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Epinephelus Coioides Feeding PDF
Epinephelus Coioides Feeding PDF
(Serranidae: Epinephelinae)
Chang*
and Ching-Fong Chang (2006) Effects of dietary protein and lipids on blood
The objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of dietary lipid and
protein levels on blood parameters, body composition, body indices, and the
conducted for 12 wk on 200 juvenile groupers (10 g) per cage placed in a 2-ton
tank with a recirculation system. In total, 4 dietary treatments with a 2 2
factorial array were conducted. Treatments had either low (L, 31%) or
moderate (M, 47%) crude protein (P) combined with either moderate (M, 10%)
or high (H, 18%) fat (F). Fish were hand-fed to apparent satiation.
fed the high-fat (LP-HF and MP-HF) diets produced significantly higher levels
of superoxide anions after acute cold shock (stress) compared to the control
fish. In summary, our data suggest that high dietary fat results in increased fat
dietary lipid enhanced the immune response of grouper after acute cold shock.
diet satisfies 3 needs: fuel (chemical energy), the organic raw materials for
carbohydrates are the critical components of the diet for supplying the carbon
skeleton and energy. Fish may convert protein into an energy source if
It was also reported that increasing the level of dietary lipids beyond
about 9%-10% did not improve fish growth rates, but instead reduced the fish's
High protein requirements (Chen and Tsai 1994, Shiau and Lan 1996) and low
and Lin 2001 2002, Lin and Shiau 2003). So it can be inferred that groupers,
marine carnivores, are adapted to using protein as the preferred energy source
over carbohydrates and lipids, thus requiring high levels of dietary protein.
diets, both to improve the efficiency of growth and to reduce N-excretion to the
environment (Eng et al. 1989, Naylor et al. 2000). Much progress has been
more in the diet, which has in turn enabled reductions in dietary protein
concentrations of from 500 to 400 g/kg body weight (BW). Fish productivity
has also improved, and N discharges to the environment have been reduced
production are employed to develop feed for new marine cultured species in
the fish feed industry. However, the inclusion of lipids to replace proteins as
an energy source for other fish does not always provide similar results as in
plasma triglyceride and glucose levels were observed in fish fed a high-fat,
low-protein diet; furthermore, increasing the protein level in the diet seemed to
whether grouper can utilize lipids as well as salmonids and also to study
whether a high-fat (18%), low-protein diet (31% crude protein is low compared
to the optimal level of 47%-52% for grouper) will induce any abnormal
phagocytic cells in fish, and they are also the dominant phagocytes in the head
The poor utilization of high dietary fat in relation to the protein level in
high-fat, low-protein diet impairs its immune function were the main reasons
moderate (M, 10%) or high (H, 18%) fat (F) on the blood parameters, body
of cold shock during the winter in Taiwan, the effect of cold shock on the
Diet preparation
Protein and lipid levels in the diet were prepared according to the
factorial array were conducted. Factorial treatments had either low (L, 31%)
or moderate (M, 47%) crude protein (P) with moderate (M, 10%) or high (H,
18%) fat (F) (Table 1). All diets were individually blended in a mixer and then
homogenized after mixed oil was added. Distilled water was included to
and a rotation cutter. The pelleted diets were dried at 40C for 10 h then
4 5
moderate-protein, moderate-fat. MP-HF, moderate-protein, high-fat. Different starch
6
levels were adjusted to equally metabolizable energy in the various diets. Lipid source, soy
7 8
bean oil/cod liver oil (3/7). CMC, carboxymethyl cellulose. Basal mixture, squid meal 1%;
9
CaHPO4 0.50%; and choline 0.70%. Mineral and vitamin mixture, according to Teng et al.
10
(1978). Metabolizable energy (ME), proteins, 4.5 kcal/g; carbohydrates, 3.49 kcal/g; and
divided into 4 culture nets (nets I, II, III, and IV; 200 fish per culture net with
was designed for each FRP tank with a nylon filter, biofilter, and deproteinizing
28 0.5C, pH 8.2, dissolved O2 of 5.5 0.5 mg/l, and NH3-N of < 0.3 mg/l.
The LP-MF and LP-HF, and MP-MF and MP-HF diets were assigned to
the 2 tanks, respectively. The experiments lasted for 12 wk, and the fish were
weighed regularly at 2-wk intervals. The diet was given twice a day (at 08:00
and 17:00). At each meal, fish were hand-fed to apparent satiation. After
feeding each meal, the uneaten feed was manually removed from the bottom
of the FRP tank and dried in an oven to estimate the amount of the uneaten
feed in order to calculate the feed consumption. At the end of the experiment
(17 h after the last feeding) (Shimeno et al. 1990), 10 fish were randomly
selected from each net cage, and immediately placed into a bucket containing
MO, USA). Blood samples (10 fish per group) were drawn from a caudal
vessel immediately after the fish were anesthetized. The sampled fish were
the viscera, liver, and intraperitoneal fat to determine the hepatosomatic index
(HSI), condition factor (CF), viscerosomatic index (VSI), and intraperitoneal fat
(IPF). The viscera and body were stored at -20C for individual body
within 12 h after collection. Weight gain, feed efficiency, and total feed
consumption were also calculated. At the end of the experiment, 18 fish from
For the cold shock experiment, fish from the 4 dietary experimental
groups were selected and divided into 2 groups: control (n = 8) and cold stress
administered to fish fed the LP-MF and LP-HF diets and to fish fed the MP-MF
and MP-HF diets. Sixteen tested fish were moved into an aquarium and fed
the test diet for 1 wk to allow acclimation to the new experimental conditions
before the experiment. For the cold stress treatment, water temperatures
recirculatory system, and then the fish were maintained at 15C for 2 h before
the water temperature was returned to 28C within the next 4 h. After the
cold-shock treatment, the stressed fish were maintained at 28C in the same
aquarium for 1 d, and then 8 fish were selected randomly to collect the head
kidneys for the assay of superoxide anion production. In the control group, the
cold-shock experiment.
Blood analysis
through a plastic transfer pipette. The mixture was filtered through 100-m
and centrifuged at 400 xg for 40 min (4C). Leukocyte layers obtained from
the interface were collected and centrifuged again at 300 xg for 10 min at 4C.
(AL medium with 10% fetal bovine serum) at a concentration of 1 x 107 cell/ml.
Leukocytes (1.0 x 106 cells in 100 l) were added to each well of a microfluore
and then 120 l of KOH (2 M) and 140 l of dimethyl sulfoxide were added for
Statistical analysis
(ANOVA) was used to test the significance of different diets for each parameter,
RESULTS
Growth index
Table 2 summarizes the values of weight gain, feed efficiency, total feed
consumption, and survival of groupers fed the experimental diets for 12 wk.
The weight gain and total feed consumption in fish fed the MF diets were
higher compared to those fed the HF diets at the same protein level. The MP
diets resulted in a higher weight gain and feed efficiency compared to the LP
diets at the same fat level. The total feed consumed by fish fed the diets with
the same fat level had similar values. The lowest growth performance was
Table 2. Weight gain, total food consumed, and survival of grouper fed
different protein and fat levels (LP, low protein; MP, moderate protein; MF,
moderate fat; HF, high fat) in the diet for 12 wk
WG (%)1 FE2 TFC (%)3 Survival (%)
LP-MF 367.47 0.85 344 100
LP-HF 268.54 0.89 241 100
MP-MF 495.92 1.12 346 100
MP-HF 339.64 1.10 243 100
1 2
Weight gain (WG) =100 x (final body weight - initial body weight)/initial body weight. Feed
3
efficiency (FE) = g weight gain/g feed consumed. Total feed consumption (TFC) = total feed
consumption/initial weight.
Results of the body condition indices are shown in table 3. HSI, VSI,
and IPF were significantly affected by dietary protein and fat, and by the
interaction between protein and fat. The 3 indices were significantly higher in
fish fed the LP-HF diet than in fish fed the other 3 diets, but there were no
differences between the MP-MF and MP-HF groups; moreover, the VSI and
IPF were significantly lower in fish fed the LP-MF diet compared to those of fish
fed the other 3 diets. No significant effects of dietary protein, fat, or the
interaction between protein and fat on CF were found across the treatments.
Two-way ANOVA
Values represent the mean of 10 fish from each net cage. Values in a column with different
1
superscripts significantly differ at p < 0.05 based on Duncans multiple range test. HSI =
2
(liver weight/body weight) 100. CF = body weight/(total length)3 1000. 3
VSI = (viscera
4
weight/body weight) 100. IPF = (intraperitoneal fat weight/body weight) 100.
Body composition
The compositions of the whole body are shown in table 4. The
moisture, protein, lipid, and ash contents of the whole body were significantly
protein and fat was only found for lipid and ash contents of the whole body.
The lipid content was significantly higher, while the moisture, protein, and ash
contents of the whole body were significantly lower in fish fed the LP-HF diet
compared to the other 3 diets. The lipid content in fish fed the LP-MF diet
Table 4. Body composition (%) of grouper fed different protein and fat levels
(LP, low protein; MP, moderate protein; MF, moderate fat; HF, high fat) in the
diet for 12 wk (each value was collected from 10 fish)
Diet Moisture Protein Lipid Ash
Two-way ANOVA
Blood parameters
by dietary protein and fat, but the concentration of plasma cholesterol was only
protein and fat was only observed in the results for plasma triglyceride. There
levels in fish fed the diets containing higher dietary fat level (HF vs. MF) at the
same dietary protein level. The plasma triglyceride level increased by 5-fold
in the LP-HF group compared to the LP-MF group and by 3-fold in the MP-HF
dietary fat level but the same protein level. However, there was a significant
decrease in plasma triglyceride and glucose levels in fish fed the diets
containing the higher dietary protein level (MP vs. LP) at the same dietary fat
level. The plasma triglyceride level decreased to 64% in the MP-MF group
compared to the LP-MF group and to 40% in the MP-HF group compared to
decreased with an increasing dietary protein level at the same dietary fat level.
Two-way ANOVA
Values represent the mean of 10 fish from each net cage. Values in a column with different
superscripts significantly differ at p < 0.05 based on Duncans multiple range test.
dietary protein and fat, and the interaction between protein and fat (Table 6).
The highest production of superoxide anions was observed in fish fed the
MP-HF diet while the lowest production was observed with the LP-HF diet.
between fish fed the LP-MF and MP-HF diets (Table 6).
LP-MF 0.6948a
LP-HF 0.4576 c
MP-MF 0.6287 b
MP-HF 0.7212 a
Two-way ANOVA
PF (Interaction) P0.001
The mean of superoxide anion production from leukocytes in the head kidneys of grouper (n =
18 in each group) fed different diets (LP-MF and LP-HF, and MP-MF and MP-HF) for 12 wk.
Values in a column with different superscripts significantly differ at p < 0.05 based on Duncans
the production of superoxide anions in fish fed the LP-HF diet was significantly
lower than that of fish fed the LP-MF diet, but fish fed the MP-HF diet had
significantly higher production of superoxide anions than fish fed the MP-MF
diet (Table 6). Similarly, in fish fed different protein levels at the same fat level,
the production of superoxide anions of fish fed the MP-MF diet was
significantly lower than that of fish fed the LP-MF diet, but fish fed the MP-HF
diet had significantly higher production of superoxide anions than fish fed the
production in fish fed the LP with MF and HF (Fig. 1A) and the MP with MF and
LP-HF group, but there was no significant difference in fish fed the LP-MF diet
(Fig. 1A). Superoxide anion production was higher in the cold-shocked group
compared to the control group in fish fed the MP-HF diet, but it was
significantly lower in the cold-shocked group than in the control group in fish
1.0 A Control
Cold Stress
0.8
*
OD 620 nm
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
LP-MF LP-HF
1.0 B Control
Cold Stress *
0.8
OD 620 nm
0.6 *
0.4
0.2
0.0
MP-MF MP-HF
protein and fat levels in the diets (LP-MF and LP-HF, and MP-MF and MP-HF)
for 12 wk. The fish were divided into control (non-stressed status) and
cold-stress groups (fish were stressed at 15C for 2 h and the head kidneys
were collected 17 h later). LP-MF (low protein and moderate fat), LP-HF (low
protein and high fat), MP-ML (moderate protein and moderate fat), and MP-HF
In the present study, 200 grouper were placed in a cage and fed to
satiation twice per day. After 12 wk, the FE ranged from 0.85 to 1.10 and
survival was 100% for all treatments, which indicated that the feeding trial was
consistent with our previous results (unpubl. data). In the present study, our
results showed that a diet with a moderate dietary protein content (MP-MF and
MP-HF) resulted in better weight gain and feed efficiency compared to the
low-protein diets; high dietary lipids (LP-HF and MP-HF) resulted in decreased
feed consumption and weight gain. This is consistent with the study of Lin
and Shiau (2003) who reported decreased growth and feed efficiency of
reported that increasing the dietary lipid beyond about 9%-10% did not
improve fish growth rates but instead reduced the fish appetite in humpback
1994). However, dietary lipids (10%-20%) have been reported to facilitate the
and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri ) (Beamish and Medland 1986). However,
the inclusion of high lipids in the diet did not increase the feed efficiency in
In this study, the significantly decreased lipid and increased protein and
moisture contents of the whole body were observed in grouper fed the diets
containing higher dietary protein (MP vs. LP) at the same dietary fat level.
et al. 2004), Spinibarbus hollandi (Yang et al. 2003), and silver perch
increase in the body lipid content. Similar findings have been reported in
other species such as tilapia (Tilapia zilli) (El-Sayed 1987), European sea bass
(unpubl. data), the body lipid content of grouper increased with an increasing
level of lipids in the diet, but the effect was not obvious in the muscle. This is
because the lipid content in muscle ranged from 1.5% to 2.5% (in wet weight)
despite the high lipid level in the diet. In the present study, the higher lipid
content of the whole body of fish fed the LP-HF diet might be attributed to the
high lipid accumulation in the cavity of the abdomen, which is consistent with
hepatosomatic index of the fish. The higher-lipid diet also produced a high
HSI possibly because of the high lipid content in the liver which is similar to
(Gadus morhua L.) (Morais et al. 2001). There was a significant interaction of
lipid content of the whole body with dietary protein and fat in the fish, which
was not found in juvenile masu salmon (Oncorhynchus masou Brevoort) (Lee
and Kim 2001) or Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) (Refstie et al. 2001).
levels were found in grouper fed the high-fat (18%) diets in the present study.
increases) were found in grouper fed the high-fat diets as compared to the
moderate (10%)-fat diets. This shows that grouper is inefficient at utilizing fat
in its diet. A similar observation was also found in turbot (Psetta maxima)
(Regost et al. 2001),,a lean fish (with a low lipid content in the muscle). But
high plasma triglycerides were not found in salmon (Salmo salar) fed diets
containing 31%-47% fat (Hemre and Sandnes 1999). Higher plasma glucose
levels (up to a 1.7-fold increase) were detected in grouper fed the high-fat diets
as compared to the moderate fat groups (LP-HF vs. LP-MF and MP-HF vs.
appropriate to collect blood 17 h after the final feeding for the plasma glucose
smaller salmon (Salmo salar L ) (Hemre et al. 1996). However, in this study
the included starch level (40.5%) in the LP-MF diet was about 2-fold the level
(21.5%) of that in the LP-HF diet, but the plasma glucose of fish fed the LP-HF
diet was 1.7-fold that of fish fed the LP-MF diet. The plasma glucose level (84
mg/dl) in fish fed the MP-MF diet was close to the level (72 mg/dl) in the study
reported by Luo et al. (2005), in which they conducted a study for 8 wk with the
same species of grouper, fed the fish twice to satiation with a diet similar to the
MP-MF diet, and collected blood samples 18 h after the final feeding. The
higher plasma glucose levels in this study were attributed the poor utilization of
plasma glucose was due to the effect of high dietary fat. Studies have
suggested that the reason for type 2 diabetes is partly due to the high dietary
lipids in mice (Zhang et al. 2001). Similar to the symptoms of type 2 diabetes
(Boden and Shulman 2002), the blood triglyceride, glucose, and cholesterol
levels in fish fed the LP-HF diet were obviously high in this study. In contrast
to the result that plasma triglyceride and glucose increased in grouper fed the
higher-fat diets (HF vs. MF: 18% vs. 10%), significant decreases in plasma
triglycerides and glucose were observed in grouper fed the higher-protein diets
(MP vs. LP: 47% vs. 31%). The effect of higher dietary protein of decreasing
al. 2002) and on decreasing plasma triglycerides was found in African catfish
triglyceride and glucose in fish fed the LP-HF diet can possibly be explained by
it containing the lowest dietary protein and the highest dietary fat among the 4
plasma triglycerides might also have contributed to the obviously high plasma
triglycerides in fish fed the LP-HF diet. Our results suggest that the abnormal
metabolism of glucose and triglycerides in grouper might be caused by high
dietary fat and low protein in the diet. The results also imply that moderate
protein in the diet may decrease the adverse effects of high dietary fat on lipid
function (Secombes 1990). After 12 wk of the feeding trial, the grouper fed
the LP-HF diet had the lowest production of superoxide anions, along with poor
triglycerides), body lipid content, and body condition indices across the 4
treatments. There are contradictory reports about the effects of high dietary
fat on immune function: a high fat diet increased the phagocytic ability in
channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus ) (Sheldon and Blazer 1991); fat (50% fish
oil and 50% corn oil) supplementation of up to 16% in a 50% protein diet did
not inhibit superoxide anion production in grouper (E. coioides) (Lin and Shiau
the interaction between protein and fat in this study compared to other studies
might be the reasons for the difference in superoxide anion production of fish
fed the high dietary fat. In this study, decreased superoxide anion production
(respiratory bursts) was found in grouper fed the LP-HF diet compared to those
(respiratory bursts) was observed in grouper fed the MP-HF diet compared to
those fed the MP-MF diet The contradictory result might be explained by the
significant interaction between dietary protein and fat. These results suggest
that high-fat and low-protein contents together in a diet are factors which can
especially in a warm-water fish species such as the grouper (Le Morvan et al.
1998). The effect of temperature on the immune system in fish has been
extensively discussed (Bly and Clem 1992, Zapata et al. 1992), with the
treatment in this study indicated that high dietary fat increased superoxide
fish fed the moderate-fat diets. Highly unsaturated fatty acids in the diet are
important in fish to increase membrane permeability and fluidity, thus enabling
the fish to adapt to low water temperatures (Malak et al. 1989, Xu et al. 1996).
Therefore, the increase in the production of superoxide anions in fish fed high
dietary fat after cold shock can be also attributed to the increased
acid) in the diets (HF = 2.75% vs. MF = 1.6% of PUFA ) contents in the diets
instead of the increased dietary fat level. Bly et al. (1993) examined
a 24-h period but not after acclimation (Bly and Clem 1991). Pytycz and
studies may have depended on whether the fish were immediately examined
for immune function or after acclimating for a while after cold treatment.
Higher production of superoxide anions was observed in stressed fish fed the
diets (LP-HF and MP-HF) containing high dietary fat (also high PUFA contents)
treatment, the stressed fish were allowed to recover for 1 d at 28C, and then
acclimatized to the change in temperature, and the cold shock might have
In summary, our data suggest that high dietary fat results in increases in
fat deposition, plasma triglycerides, and glucose in grouper, and it was more
pronounced with low protein in the diet, but moderate protein in the diet
reduced the adverse effects of high dietary fat in grouper. The high-fat,
anions. High dietary fat (containing a high PUFA content) enhanced the
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