect any shear forces.
Surface waves: These are another type of ultrasonic waves used in ultrasonic testing. These waves are
propagated over the surface of a solid whose thickness perpendicular to the surface is large compared
to the wavelength. The motion of the particles is both longitudinal and transverse. The region within
which these waves propagate with effective energy is not much thicker than about one wavelength
beneath the surface of the metal. These waves have a velocity approximately 90% of the transverse
wave velocity in the same material. Surface waves are useful for testing purposes because the
attenuation they suffer for a given material is lower than for an equivalent shear or longitudinal wave
and because they can flow around corners and thus be used for testing quite complicated shapes. Only
surface or near surface defects can be detected by using surface waves.
Lamb or Plate Waves: The plate waves are usually generated by the phenomenon of mode conversion
when a sound beams impinging the plate obliquely from a relatively large transducer. Ultrasonic waves
undergo multiple reflections and mode conversions within the metal like a plate. The resulting
refraction and reflection at the interfaces produces many new signal packets. If the angle of incidence
or the frequency of sound is adjusted properly, the reflected and refracted energy within the plate will
constructively interfere, thereby generating the plate wave. Because these waves penetrate the entire
thickness of the plate and propagate parallel to the surface, a large portion of the material can be
interrogated from a single transducer location.
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