An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump

An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump is a 1768

oil-on-canvas painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, one
of a number of candlelit scenes that Wright painted dur-
ing the 1760s. The painting departed from convention of
the time by depicting a scientic subject in the reveren-
tial manner formerly reserved for scenes of historical or
religious signicance. Wright was intimately involved in
depicting the Industrial Revolution and the scientic ad-
vances of the Enlightenment, but while his paintings were
recognised as something out of the ordinary by his con-
temporaries, his provincial status and choice of subjects
meant the style was never widely imitated. The picture
has been owned by the National Gallery, London since
1863 and is still regarded as a masterpiece of British art.
In June 2015 it was on loan to Tate Britain.
The painting depicts a natural philosopher, a forerunner
of the modern scientist, recreating one of Robert Boyle's
air pump experiments, in which a bird is deprived of air,
before a varied group of onlookers. The group exhibits a
variety of reactions, but for most of the audience scien-
tic curiosity overcomes concern for the bird. The central
gure looks out of the picture as if inviting the viewers
participation in the outcome.

1 Historical background
In 1659, Robert Boyle commissioned the construction of Title page of Robert Boyle's New Experiments of 1660, in which
an air pump, then described as a pneumatic engine, he detailed how to perform the experiment.
which is known today as a vacuum pump. The air pump
was invented by Otto von Guericke in 1650, though its
cost deterred most contemporary scientists from con- struction of the pump enabled Boyle to conduct a great
structing the apparatus. Boyle, the son of the Earl of many experiments on the properties of air, which he later
Cork, had no such concernsafter its construction, he detailed in his New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall,
donated the initial 1659 model to the Royal Society and Touching the Spring of the Air, and its Eects, (Made, for
had a further two redesigned machines built for his per-the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical Engine). In the book,
sonal use. Aside from Boyles three pumps, there were he described in great detail 43 experiments he conducted,
probably no more than four others in existence during on occasion assisted by Hooke, on the eect of air on var-
the 1660s: Christian Huygens had one in The Hague, ious phenomena. Boyle tested the eects of raried air
Henry Power may have had one at Halifax, and there may on combustion, magnetism, sound, and barometers, and
have been pumps at Christs College, Cambridge and the examined the eects of increased air pressure on vari-
Montmor Academy in Paris.[1] Boyles pump, which was ous substances. He listed two experiments on living crea-
largely designed to Boyles specications and constructed
tures: Experiment 40, which tested the ability of in-
by Robert Hooke, was complicated, temperamental, and sects to y under reduced air pressure, and the dramatic
problematic to operate. Many demonstrations could only Experiment 41, which demonstrated the reliance of liv-
be performed with Hooke on hand, and Boyle frequently ing creatures on air for their survival. In this attempt to
left critical public displays solely to Hookewhose dra-discover something about the account upon which Res-
matic air matched his technical skill.[2] piration is so necessary to the Animals, that Nature hath
Despite the operational and maintenance obstacles, con- furnish'd with Lungs, Boyle conducted numerous trials

1
2 2 PAINTING

during which he placed a large variety of dierent crea- 1767. The prole and wig of this gure are consistent
tures, including birds, mice, eels, snails and ies, in the with a contemporary portrait of Small by Tilly Kettle.
vessel of the pump and studied their reactions as the air
was removed.[3] Here, he describes an injured lark:
2 Painting
the Bird for a while appear'd lively
enough; but upon a greater Exsuction of the
Air, she began manifestly to droop and appear 2.1 Background
sick, and very soon after was taken with as vi-
olent and irregular Convulsions, as are wont to
be observ'd in Poultry, when their heads are
wrung o: For the Bird threw her self over
and over two or three times, and dyed with her
Breast upward, her Head downwards, and her
Neck awry.[4]

By the time Wright painted his picture in 1768, air pumps

were a relatively commonplace scientic instrument, and
itinerant lecturers in natural philosophy"usually more
showmen than scientistsoften performed the animal
in the air pump experiment as the centrepiece of their
public demonstration.[5] These were performed in town
halls and other large buildings for a ticket-buying audi-
ence, or were booked by societies or for private showings
in the homes of the well-o, the setting suggested in both
of Wrights demonstration pieces.[6] One of the most no-
table and respectable of the travelling lecturers was James
Ferguson FRS, a Scottish astronomer and probable ac-
quaintance of Joseph Wright (both were friends of John
Whitehurst). Ferguson noted that a lungs-glass with a
small air-lled bladder inside was often used in place of
the animal, as using a living creature was too shocking to
every spectator who has the least degree of humanity.[7] Candlelit scene by Godfried Schalcken
The full moon in the picture is signicant as Lunar Cir-
cle meetings were timed to make use of its light when During his apprenticeship and early career Wright con-
centrated on portraiture. By 1762, he was an accom-
travelling. Erasmus Darwin's study in his original house
survives at Beacon St, Licheld WS13 7AD, and is recog- plished portrait artist, and his 1764 group portrait James
nisable as the site of the painting. The eight paned win- Shuttleworth, his Wife and Daughter is acknowledged as
dow is unchanged; the door position remains as depicted his rst true masterpiece. Benedict Nicolson suggests that
in the painting, though the architrave is missing. A full Wright was inuenced by the work of Thomas Frye; in
moon can be seen from this room at the same bearing and particular by the 18 bust-length mezzotints which Frye
inclination as in the painting, just after midnight when the completed just before his death in 1762. It was perhaps
moon is full. Darwins philosophical feasts that started Fryes candlelight images that tempted Wright to exper-
with the afternoon meal often carried on throughout the iment with subject pieces. Wrights rst attempt, A Girl
night. Wright met Darwin in the early 1760s, probably reading a Letter by candlelight with a Young Man look-
through their common connection of John Whitehurst, ing over her shoulder from 1762 or 1763, is a trial in the
rst consulting Darwin about ill health in 1767 when he genre, and is fetching though uncomplicated.[9] Wrights
stayed in the Darwin household for a week.[8] The energy An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump forms part of
and vivacity of both Erasmus and Mary (Polly) Darwin a series of candlelit nocturnes that he produced between
impressed Wright. In the 1980s Eric Evans (National 1765 and 1768.
Gallery) suggested that Darwin is the gure in the left There was a long history of painting candlelit scenes
foreground who holds a watch. As this composed time- in Western art, although as Wright had not at this date
keeper is not consistent with Darwins amboyant char- travelled abroad, there remains uncertainty as to what
acter, it is more likely that this is Dr William Small. The paintings he might have seen in the original, as opposed
attention to timekeeping ts with Dr Smalls role as the to prints. Nicolson, who made studies of both Wright
social secretary for the Lunar circle. Small returned from and other candlelight painters such as the 17th-century
Virginia in 1764 and established his practice in Birm- Utrecht Caravaggisti, thought their paintings, among the
ingham in 1765, consistent with this being a meeting in largest in the style, those most likely to have inuenced
2.2 Detail 3

Wright. However Judy Egerton wonders if he could have admired; but his next painting, A Philosopher giving that
seen any, preferring as inuences the far smaller works of Lecture on the Orrery, in which a Lamp is put in place
the Leiden jnschilder Godfried Schalcken (16431706), of the Sun (normally known by the shortened form A
whose reputation was much greater in the early 18th cen- Philosopher Giving a Lecture on the Orrery or just The
tury than subsequently. He had worked in England from Orrery), caused a greater stir, as it replaced the Classical
1692 to 1697, and several of his paintings can be placed subject at the centre of the scene with one of a scientic
in English collections in Wrights day.[10] nature. Wrights depiction of the awe produced by scien-
Although he was the leading expert writing in English, tic miracles marked a break with traditions in which
the artistic depiction of such wonder was reserved for re-
Nicolson does not suggest that Wright is likely to have
known of the 17th-century candlelit narrative religious ligious events,[12] since to Wright the marvels of the tech-
nological age were as awe-inspiring as the subjects of the
subjects of Georges de La Tour and Trophime Bigot,
which, in their seriousness, are the closest works to great religious paintings.[13]
Wright that are lit only by candle. The Dutch painters In both of these works the candlelit setting had a realist
works and other candlelit scenes by 18th-century English justication. Viewing sculpture by candlelight, when the
painters such as Henry Morland (father of George) tended contours showed well and there might even be an impres-
instead to exploit the possibilities of semi-darkness for sion of movement from the ickering light, was a fash-
erotic suggestiveness. Some of Wrights own later can- ionable practice described by Goethe.[14] In the orrery
dlelit scenes were by no means as serious as his rst ones, demonstration the shadows cast by the lamp represent-
as seen from their titles: Two Boys Fighting Over a Blad- ing the sun were an essential part of the display, used to
der and Two Girls Dressing a Kitten by Candlelight.[11] demonstrate eclipses. But there seems no reason other
than heightened drama to stage the air pump experiment
in a room lit by a single candle, and in two later paintings
of the subject by Charles-Amde-Philippe van Loo the
lighting is normal.[15]
The painting was one of a number of British works chal-
lenging the set categories of the rigid, French-dictated
hierarchy of genres in the late 18th century, as other
types of painting aspired to be treated as seriously as the
costumed history painting of a Classical or mythological
subject. In some respects the Orrery and Air Pump sub-
jects resembled conversation pieces, then largely a form
of middle-class portraiture, though soon to be given new
status when Johann Zoany began to paint the royal fam-
ily in about 1766. Given their solemn atmosphere how-
ever, and as it seems none of the gures are intended to
be understood as portraits (even if models may be identi-
Three Persons Viewing the Gladiator by Candlelight (1765) ed), the paintings can not be regarded as conversation
pieces.[16] The 20th-century art historian Ellis Water-
house compares these two works to the "genre serieux" of
contemporary French drama, as dened by Denis Diderot
and Pierre Beaumarchais, a view endorsed by Egerton.[17]
An anonymous review from the time called Wright a
very great and uncommon genius in a peculiar way.[18]
The Orrery was painted without a commission, probably
in the expectation that it would be bought by Washington
Shirley, 5th Earl Ferrers, an amateur astronomer who had
an orrery of his own, and with whom Wrights friend Peter
Perez Burdett was staying while in Derbyshire. Figures
thought to be portraits of Burdett and Ferrers feature in
the painting, Burdett taking notes and Ferrers seated with
his son next to the orrery.[7] Ferrers purchased the paint-
A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery (1768) ing for 210, but the 6th Earl auctioned it o, and it is
now held by Derby Museum and Art Gallery.[19]
The rst of his candlelit masterpieces, Three Persons
Viewing the Gladiator by Candlelight, was painted in
1765, and showed three men studying a small copy of the
"Borghese Gladiator". Viewing the Gladiator was greatly
4 2 PAINTING

An earlier oil sketch showed the demonstrator in a more reassur-

ing pose. The bird here was a common songbird.[23]

Jenny Uglow believes that the boy echoes the gure in

the last print of William Hogarth's The Four Stages of
Cruelty by pointing out the arrogance and potential cru-
Detail from the painting
elty of experimentation,[19] while David Fraser also sees
the compositional similarities with the audience grouped
round a central demonstration.[24] The neutral stance of
2.2 Detail the central character and the uncertain intentions of the
boy with the cage were both later ideas: an early study,
An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump followed in discovered on the back of a self-portrait, omits the boy
1768, the emotionally charged experiment contrasting and shows the natural philosopher reassuring the girls. In
with the orderly scene from The Orrery. The painting, this sketch it is obvious that the bird will survive, and thus
which measures 72 by 94 inches (183 by 244 cm), the composition lacks the power of the nal version.[25]
shows a white cockatoo uttering in panic as the air is Wright, who took many of his subjects from English po-
slowly withdrawn from the vessel by the pump. The wit- etry, probably knew the following passage from The
nesses display various emotions: one of the girls wor- Wanderer (1729) by Richard Savage:[26]
riedly watches the fate of the bird, while the other is too
upset to observe and is comforted by her father; two gen- So in some Engine, that denies
tlemen (one of them dispassionately timing the experi- a Vent,
ment) and a boy look on with interest, while the young If unrespiring is some Creature
lovers to the left of the painting are absorbed only in each pent,
other.[20] The scientist himself looks directly out of the It sickens, droops, and pants, and
picture, as if challenging the viewer to judge whether the gasps for Breath,
pumping should continue, killing the bird, or whether the
Sad o'er the Sight swim shad'wy
air should be replaced and the cockatoo saved.[21]
Mists of Death;
Aside from that of the children, little sympathy is directed If then kind Air pours powerful in
toward the bird; David Solkin suggests the subjects of the again.
painting show the dispassionate detachment of the evolv-
New Heats, new Pulses quicken
ing scientic society. Individuals are concerned for each
ev'ry Vein;
other: the father for his children, the young man for the
girl, but the distress of the cockatoo elicits only careful From the clear'd, lifted, life-
study.[22] To one side of the boy at the rear, the cocka- rekindled Eye,
toos empty cage can be seen on the wall, and to further Dispersd, the dark and dampy
heighten the drama it is unclear whether the boy is lower- Vapours y.
ing the cage on the pulley to allow the bird to be replaced
after the experiment or hoisting the cage back up, certain The cockatoo would have been a rare bird at the time,
of its former occupants death. It has also been suggested and one whose life would never in reality have been
that he may be drawing the curtains to block out the light risked in an experiment such as this.[27] It did not be-
from the full moon. come well-known until after it was shown in illustrations
2.3 Style 5

2.3 Style

The gures beside the bird have been compared to some late me-
dieval Trinities.

to the accounts of the voyages of Captain Cook in the

1770s. Prior to Cooks voyage, cockatoos had been im-
ported only in small numbers as exotic cage-birds. Wright
had painted one in 1762 at the home of William Chase, Fryes mezzotint gures (left) are thought to have inspired those
featuring it both in his portrait of Chase and his wife (Mr of Wright (right).
& Mrs William Chase) and a separate study, The Par-
rot.[28] In selecting such a rarity for this scientic sac-
rice, Wright not only chose a more dramatic subject
than the lungs-glass, but was perhaps making a state-
ment about the values of society in the Age of Enlighten-
ment.[7] The white plumage of the cockatoo also shows
much more eectively in the darkened room than the
small dull-coloured bird in Wrights early oil sketch.[27]
A resemblance has been pointed out between the group
of the bird and the two nearest gures and a type of depic-
tion of the Trinity found in Early Netherlandish painting,
where the Holy Spirit is represented by a dove, to which
Fryes chalk drawing (left) was obviously the inspiration for this
God the Father (the philosopher) points, while Christ (the observer (right).
father) gestures in blessing to the viewer.[29]
On the table are various other pieces of equipment The powerful central light source creates a chiaroscuro
that the natural philosopher would have used during his eect. The light illuminating the scene has been de-
demonstration: a thermometer, candle snuer and cork, scribed as so brilliant it could only be the light of
and close to the man seated to the right is a pair of revelation.[32] The single source of light is obscured be-
Magdeburg hemispheres, which would have been used hind the bowl on the table; some hint of a lamp glass can
with the air pump to demonstrate the dierence in pres- be seen around the side of the bowl, but David Hockney
sure exerted by the air and a vacuum: when the air was has suggested that the bowl itself may contain sulphur,
pumped out from between the two hemispheres they were giving a powerful single light source that a candle or oil
impossible to pull apart. The air pump itself is rendered lamp would not.[33] In the earlier study a candle holder is
in exquisite detail, a faithful record of the designs in use visible, and the ame is reected in the bowl. Hockney
at the time.[30] What may be a human skull in the large believes that many of the Old Masters used optical equip-
liquid-lled glass bowl would not have been a normal ment to assist in their painting, and suggests that Wright
piece of equipment;[31] William Schupbach suggests that may have used lenses to transfer the image to paper rather
it and the candle, which is presumably lighting the bowl than painting directly from the scene, as he believes the
from behind, form a vanitasthe two symbols of mor- pattern of shadows thrown by the lighting could have been
tality reecting the cockatoos struggle for life.[28] too complicated for Wright to have captured so accurately
6 3 RECEPTION

without assistance.[33] It may be observed, however, that

the stand on which the pump is situated casts no shadow
on the body of the philosopher, as it could be expected to
do.
Wrights Air Pump was unusual in that it depicted
archetypes rather than specic people, though various
models for the gures have been suggested. The young
lovers may have been based on Thomas Coltman and
Mary Barlow, friends of Wrights, whom he later painted
in Mr and Mrs Thomas Coltman (also in the National
Gallery) after their marriage in 1769; Erasmus Darwin
has been suggested as the man timing the experiment on
the left of the table, and John Warltire, whom Darwin had
invited to help with some air pump experiments in real Mr and Mrs Thomas Coltman may have been the model for the
life, as the natural philosopher;[34] but Wright never iden- two lovers.
tied any of the subjects or suggested they were based on
real people.[7]
3 Reception
In The Orrery, all the subjects have been identied apart
from the philosopher, who has physical similarities to
Isaac Newton but diers enough to make positive iden- The scientic subjects of Wrights paintings from this
tication impossible. Nicolson detects the strong inu- time were meant to appeal to the wealthy scientic cir-
ence of Frye throughout the picture. Particularly strik- cles in which he moved. While never a member him-
ing is the similarity between Fryes mezzotint Portrait of self, he had strong connections with the Lunar Society:
a Young Man of 17601761 and the gure of the boy he was friends with members John Whitehurst and Eras-
with his head cocked staring intently at the bird. In 1977, mus Darwin, as well as Josiah Wedgwood, who later com-
Michael Wynne published one of Fryes chalk drawings missioned paintings from him.[37] The inclusion of the
from around 1760, An old man leaning on a sta, which moon in the painting was a nod to their monthly meet-
is so similar to the observer in the right foreground in ings, which were held when the moon was full. Like
Wrights picture to make it impossible that Wright had not The Orrery, Wright apparently painted Air Pump with-
seen it. There are other hints of Fryes style in the paint- out a commission, and the picture was purchased by Dr
ing: even the gure of the natural philosopher has touches Benjamin Bates, who already owned Wrights Gladiator.
of Fryes Figure with Candle. Though Henry Fuseli would An Aylesbury physician, patron of the arts and hedonist,
later also develop on the style of Fryes work there is no Bates was a diehard member of the Hellre Club who, de-
evidence of him having painted anything similar until the spite his excesses, lived to be over 90. Wrights account
early 1780s. So, although he had already been in England book shows a number of prices for the painting: Pd 200
at the time the Air Pump was produced, it is unlikely that is shown in one place and 210 in another, but Wright
he was an inuence on Wright.[35] had written to Bates asking for 130, stating that the low
price might much injure me in the future sale of my pic-
Wrights scientic paintings adopted elements from the
tures, and when I send you a receipt for the money I shall
tradition of history painting but lacked the heroic central
acknowledge a greater sum.[38] Whether Bates ever paid
action typical of that genre. While ground-breaking, they
the full amount is not recorded; Wright only notes in his
are regarded as peculiar to Wright, whose unique style has
account book that he received 30 in part payment.[39]
been explained in many ways. Wrights provincial status
and ties to the Lunar Society, a group of prominent in- Wright exhibited the painting at the Society of Artists ex-
dustrialists, scientists and intellectuals who met regularly hibition in 1768 and it was re-exhibited before Christian
in Birmingham between 1765 and 1813, have been high- VII of Denmark in September the same year. View-
lighted, as well as his close association with and sympathy ers remarked that it was clever and vigorous,[28] while
for the advances made in the burgeoning Industrial Rev- Gustave Flaubert, who saw it on a visit to England
olution. Other critics have emphasised a desire to cap- in 186566, considered it charmant de navet et
ture a snapshot of the society of the day, in the tradition profondeur.[27] It was popular enough that a mezzotint
of William Hogarth but with a more neutral stance that was engraved from it by Valentine Green which was pub-
lacks the biting satire of Hogarths work.[36] lished by John Boydell on 24 June 1769,[39] and ini-
tially sold for 15 shillings. This was reprinted through-
out the 18th and 19th centuries, in increasingly weak
impressions.[40] Ellis Waterhouse called it one of the
wholly original masterpieces of British art.[41]
From Bates, the picture passed to Walter Tyrell; another
member of the Tyrell family, Edward, presented it to the
 7

[5] Elliott 2000, pp. 61100

[6] Egerton, 1998, pp. 33738

[7] Baird 2003

[8] King-Hele, Desmond (1999). Eramus Darwin. A life of

unequalled achievement. London: Giles de la Mare Pub-
lishers Ltd. p. 83. ISBN 1-900357-08-9.

[9] Nicolson 1968, p. 39

[10] Egerton (1998), pp. 334335, and Nicolson (1968), pp.

3940 and 47. Waterhouse (1978), p. 285 says Wright
must have seen some works by Honthorst or Schalken.

[11] Egerton (1998), p. 336

[12] Brooke 1991, p. 178

[13] Nicolson 1968, p. 40

[14] Guilding, p. 83

[15] Egerton, 1998, 342

Detail of the painting [16] Waterhouse (1978), pp. 215216, 270, 285286

[17] Waterhouse (1978), pp. 285286, and Egerton (1998), p.

334
National Gallery, London in 1863, after it had failed to
sell at an auction at Christies in 1854. The painting was [18] Solkin 1994, p. 234
transferred to the Tate Gallery in 1929, although it was
actually on loan to Derby Museum and Art Gallery be- [19] Uglow 2002, p. 123
tween 1912 and 1947. It has been lent out for exhibi- [20] Print of Experiment of a Bird in the Air Pump"". Na-
tions to the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. tional Museum of American History, Smithsonian Insti-
in 1976, the National Museum of Fine Arts in Stock- tution. Archived from the original on 5 June 2008. Re-
holm in 19791980, and Paris (Grand Palais), New York trieved 30 June 2008.
(Metropolitan) and the Tate in London in 1990. It was re-
claimed by the National Gallery from the Tate in 1986.[42] [21] Jones 2003
They describe its condition as good, with minor alter- [22] Solkin 1994, p. 247
ations visible on some gures. It was last cleaned in
1974.[43] [23] The sketch extends somewhat further to the right than
shown here. The full image is reproduced in Egerton
The striking scene has been used as the cover illustration (1998), p. 339
for many books on topics both artistic and scientic. It
has even spawned pastiches and parodies: the book cover [24] Fraser in Egerton 1990 p. 19
of The Science of Discworld, by Terry Pratchett, Ian Stew-
[25] Nicolson 1968, p. 45
art and Jack Cohen, is a tribute to the painting by artist
Paul Kidby, who replaces Wrights gures with the books [26] Egerton 1998, p. 339
protagonists. Shelagh Stephenson's play An Experiment
with an Air Pump, inspired by the painting, was the joint [27] Egerton 1998, p. 340
winner of the 1997 Margaret Ramsay Award and had its [28] Egerton 1990, pp. 5861
premiere at the Royal Exchange Theatre, Manchester in
1998. [29] First mentioned in Busch 1986, in the chapter Wright und
sein Rekurs auf die christliche Bildtradition, pp. 2949;
Egerton 1998, p. 340

4 Notes [30] Nicolson 1968, p. 114

[31] Alternatives for the object in the bowl have been sug-
[1] Shapin 1984, pp. 481520
gested, including lungs (which would be relevant to
[2] Jardine 2004, pp. 104106 demonstrations of the properties of air), and Hockney sug-
gests it may even be a ball of sulphur which is creating the
[3] West 2005, pp. 3139 illumination for the scene as it reacts with the liquid

[4] Boyle 2003, p. 41 [32] Kimmelman 1990

8 6 EXTERNAL LINKS

[33] Hockney 2001, p. 129 Hockney, David (2001). Secret Knowledge: Re-
discovering the Lost Techniques of the Old Masters.
[34] Nicolson 1968, p. 117 New York: Studio Books. ISBN 0-670-03026-0.
[35] Nicolson 1968, pp. 4145 OCLC 150844927.

[36] Solkin 1994, p. 235 Guilding, Ruth, and others, William Weddell and the
transformation of Newby Hall, Jeremy Mills Pub-
[37] Harrison 2006, p. 317 lishing for Leeds Museums and Galleries, 2004,
ISBN 0-901981-69-9, ISBN 978-0-901981-69-1,
[38] Nicolson 1968, p. 105
Google books
[39] Nicolson 1968, p. 235
Jardine, Lisa (2004). The Curious Life of Robert
[40] Egerton 1998, p. 342 Hooke. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-053897-X.
OCLC 53276386.
[41] Waterhouse, 1978, 286
Jones, Jonathan (1 November 2003). Yes, it is art.
[42] Egerton 1998, 332. Egerton (1990)" is the catalogue for The Guardian. Retrieved 12 January 2007.
the 1990 exhibition Wright of Derby in London, Paris and
New York. Kimmelman, Michael (7 September 1990).
Review/Art; In Praise of a Neglected Painter of
[43] Egerton 1998, p. 334 His Time. The New York Times. Retrieved 10
April 2007.
An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump. The
5 References National Gallery. Archived from the original on 7
February 2007. Retrieved 12 January 2007.
Baird, Olga (2003). Joseph Wright of Derby:
Art, the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution. Nicolson, Benedict (1968). Joseph Wright of Derby.
Revolutionary PlayersMuseums, Libraries and The Paul Mellon Foundation for British Art Pan-
ArchivesWest Midlands. Archived from the orig- theon Books.
inal on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 10 April Shapin, Steven (November 1984). Pump and
2007. Circumstance: Robert Boyles Literary Tech-
Boyle, Robert (2003) [1744]. Works of the Honor- nology (PDF). Social Studies of Science. 14
able Robert Boyle. Kessinger Publishing. p. 740. (4): 481520. doi:10.1177/030631284014004001.
ISBN 0-7661-6865-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 September
2006.
Brooke, John Hedley (1991). Science and Religion:
Solkin, David (1994). ReWrighting Shaftesbury:
Some Historical Perspectives (Cambridge Studies in
The Air Pump and the Limits of Commercial Hu-
the History of Science). Cambridge University Press.
manism. In John Brewer. Early Modern Concep-
p. 434. ISBN 0-521-28374-4.
tions of Property (Consumption & Culture in 17th &
Busch, Werner (1986). Joseph Wright of Derby, Das 18th Centuries). Routledge, an imprint of Taylor &
Experiment mit der Luftpumpe: Eine Heilige Allianz Francis Books Ltd. p. 599. ISBN 0-415-10533-1.
zwischen Wissenschaft und Religion. Frankfurt am Uglow, Jenny (2002). The Lunar Men. London:
Main: Fischer. Faber and Faber. p. 588. ISBN 0-571-19647-0.
Egerton, Judy (1990). Wright of Derby. Tate Waterhouse, Ellis, (4th Edn, 1978) Painting in
Gallery. p. 296. ISBN 1-85437-037-5. Britain, 15301790. Penguin Books (now Yale His-
tory of Art series), ISBN 0-300-05319-3
Egerton, Judy (1998), National Gallery Catalogues
(new series): The British School. catalogue entry pp. West, John B. (2005). Robert Boyles landmark
332343, ISBN 1-85709-170-1 book of 1660 with the rst experiments on raried
air. Journal of Applied Physiology. 98 (1): 31
Elliott, Paul (1 January 2000). The Birth of Public 39. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00759.2004. PMID
Science in the English Provinces: Natural Philoso- 15591301.
phy in Derby, c. 16901760. Annals of Science.
57 (1): 61100. doi:10.1080/000337900296308.

Harrison, James (2006). Farthing, Stephen, ed. 6 External links

1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die. Lon-
don: Quintet Publishing Ltd. p. 960. ISBN 1- Zoomable version of the painting from the National
84403-563-8. Gallery, London
 9

An interactive soundscape of the painting.

10 7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

7.1 Text
An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump?oldid=
779336368 Contributors: Danny, Charles Matthews, Raul654, AnonMoos, Wetman, Donarreiskoer, Mervyn, Michael Devore, Re-
tiredUser2, Neale Monks, Ham II, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Wadewitz, Bender235, Circeus, Rajah, Alansohn, Philip Cross,
Dave.Dunford, Axeman89, Natalya, OwenX, , JeremyA, Mandarax, Marskell, Rjwilmsi, Gudeldar, Yamamoto Ichiro, RobertG, Ni-
hiltres, Bgwhite, Chaser, GeeJo, Kvn8907, Ragesoss, Tony1, Nethgirb, DeadEyeArrow, Elkman, Shinhan, Tevildo, SmackBot, McGeddon,
Otulissa, David Fuchs, Mitsuhirato, Writtenright, Onorem, Dreadstar, Ceoil, Ohconfucius, Julians~enwiki, SandyGeorgia, JForget, Cyde-
bot, Mike Christie, DBaba, Theirishpianist~enwiki, Rocket000, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Crockspot, Qp10qp, Igorwindsor~enwiki, Yomangani,
TimVickers, Modernist, Sluzzelin, MER-C, BeeArkKey, VoABot II, SmartLX, Echnaret, MartinBot, Freezing the mainstream, Commons-
Delinker, J.delanoy, Abecedare, Trusilver, Iordanis 777, Saicome, Johnbod, Ycdkwm, Victuallers, SJP, Joanenglish, GrahamHardy, Elde-
stone, Philip Trueman, Dinybot, Miranda, Anonymous Dissident, Caiguanhao, Agyle, Brianga, Theseusperse, SieBot, Coee, Parhamr,
Android Mouse, Oysterguitarist, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Dabomb87, DRTllbrg, Dragonex050, Hadseys, TheManAtStu, Avkenhk,
AussieJr, Ferretwow, ClueBot, Excirial, NuclearWarfare, Yomangan, MelonBot, Vanished User 1004, Camboxer, Lvova, Addbot, Mount-
ndew74747, DOI bot, Landon1980, Lithoderm, Thomas Guibal, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Firepal120, Jibalibawabawab,
Piano non troppo, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Lolplolplolp, GrouchoBot, Unitanode, BenzolBot, Citation bot 1, Hamtechperson, Aspstren,
Wikiwiserick, Le temps perdu, Tbhotch, RjwilmsiBot, DASHBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, ZroBot, F, Tweav19, SporkBot, Phi-
lafrenzy, LarsJanZeeuwRules, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, IluvatarBot, Dexbot, Usfa, Monkbot, Medassessment, Victoria,
Longisd Alava, InternetArchiveBot, Azuralax, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 92

7.2 Images
File:Coltman.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Coltman.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Scans from Joseph Wright of Derby 1968 Original artist: Joseph Wright of Derby
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Fryewright.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Fryewright.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Scan from Wright of Derby by Judy Egerton Original artist: Thomas Frye/Joseph Wright
File:Godfried_Schalcken_Kunstbetrachtung.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Godfried_
Schalcken_Kunstbetrachtung.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Godfried Schalcken
File:Joseph_Wright_of_Derby._An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump._Detail.Bird.jpg Source: https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Joseph_Wright_of_Derby._An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump._Detail.Bird.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.abcgallery.com/ Original artist: Joseph Wright of Derby
File:Joseph_Wright_of_Derby._An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump._Detail.child.jpg Source: https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Joseph_Wright_of_Derby._An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump._Detail.child.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.abcgallery.com/ Original artist: Joseph Wright of Derby
File:Jwstudy.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Jwstudy.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scan
from Joseph Wright of Derby by Benedict Nicholson 1968 Original artist: Joseph Wright of Derby
File:Robertboyle_newexperiments.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Robertboyle_newexperiments.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/98/1/31?ck=nck Original artist: Robert Boyle
File:Three_Persons_Viewing_the_Gladiator_by_Candlelight.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/
Three_Persons_Viewing_the_Gladiator_by_Candlelight.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mezzo-mondo.com/arts/
mm/wright/WRJ013.html Original artist: Joseph Wright of Derby
File:Trinity_(Guiard_des_Moulins,_Bible_historiale,_15_c.).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/
Trinity_%28Guiard_des_Moulins%2C_Bible_historiale%2C_15_c.%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wright-Frye.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Wright-Frye.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: Scan from Joseph Wright of Derby by Benedict Nicholson Original artist: Joseph Wright of Derby/Thomas Frye
File:Wright_of_Derby,_The_Orrery.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Wright_of_Derby%2C_
The_Orrery.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Jesenius.hu Original artist: Joseph Wright of Derby

7.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0