STP 1498-2011
STP 1498-2011
STP 1498
Condensation
in Exterior
Building Wall
Systems
JTE Guest Editors:
Bruce Kaskel
Robert J. Kudder
Journal of Testing and Evaluation
Selected Technical Papers STP1498
Condensation in Exterior Building
Wall Systems
ASTM International
100 Barr Harbor Drive
PO Box C700
West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
Printed in Baltimore, MD
May, 2011
Foreword
THIS COMPILATION OF THE JOURNAL of TESTING and EVALUATION
(JTE), STP1498, on Condensation in Exterior Building Wall Systems
contains only the papers published in JTE that were presented at a
symposium in San Antonio, TX, October 1011, 2010 and sponsored by
ASTM Committee E06 on Performance of Buildings.
The Symposium Co-Chairmen and JTE Guest Editors are Bruce S.
Kaskel, Wiss, Janney, Elstner, Associates, Inc., Chicago, IL and Robert J.
Kudder, Raths, Raths & Johnson, Inc., Willowbrook, IL.
Contents
Overview ........................................................................ vii
Insulation Draws Water
W. B. Rose ........................................................... 1
Testing/Analysis
Laboratory Tests of Window-Wall Interface Details to Evaluate the Risk of Condensation
on Windows
W. Maref, N. Van De Bossche, M. Armstrong, M. A. Lacasse,
H. Elmahdy, and R. Glazer............................................... 31
Drying Characteristics of Spray-Applied Cellulose Fiber Insulation
M. Pazera and M. Salonvaara ............................................. 59
Moisture Damage in Vented Air Space of Exterior Walls of Wooden Houses
T. Umeno and S. Hokoi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Moisture Measurements and Condensation Potential in Wood Frame Walls in a
Hot-Humid Climate
T. A. Weston and L. C. Minnich ........................................... 94
A Review of ASHRAE Standard 160Criteria for Moisture Control Design Analysis in
Buildings
A. TenWolde .......................................................... 119
Moisture Response of Sheathing Board in Conventional and Rain-Screen Wall Systems
with Shiplap Cladding
F. Tariku and H. Ge ..................................................... 131
Investigation of the Condensation Potential Between Wood Windows and Sill Pans in a
Warm, Humid Climate
G. P. Stamatiades, III ................................................... 148
Case Studies
Interior Metal Components and the Thermal Performance of Window Frames
................................................
S. K. Flock and G. D. Hall 169
Controlling Condensation Through the Use of Active and Passive Glazing Systems
................................
A. A. Dunlap, P. G. Johnson, and C. A. Songer 187
Case Study of Mechanical Control of Condensation in Exterior Walls
C. M. Morgan, L. M. McGowan, and L. D. Flick. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Considerations for Controlling Condensation in High-Humidity Buildings: Lessons
Learned
S. M. OBrien and A. K. Patel ............................................. 247
Fenestration Condensation Resistance: Computer Simulation and In Situ
Performance
E. Ordner ............................................................ 269
Improving the Condensation Resistance of Fenestration by Considering Total Building
Enclosure and Mechanical System Interaction
P. E. Nelson and P. E. Totten ............................................. 286
Condensation Problems in Precast Concrete Cladding Systems in Cold Climates
..........................................................
T. A. Gorrell 299
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
vii
IgCC, are actively codifying issues related to condensation control, which
were brought to light in prior ASTM publications and in the work of these
other organizations. E06 believed in presenting this symposium, that these
current papers on condensation could have a similar impact in future build-
ing codes.
This STP is organized, in the same presentation as the October 2010 sym-
posium, into two parts:
Testing/Analysis 7 papers that concentrate on testing/analysis of materi-
als and mock-ups to predict and prevent condensation in common exterior
wall systems and
Case Studies 7 papers that document condensation problems found in the
real-world and their solutions.
In addition, there is one keynote paper by William Rose, which presents
the history that has lead to the present state-of-the-art and some of the er-
roneous concepts that have advanced to today. This paper sets the tone that
common-place thinking does not well serve the industry, and when it comes
to the on-going discussion of condensation control, new ideas, and concepts,
the consistent application of the principles of physics and the use of appro-
priate analytical techniques need to be embraced.
Although not included in this STP, the symposium attendees also ben-
efited from a first-day tutorial session offered by Wagdy Anis and Robert
Kudder on condensation. This primer provided the science of condensation
formation and present technologies used to control its formation. For those
without this background, this tutorial served as necessary background for
the technical presentations.
An ASTM symposium and STP are a team-effort, which warrants the rec-
ognition of those who spend much time and energy in their success. First,
recognition goes to the many unnamed reviewers who, solely to better the
industry, spent many hours reviewing and re-reviewing the submitted pa-
pers. ASTM and JTE efforts were spearheaded by Dorothy Fitzpatrick and
Susan Reilly, respectively, with able assistance by Hannah Sparks and
Christine Urso. Upon Dorothys retirement, Mary Mikolajewski ably
stepped in. Finally, special recognition goes to WJE staffer, Amber Stokes,
who assisted the Editors keep to the ambitious review and symposium
schedule, and the numerous email correspondences necessary to pull this all
together.
Bruce S. Kaskel
Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc.
10 S. LaSalle Street, Chicago, IL
Robert J. Kudder
Raths, Raths & Johnson, Inc.
835 Midway Drive, Willowbrook, IL
viii
Reprinted from JTE, Vol. 39, No. 1
doi:10.1520/JTE102972
Available online at www.astm.org/JTE
William B. Rose1
Condensation
In 1901, in the course of the design of the Minnesota State Capitol Building, the
architect Cass Gilbert was in discussion with Mr. Guastavino, a highly regarded
supplier of ceiling tiles, and a Mr. Butler, the contractor. Gilberts notes indicate
Manuscript received January 21, 2010; accepted for publication June 14, 2010; published
online August 2010.
1
Research Architect, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL 61820.
Cite as: Rose, W. B., Insulation Draws Water, J. Test. Eval., Vol. 39, No. 1. doi:10.1520/
JTE102972.
Copyright 2011 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
1
2 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
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may expect that upon adding insulation to a wall, the exterior materials during
Winter will get cold, and by virtue of being cold, they will get wet. How wet is
a matter for analysis of course. Also, freezing events in exterior materials will
be more common and more severe. Insulation draws cold, and cold draws
wetness. So one cannot quarrel with the painters claim that insulation draws
moisture, at least on physical grounds. Insulated buildings in cold climates
have wetter cladding and sheathing materials than similar uninsulated build-
ings.
2
This includes Wintertime humidication.
ROSE, doi:10.1520/JTE102972 5
3
Figure 3 in this paper.
6 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
accumulates. The one on the right has an outlet restricted in size to less
that that of the inow. Here water accumulates until it spills over the
sides.
So with the wall sections shown below these basins. The room between is
indicated as being warm and humid. In the wall at the left there is a vapor
barrier not completely perfect in its stoppage of vapor movement. How-
ever, it checks most of the vapor, and what little remains can pass out
through the colder side of the wall with little difculty. This wall shows no
accumulation of vapor.
This description is fundamentally awed. The funnel and faucet analogy
describes a dynamic system where the faucet water feeds all of the materials
along its path. In kinetic moisture diffusion, the entire surrounding air and
materials provide moisture to the materials, not just a high source at a dis-
tance. Rogers said that by checking interior moisture at the warm side, the
wall shows no accumulation of vapor. However, vapor will accumulate in
materials that move to low temperature, and the capacity for barriers to miti-
gate that accumulation is limited. Rogers analogy is captivatingand mislead-
ing. Arguing that under diffusion all of the water comes from the high vapor
pressure side is equivalent to claiming that all of the heat comes from the
high temperature side under heat conduction.
The remainder of the article dealt with practical matters of placing vapor
barriers and providing attic ventilation. These included two pages from Time-
saver Standards on Heat Transmission, listing coefcients of heat transmission
of common building materials, and two pages on Preventing Condensation in
Insulated Structures. These gures were widely reproduced in guidance litera-
ture that followed.
ROSE, doi:10.1520/JTE102972 7
L. V. Teesdale
The rst of two researchers Rogers referenced was L. Larry V. Teesdale of the
Forest Products Laboratory see Fig. 4. His paper, Condensation in walls and
attics 1937 7, began
Condensation or moisture accumulation within walls and in attics or roof
spaces has become a subject of considerable concern to many home own-
ers and prospective builders, especially in the states north of the Ohio
River. There have been so many cases in recent years that any prospec-
tive builder may hear about ice in attics, stained ceilings and side walls,
plaster becoming loose, ruined decorations, decayed side wall, roof, studs,
and sheathing, oors that have bulged up, outside paint failures, and nu-
merous other manifestations of moisture resulting from condensation.
Obviously the question arises as to why we hear so much more about this
condition now than we used to just a few years ago. The answer is rela-
tively simple. During the last few years there has been a marked tendency
on the part of the architects, builders and home owners to improve homes
both new and old with the idea of increasing the comfort of the occupants
and decreasing operating expenses. Prominent among these improve-
ments are the increasing use of storm sash, insulation, weather strips,
calking around windows and doors, and other means of decreasing heat
loss and wind inltration. Because of the tighter construction the normal
humidity or vapor pressure within a house so constructed is higher than
in houses less tightly constructed. In addition, as a health and comfort
measure the normal humidity is usually augmented by evaporating water
or some other means of winter air conditioning. Improvements that add
to comfort and health are worth while and should not be discouraged, but
it so happens that they introduce the unanticipated moisture problem just
described.
8 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
4
Figure 5 in this paper.
5
Emphasis added.
FIG. 5Figures from Ref 7, showing theoretical temperature proles in uninsulated and insulated assemblies.
ROSE, doi:10.1520/JTE102972 9
10 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
FIG. 6Figures from Ref 8, showing test data temperature proles in uninsulated and
insulated assemblies, compared to theoretical Fig. 7.
part of the wall passes vapor easily, actual dewpoints will be lower than
those shown.
The second word of caution is in regard to the location of the dewpoints,
which are in some cases shown within the insulation. This is purely a
matter of diagrammatic convenience and does not mean that condensa-
tion will actually take place at this point. Actually, the moisture in such
cases will collect on the nearest cold surfacethe inside of the wood
sheathing. This is because the condensation of moisture sets up a relative
vapor vacuum which draws4 vapor from the surrounding air. Whenever
condensation is actually taking place, the actual vapor pressure within the
stud space will be equal to that for saturated air at the temperature of the
inside of the sheathing, as indicated on the test data diagrams, and
condensation will be possible only at this point.
Bravo, Larry. Cold sheathing draws moisture; indeed it operates like a
vapor vacuum, sucking up vapor from the air that surrounds it. This is the one
instance of critical challenge to the developing paradigm, and it was buried in
an anonymous article, out of the mainstream. Note that the measured data
contains cavity vapor pressure values. The vapor pressure values do not corre-
spond to vapor permeances of the inner and outer skins: For one thing, those
values are not known. For another, the permeances are presumed to be the
same in the two cases shown in Fig. 6, yet the measured vapor pressure in the
cavity is quite different. The explanation under the second word of caution
correctly explains the measured data. And this is the explanation that claims
that cold materials draw moisture.
Teesdales gures Fig. 6 merit close study. They show clearly that what
determines the actual vapor pressure in a cavity is the temperature of the
sheathing, far more than the vapor permeance values of the assembly materi-
als. In his two examples, the material permeances are essentially the same,
while the cavity pressures differ greatly. This is consistent with how the Ameri-
can Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
ASHRAE prole method is conducted.6 That method requires that cavity
vapor pressure in excess of the saturation vapor pressure at the temperature of
the colder materials be set to a value equal to that saturation vapor pressure,
and net accumulation rates are then calculated. Many users who are not famil-
iar with the method may simply nd vapor pressure in excess of saturation
vapor pressure and suggest condensation occurs. This mistaken but widespread
approach has no support in ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2009 9 and is
inconsistent with physical ndings including those of Teesdale.
Teesdale also pointed out, in the second word of caution, that language
referring to the location of dewpoint or where you reach dewpoint repre-
sents an interpretation of a graphic device and does not reect a representation
of actual conditions. There is no where regarding dewpoints.
This article has a curious introduction clearly not by Teesdale, most likely
6
ASHRAE 2009 Handbook Fundamentals. Chapter 27, Heat, Air and Moisture Control in
Building AssembliesExamples, Examples 9 and 10.
12 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
7
Rogers was referring to the work of Teesdale and Rowley.
ROSE, doi:10.1520/JTE102972 13
condensed moisture. The exact denitions were not given and are not known
because the distinction dropped from use. But it is tantalizing to speculate as to
the intended distinction. Thermal wetting versus source humidity? Sorbed
moisture versus hard-surface condensation? Assuming these are distinct wet-
ting processes and further assuming that vapor barriers restrict condensed
moisture, had this committee described a wetting process that does not lend
itself to vapor barrier control? We are unable to answer at this point.
Frank Rowley
8
ASHRAE Handbook Applications 2013, Chapter 43, Building Envelopes, contains this
approved wording: Moisture condensation is the change in phase from vapor to liquid
water. Condensation occurs typically on materials such as glass or metal that are not
porous or hygroscopic and on capillary porous materials that are capillary saturated.
Use of the term condensation to refer to change in phase between vapor and bound
14 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Outdoor Temperature, F
19.5 10 19.5 10
Inside Surface Condensation on Sheathing,
of Sheathing Temperature, F grams/ ft2 / 24 h
No paint, no vapor barrier 0.2 22.8 2.15 1.41
2 coats seal coat paint 0.8 23.6 0.20 0.00
2 coats white at paint 1.5 20.6 0.24 0.00
Glossy asphalt impregnated sheathing paper 2.0 20.5 0.07 0.00
303030 duplex paper 3.2 20.9 0.25 0.00
Asphalt felt paper 2.2 21.3 0.52 0.18
Duplex crepe paper 1.8 21.6 0.09 0.00
ROSE, doi:10.1520/JTE102972 15
16 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Throughout the 1940s, the Housing and Home Finance Agency had carried
through its mandate to facilitate low-cost home construction during and after
ROSE, doi:10.1520/JTE102972 17
World War II. It managed the FHA, and, in January 1942, it published Mini-
mum Property Requirements that contained the rst numerical values for
vapor barrier permeance, attic ventilation, and crawl space ventilation 14.
HHFA Technical bulletins from 1946 through the mid 1950s contain some of
the most valuable research results and guidance in the eld. The HHFA did a
remarkable amount of work in the last half of the 1940s, primarily under Ralph
Britton. He followed up on the prescriptions of the FHA January 1942 require-
ments which he may have authored, with several research campaigns.
HHFA proposed to write a booklet on Condensation Control in Dwelling
Construction, with drawings to illustrate vapor barrier placement and attic
ventilation, in easy-to-read three dimensional drawings. The 73-page booklet
appeared in August 1949 15. Prior to its issuance, a conference was held to
review the proposed content 16. Minutes from that conference were taken and
mimeographed.
Leonard Haeger from the National Association of Homebuilders chaired
the meeting. He began with
severe winters seem to bring out the most complaints and the milder
winters produce lesser troubles. The most common of these problems
involve exterior paint failures and damage to interior wall and ceiling
decorations. More serious damage may occur through decay or corrosion.
The problems involving thermal insulation and vapor barriers have been
studied in a number of public institutions such as the University of Min-
nesota, Pennsylvania State College, National Bureau of Standards and
Forest Products Laboratory. A considerable amount of work has been
done in private laboratories of producers of thermal insulation, and of
various types of papers and felt. These researches carried on over a period
of 10 to 15 years have led technicians generally to agree that it is desirable
to use a good vapor barrier on the warm side of exterior walls and
ceilings.
It is hoped that our new publication will explain thoroughly and in a
simple way that thermal insulation is a very valuable element in construc-
tion and that it does not, as many people believe, draw water. Moisture
problems develop in cold weather inside heated dwellings because greater
amounts of water can be held in the enclosed air space.
The conference began with the attendees showing slides of buildings with
moisture problems. The moisture problems were almost entirely wood frame
buildings with paint peeling, mostly located in the Madison, WI, area. A total of
45 buildings was shown. There was no uniformity in house description. But a
review of the descriptions shows that of the 45 houses, 28 of them were claimed
to have crawl spaces. The foundation types in the others were not mentioned
and may also have been crawl spaces. In many of the cases, the crawl space was
noted as the likely source of wetness. The fact that this foundation type was
called out in so many instances suggests that the participants knew of crawl
spaces as a major element in the wetness equation.
We may note that the justication for widespread, indeed nationwide,
adoption of the vapor barrier was based on case studies of houses, insulated or
18 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
not, largely centered around Madison, WI, with paint on clapboard or plywood,
largely on crawl spaces. The limited scope of case studies undermines the ne-
cessity of a vapor barrier requirement. These conferences, seeking to push for-
ward a regulation, based their conclusions on a most narrow range of case
studies. Nevertheless, the vapor barrier plan was applied broadly. Newkirk, for
example, a vapor permeance specialist from the American Reenforced Paper
Co. recommended the use of a vapor barrier in all climates.
Most of the conference discussion followed the intended thrust, to provide
support for a vapor barrier recommendation. Elmer Queer of Penn State was a
strong supporter of advancing the prescriptive measures. However, he did ex-
press the importance he attached to temperature as a determinant of outdoor
wetness.
Mr. Chairman, I would like to comment on the point about the effect of
outside humidities. Really, the humidity has very little effect on the vapor
transmission. The temperature is still actually the controlling factor, be-
cause in the majority of cases you have a condition approaching 100 per-
cent humidity on the outside, and even if you dont have 100 per cent at
these low temperatures, your vapor pressure differential will be virtually
the same; it varies very little.9
Teesdale also pointed to the importance of exterior temperature and to the
fact that sub-freezing behavior is quite different from warmer behavior.
In the sills of these highly insulated walls where the condensation was
made at the top, the fact that the moisture content was relatively low does
not mean that under variable state conditions or under actual conditions
of test that we wouldnt have had moisture contents way up above 35 or
40. They were low down there because the moisture never had a chance to
get down, because it was held there in frozen conditions.10
The conference did not take up the points that Queer and Teesdale ex-
pressed.
The conference ran overtime, so critical discussion was limited. One nal
matter needed to be settled howeverunits to be used for measurement of
vapor barrier permeance. It was agreed to proceed with grains per hour-square
foot-inch of mercury vapor pressure.11 They needed a name for this unit. It was
proposed to be a Rowley, a Britton, or a Queer, though the nal name selection
was delayed until later.
The HHFA brochure was printed in 1949 and distributed widely. It went
into eight printings. Figure 8 shows a drawing from that brochure.
9
HHFA 1948, p. 64.
10
P.115. Teesdale then offered an interesting observation: And, incidentally, some of the
walls, I believe, showed warmer inside surface temperature when we had that frozen
condition, when we had that frost made, than they did without the frost. The frost served
as an insulator which it wouldnt under variable state conditions.
11
Rowley had used grams rather than grains. But the psychrometric chart at the time
used grains of water in the expression of humidity ratio.
ROSE, doi:10.1520/JTE102972 19
FIG. 9Brochure covers from the War Against Water campaign of the NPVA.
12
BRAB 1952, p. 103.
ROSE, doi:10.1520/JTE102972 21
13
Compare this to the marketing of prescription pharmaceuticals to the public via tele-
vision and its impact on doctor-patient relations.
22 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Materials, February 1952 2 may be read as a victory lap for the condensation
paradigm and its authors. By this time, the BOCA model building code had
been written, and it incorporated a requirement for a 1 perm vapor barrier in
all buildings. Insulation materials were sold with reminders of the importance
of vapor barriers. HHFA and NPVA had success stories to tell about their cam-
paigns. The prescriptive measures were beginning to nd their way into prac-
tice. The keynote presentation was by Rogers of Owens Corning. He gave some
background.
It is never in fashion to blame ourselves, of course. It is always some
other Joe who caused the trouble. So paint failures were at rst blamed on
insulation and condensation; and condensation was itself blamed on in-
sulation, until the insulation industry, in self defense, had to undertake
research to establish its innocence.
This merits a pause. The insulation industry was being blamed for conden-
sation, and it reacted by undertaking research, in self defense, to establish its
innocence. Decades later, we may remark on the frankness of such a disclosure,
but Rogers presentation and its reception all occurred in a more light-hearted,
and less litigious, era. Rogers continued,
While this research and similar work by the paint industry was going on,
there was a great deal of buck-passing. The insulation men blamed the
paints or the wet lumber and some painters retaliated by refusing to paint
an insulated house. Then the building paper manufacturers got caught in
the middle; their new sheathing papers were blamed for causing conden-
sation instead of shielding a building from dampness. The foils were soon
in the ring with the papers, while architects, builders, building owners
and the general public watched this battle royal and wondered if any of
the ghters was worth betting on.
At the top level of course there was no battle; the causes and prevention of
condensation were well understood after Mr. Teesdale and Prof. Rowley
both of whom will participate in this conference almost simultaneously
published their ndings in the winter of 193738. The paint industry
began to tell its members the facts, the better manufacturers of insulating
materials began to educate their people on the same facts. But even after
a decade of such effort, the layman is still confused.
The program turned to Haeger of the National Association of Home Build-
ers: I suppose in the beginning we should have a denition of condensation,
and to practical men condensation is what you nd on a high ball glass at 5:30
in the afternoon. He went on to describe paint failures, rotting lumber, corrod-
ing steel, and frost on plywood sheathing, thereby contributing to the non-
specicity of condensation denition that consistently characterized the discus-
sion. The non-specicity continued through the course of the conference, with
attendees all contributing war stories of varied types and causes.
The conference proceedings make for highly entertaining reading. Curling
shingles on a roof look like a hen with her back to the wind. Moore described
how a Mrs. Smith complained about condensation to the Secretary of Com-
ROSE, doi:10.1520/JTE102972 23
merce and this prompted the funding for the entire Penn State effort. Britton,
who managed the Penn State research, noted that We were appreciative of
her cooperation. The house had no sheathing, it had no oor in the cellar, it
had a tin roof. It didnt have anything it should have had. Moore from Rey-
nolds Aluminum used an analogy to describe marketing the vapor barrier.
I would suggest when you get home you ask your wife as to whether or
not she uses household aluminum foil. You will nd that two years ago
she had never heard of household aluminum foil. However, I think it is
quite analogous, to realize that in a period of less than twelve months,
through national advertising, through local advertising and through point
of purchase advertising, a product was created that it will take a great deal
of promotional work to kill.
The papers presented at the conference, for the most part, provided sum-
maries of work to date. There were a lot of loose ends noted, but the primary
work of implementing a radical change in building practice was underway and
unstoppable.
Rogers provided the summary of the conference.
My nal recommendation is, lets dare stick our collective necks and put
down our best opinions, based upon technical background, as the thing to
do. State it simply: this is what we believe you should do now. And then
have the courage to go out a year hence, or six months hence if we need
to, and say, I have learned a little better, so now do it this way. I would
rather see the lay-public, the building public, know what we now here
today, in the best way we can express it, than to wait until tomorrow or
the day after to nd a few more gaps lled in.
Also in 1952, Hutcheon of the National Research Council of Canada con-
ducted research on Quonset huts in northern regions and came, for the rst
time, to the conclusion that airow explains the occurrence of condensation far
better than diffusion 17,18. Once the condensation paradigm became insti-
tuted in U.S. construction, with its prescriptions for vapor barriers and attic
ventilation, challenges such as those from Canada were not at all handled with
exibility, as Rogers suggested. Because the prescriptive requirements arrived
in place with little science and no performance criteria, future challenges to the
technical requirements become quite difcult. Moore was correct; it would be-
come very difcult to kill the vapor barrier.
What Is Next?
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rather than causal. Like the moisture researchers, ever since the 1930s
we are inclined to assign criticality to the matters that are the focus of
our personal careers. But, to step back for a moment, is it really such a
big deal?
Is it necessary? That is, would we expect buildings that do not comply to
be essentially bad performers? Given that the vapor barrier was in-
vented in 1937, we have many examples of buildings without vapor
barriers, though of course it may be argued they are largely without
insulation. The need for a vapor barrier on the warm side of a walk-in
cooler is not in dispute. The need for a vapor barrier on the warm side of
a building is very much in dispute, to say nothing of the disputes sur-
rounding what is the warm side. Do buildings with foam insulation need
additional measures? Do all buildings not already have one or two or
many vapor barriers if we dene a vapor barrier as a material with a
permeance 1 perm ? Why is the vapor barrier such a fetish in the
United States and so insignicant elsewhere? The researchers we have
studied in this paper make the case that the vapor barrier is desirable.
There is quite a reach between what is desirable and what is necessary.
Is it sufcient? That is, are we assured that compliance with the pre-
scriptive requirement will result in satisfactory performance? The re-
searchers we studied here made no use of sufciency criteria, so they
had no means to answer this question. They never dened condensation.
Their argument seemed to be by default: Insulation makes exterior ma-
terials wet, vapor barriers keep wetted materials from becoming wetter
still, it is all we can do so we should do it, and the sufciency question is
moot. What does sufciency mean in the face of an imperative? Pres-
ently, we are equipped to make sufciency estimates using ASHRAE 160
19. It has limitations of course, but it represents an effort to ll what
has been a blind spot for the last 60 yearswhat performance criteria
are at work?
Is it policed? That is, is there an effective mechanism in place to revisit
26 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
References
1 Gilbert, C., Notes dictated regarding meetings with Mr. Guastavino and Mr. Butler
regarding the construction of the Minnesota State Capitol Building, March 7,
1901, Provided by Brian Kiggins, SchooleyCaldwell Associates.
2 Rogers, T. S., Opening of the Conference, Proceedings: Condensation Control in
Buildings as Related to Paints, Papers, and Insulating Materials, Washington, D.C.,
ROSE, doi:10.1520/JTE102972 27
Manuscript received March 8, 2010; accepted for publication December 17, 2010; pub-
lished online xx xxxx.
1
National Research Council Canada, Institute for Research in Construction, Ottawa,
ON, Canada.
2
Dept. of Architecture and Urban Planning, Ghent Univ., Ghent, Belgium.
Cite as: Maref, W., Van De Bossche, N., Armstrong, M., Lacasse, M. A., Elmahdy, H. and
Glazer, R., Laboratory Tests of Window-Wall Interface Details to Evaluate the Risk of
Condensation on Windows, J. Test. Eval., Vol. 39, No. 4. doi:10.1520/JTE103071.
Copyright 2011 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
31
32 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Introduction
There exist several standard methods for determining the potential for the for-
mation of condensation on windows, as provided in Table 1; however, the es-
sential aspects of the method were rst proposed by Sasaki 1, and the stan-
dardisation work carried out by the Architectural Aluminium Manufacturers
Association AAMA 2,3, ASTM 4, and Canadian Standards Association
CSA 5 follows on these initial efforts. These standards prescribe the overall
test protocol, temperatures of the room side and cold side, and the maximum
relative humidity RH under test conditions. A useful overview of these meth-
ods is given by Elmahdy 6.
There also exist simulation tools that could be used to assess the potential
for window condensation; such as, for example, FRAME 4.0 7, VISION 4.0 8,
and BISCO 10.0w 9.
The provided details of the window prole are available in the format ac-
cessible by the simulation software. Such tools permit standard window types
to be readily assessed from known boundary conditions, and rapid evaluations
on the energy efciency as well as condensation potential are possible. How-
ever, such software is not typically adaptable to measuring the performance of
window installation in which non-standard conditions and different ap-
proaches might be of interest, as, for example, where air leakage is considered
a testing and evaluation parameter 10.
Room Cold
Standard Side Temp. Side Temp. Test Period
Org. Designation C C h Pressure/%RH
AAMA 1502.3-1972/
AAMA AAMA 1503-98 21.170 F 17.80 F Nil/ 15 %
ASTM ASTM C1199-00 21.170 F 17.80 F Nil/ 15 %
29
CSA CSA A440.2-04 20 1 30 1 51 C 0 5 Pa/ 15 %
MAREF ET AL., doi:10.1520/JTE103071 33
I = Ts To/Ti To 100 1
where:
Ti , To = indoor and outdoor air temperatures in C and
Ts = average room side surface temperature measured in the test.
For Eq 1 to be used internationally, we used a different denition of the
temperature index according to EN ISO 10211 11
I = T s T o / T i T o 2
The temperature index is non-dimensional and represents the interior sur-
face temperature relative to the interior and exterior air temperatures. I = 0
implies that Ts = To, which is the same as having no window at all because the
interior surface temperature is the same as the outdoor temperature. When the
temperature index I = 1, this indicates that Ts = Ti, the same as the room side air
temperature, thus providing the best possible rating. Based on Eq 2, I may
range between 0 and 1, with a typical value for a clear double-glazed window
having a metal frame being ca. I = 0.4. Thus, using Eq 2 to predict the conden-
sation potential of a given window in a room, the following information is
required:
The I temperature index value for the window,
the indoor room air temperature Ti and outdoor temperature To at
the location of interest, and
the RH or dew point temperature of the room air.
Based on this information, the estimated room side surface temperature
Ts can be determined and thereafter compared to the dew point temperature.
The dew point temperature of the indoor air can be calculated according to Eqs
3 and 4 EN ISO 13788:2001 12
237.3 loge
psat
610.5
= for psat 610.5 Pa 3
psat
17.269 loge
610.5
265.5 loge
psat
610.5
= for psat 610.5 Pa 4
psat
21.875 loge
610.5
If the value of Ts is less than that of the dew point temperature inside the
room, then condensation on the window is expected. An overall condensation
risk assessment methodology is presented in EN ISO 13788:2001 12.
Overview of Approach
The development of alternative details to manage water intrusion at the
window-wall interface has produced a number of new approaches to detailing
the interface between the window and the adjacent wall assembly. Many of
34 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
these approaches advocate the need to provide drainage at the rough opening
of the window sill, given that the window components are susceptible to water
entry over their expected life. Depending on the types of windows used and the
cladding into which the windows are installed, there arise different methods to
provide drainage that may also affect air leakage through the assembly. This in
turn may give rise to the formation of condensation along the window, at the
sill, or along the window sash and glazing panels. Hence, there is a need to
determine if, under cold weather conditions, specic interface details that in-
corporate sill pans provide a potential for condensation on the window com-
ponents in which air leakage paths may be prominent at the sill or elsewhere on
the window assembly.
As has been shown, several methods have been devised to evaluate the
potential for condensation at the window proper; however, there have not yet
been any methods specially derived for evaluating the formation of condensa-
tion at windows given different window installation details. Such a method
would permit determining if a window installation provides adequate thermal
resistance and reduced risk to the formation of condensation. It would also
permit comparative evaluations amongst different installation methods using
the same window and cladding types in a given wall assembly. It may also offer
a means to benchmark the results of a eld-testing method, should one be
developed in the future.
This paper reports on a laboratory evaluation of conditions suitable for the
formation of condensation at the window frame perimeter of the interface as-
sembly as a function of both temperature deferential and air leakage rate
across the test assembly. A summary of the laboratory test protocol is provided,
which includes a description of the test setup and apparatus, fabrication details
of the specimen, and information on instrumentation, calibration, and experi-
mental results for one type of window ange window. In parallel, preliminary
simulation results were presented and compared to those obtained from the
experiment using the thermal software BISCO version 10.0w 9.
frame for windows installed in cold climates. This is due to the fact that there
is less thermal insulation in the cavity between the window and the window
opening as compared to the wall proper, thus giving rise to decreases in the
surface temperature of the window or window frame on the interior in relation
to the interior room temperature. The continuity of the thermal plane at the
window interface with the wall must, in principle, be reconciled; nonetheless,
this is limited by the amount of space in which insulation can be applied even
though the products typically used have themselves a high thermal resistance.
In respect to the choice of installation details, consideration was only given
to those details that had in a previous study 15,16 demonstrated an ability to
adequately manage rainwater entry. Such installation details typically include a
sloped sill with sill pan ashing incorporating a back dam.
Finally, given the interest in using installation details that include a sill pan,
thought was given to possible paths of air leakage through the assembly at the
sill and the type of deciencies that might arise at these locations due to im-
proper installation of components or premature failure of seal components.
Two possible paths were considered: A short path at the sill and another longer
path along the interior jamb that enters the room side at the window head.
Detailed information is provided in the subsequent section on the congu-
ration of the test specimens, the window installation and location of the win-
dow in the specimen, and the incorporation of deciencies in the specimens to
simulate air leakage problems.
FIG. 2Nominal test specimen setup showing wood frame assembly of the test speci-
men and size and location within assembly of non-operable vinyl window.
Table 2 provides information on the respective values of RSI for each of the
relevant wall components from which the location of the plane of thermal re-
sistance was determined; the line in the table that separates the two values of
berglass batt indicates the plane of thermal resistance, i.e., the location within
TABLE 2RSI value of wall components and calculation location of plane of thermal
insulance of wall.
Thermal Thermal
Thickness Resistivity Resistance Cumulative
Component m in. m K / W RSI m2 K / W RSI
Wall-outside air lm, 24 km/h 0.03 0.030 0.030
Sidinghardboard 0.0111 7/16 10.75 0.120 0.150
SheathingOSB 0.0111 7/16 11 0.122 0.272
Fiberglass batt 0.0685 2.7 26 1.798 2.070
Fiberglass batt 0.0712 2.8 26 1.872 3.942
Drywall 0.0127 0.5 6.2 0.079 4.021
Inside air lm
non-reective, vertical 0.120 0.120 4.141
Total 0.175 6.9 4.141
38 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
the wall assembly on either side of which the cumulative values for RSI are
equal i.e., 2.7 in.. Figure 3 provides the installation details of a anged win-
dow incorporating the self-adhering exible pan ashing membrane, sloped
sill, up-stand, or related component details that help promote the drainage of
water from the windowsill if subjected to inadvertent water entry. Figure 3 also
MAREF ET AL., doi:10.1520/JTE103071 39
shows that the location of the insulated glass unit IGU, assumed to be the
plane of thermal resistance of the window, differs from that of the wall and
indeed is located closer to the exterior of the wall.
A summary of the different interface details for anged windows are given
in Table 3, in which information is provided on the
type of window anged and the position of the window in the rough
opening; in Table 3, position refers to the position of the window in
the rough opening; ange implies that the plane is determined on the
basis of where the ange of the window is located in relation to the
respective planes of thermal resistance;
use, or not, of insulation and the type of insulation used when specied;
batt refers to berglass batt insulation, whereas the SPF designation
indicates that polyurethane spray-in-place-foam was used in the same
cavities located between the window opening and the window frame;
incorporation, or not, of deciencies in the assembly; D1 in Table 3 was
located at the exterior of the wall-window interface and at the juncture
of the cladding and window frame at the lower extreme comer of the
window Fig. 4; D3 in Table 3 was located at the interior of the assembly
and at the interface between the window frame and the interior nish
but located at the upper most corner of the window assembly.
The introduction of deciencies at the wall-window interface provided a
means to evaluate whether air leakage across different components of the win-
dow assembly could cause condensation to form on the warm side of the wall
assembly when leakage was induced in the test assembly. The intent was to
demonstrate the vulnerability of the assembly to the formation of condensation
on the interior in instances where, for example, a deciency was located as
shown in Fig. 4 as D1 on the exterior and D3 on the interior.
ber and only temperature in the cold side chamber. Measurements of tempera-
ture were made to an accuracy of 1.5 C and that of RH to 1 % RH. The data
was recorded on the data acquisition system, then subsequently used to ensure
that steady state conditions have been maintained over the course of a test
sequence.
MAREF ET AL., doi:10.1520/JTE103071 41
an Infra Red IR camera was used to scan the surface temperature of the
widow frame. The data was thereafter compared to that provided by the ther-
mocouples. Acquiring an IR scan of the interior of the window requires the use
of a bafe to minimize variations in surface conditions that may result from the
presence of a camera operator in the warm side room.
Experimental Procedures
The basis for this test is the observation of surface temperatures sufcient to
cause the formation of condensation on window components located on the
warm side of the test assembly. Actual visual observation of condensation is not
required, nor desired, as the formation of condensation on thermocouples can
affect measurements taken of affected sensors. Hence, temperatures measure-
ments on the warm side were undertaken in conditions where the humidity
levels were sufciently low to preclude the formation of condensation.
case for the test conducted in standard conditions, temperature sensor mea-
surements were recorded once steady state conditions had been achieved fol-
lowing a period of 15 min in these conditions and, as well, the humidity on the
warm side chamber was maintained at 5 % RH to ensure that no condensation
occurred. As before, a time recorded IR camera scan was taken for subsequent
analysis.
Numerical Simulation
Steady state thermal simulations were done with the numerical software pro-
gram BISCO 10.0w 9. This program allows a simple conversion from
computer-aided design-based drawings into a user-dened grid size based on a
triangulated grid model in conformity with EN ISO 10211 11. The system
nodes are located at the triangle vertices, at which the temperatures are calcu-
lated and from which heat uxes can be deducted. Material properties were
adopted from EN ISO 10077-2 19 and EN ISO 10456 20. Radiation is mod-
eled iteratively in a non-linear way based on view factors conned to 100 ray
traces per cavity, whereas convection in cavities is calculated according to EN
ISO 10077-2 19. The value for heat transfer coefcient at the weather side was
33.0 W / m2 K, as measured in the hotbox. The heat transfer on the room side
was calculated according to the formula hc = 1.776 T0.25 21. The surface
temperature and heat transfer coefcients were calculated in ve iterations a
uniform heat transfer coefcient was assumed. The black radiation heat trans-
fer coefcient was set to 4.38 W / m2 K, and the grid size was 0.1 mm.
44 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Results
thermocouples are attached to the exterior surface of the largest cavity but
closer to the interior side of the assembly. Experimental analysis and numerical
modeling of convection in a tubular 1 in.2 vinyl frame has been previously
discussed by Gustavson et al. 22. In this work, it was evident that for a tem-
perature difference of 20 C over a vertical tube of length 800 mm forming part
of a 800 800 mm vinyl frame, there was a vertical thermal gradient of about
2 C, excluding conductive effects at the top and bottom of the tube. Whereas in
the test setup to assess the condensation risk of interest in the present study, the
temperature difference is 50 C, and it is most likely that a large part of that will
act over the vertical window frame cavity because it is located at the plane of
highest thermal resistance of the IGU and the wall. Although this cavity is
smaller than that evaluated from Gustavsons work about half the size and
results are possibly compensated by a larger temperature difference, this is the
most plausible explanation to account for the observed thermal gradient along
the vertical axis of the window frame.
warmer. This effect will not be present at the interior visible surface, as the air
might enter the room at a different location. However, one should take into
account that pressure differences over building envelopes are induced by a set
of causes. Wind loads, stack effects, and HVAC systems might be able to change
the pressure any time and reverse the air ow through deciencies. Obviously,
this situation would increase the risk to condensation inside the assembly itself,
which in principle should be avoided any time. It may be assumed that long-
lasting pressure differences sufciently long to cool the adjacent components
are not sequenced by opposite long-lasting static pressure differences. Such a
situation is only likely to occur due to malfunctioning HVAC-systems. Hence,
only the risk to the formation of surface condensation is considered in this
paper.
In this respect, the risk to the formation of condensation depends only on
two parameters assuming constant pressure conditions: Temperature and hu-
midity. For any given surface temperature, there can be condensation if the
humidity is sufciently high. A practical approach to analyze the data is to
calculate the dimensionless temperature index for every test case. This index
value provides normalized results and thus an objective basis of comparison of
results derived from testing the different setups. Furthermore, given that heat
transfer is linearly correlated with temperature difference, this index is inde-
pendent of the specic temperatures used in the experiments. For any bound-
ary conditions, the indoor surface temperature can be calculated using the
48 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
FIG. 11Temperatures on the frame and inside the cavity for different pressure
differences.
allowing the air to exit the cavity. As will be explained in the analysis of the test
setup with berglass insulation in the cavity, this will affect the temperatures in
the overall cavity as well.
When a 20 Pa or 40 Pa pressure was applied, the temperature on the
window frame decreased by 0.8 C 0.9 C at the top side and 1.4 C 1.8 C at
the bottom side of the window frame. Although the pressure difference is
doubled, one should take into account the power law in respect to the air
leakage rate, specically
Q = C . pn
where:
Q = air ow rate L/s,
C = flow coefcient L / s Pan, and
n = flow coefcient .
It can reasonably be assumed that the ow exponent of the specic de-
ciency lies between 0.55 and 0.65 for building applications. Within this range of
ow exponents, the air ow would rise between 46 % to 57 % when the pressure
difference is doubled. Hence, the temperature drop cannot be expected to be
directly proportional to the pressure difference. Based on the pressure differ-
ence, discharge coefcient of the deciencies, and internal friction, it is pos-
sible to estimate effective airow rates. Any assumed velocity prole inside the
cavity will affect the convective heat transfer coefcient at the boundary layer
with the window prole. However, this analysis requires a more elaborate fun-
damental study that is beyond the scope of this study but may be investigated
in future research.
With regards to the condensation potential, the results are similar to the
tests without pressure difference: A temperature index of 0.69 at 0 Pa, 0.66 at
20 Pa, and 0.66 at 40 Pa. The low temperatures in the cavity would cause severe
problems during a rapid change of air ow direction: A temperature of 8 C
corresponds to a temperature index of 0.44, so humid indoor air could easily
condense on that surface.
WRB, offering limited resistance to air ow. Measurements conrm that the
pressure difference recorded at the bottom 0.5 Pa is lower than the pressure
difference at the top 1.3 Pa; note as well that there is no vertical temperature
gradient in both rooms, only in the cavity itself.
insulation but slightly larger than the one observed with SPF insulation. Either
this is caused by thermal stratication despite the resistance of the berglass
insulation, or there is an upward air ow caused by a leak. In the latter case, it
would also account for a part of the thermal gradient in the setup without
insulation. In the horizontal cavity at the sill, the temperature is signicantly
higher than the test without insulation, consistent with the assumed convection
effects.
FIG. 13Temperature indexes at 40 Pa with deciencies for the different test sets.
ture indexes for the case where deciencies are present and a pressure differ-
ence of 40 Pa is applied across the test specimen. The results, provided from
top to bottom, include, respectively, the test without insulation between win-
dow frame and wall, with berglass insulation, and with SPF. Along the path
running from the outside deciency in the lower right corner to the deciency
on the inside top left corner, the temperatures on the window prole decrease
from about 2 to 3.5 C at 20 Pa and 2.5 to 4.5 C at 40 Pa. During the test
without insulation, the effect of air leakage across the window frame at 40 Pa
was less pronounced and was limited to 1 3 C. Thus, contrary to expectations,
higher ow rates caused lower temperatures, despite the fact that berglass
insulation was present and should reduce air movement. This can only be
caused by uncertainties in the experimental setup such as small cracks or other
deciencies. Figure 13 shows the lowest temperature indexes inside the cavity
for the case with berglass insulation in the cavity. The effect on the tempera-
ture index at the interior surface is negligible. Although it may not be clear
what causes the higher air ow rates, it is established that air leakage around
the window perimeter can considerably lower the window surface temperature.
Peak values of temperature shift between test pressure conditions are 3.3 and
5.4 C for 20 Pa and 40 Pa, respectively. The temperature index during a pres-
sure difference of 40 Pa is 0.63. This is very similar to the earlier results when
there is no insulation in the cavity. However, note that the temperature index
MAREF ET AL., doi:10.1520/JTE103071 55
Concluding Remarks
the evaluation to verify the degree to which such openings inuence the risk to
condensation. The risk to condensation was rst determined in conditions
where no deciencies were present at the wall-window interface, and thereafter,
a series of defects were included that permitted air, in varying degrees, to pen-
etrate the interface. In each instance, the surface temperatures of the window
were monitored to establish any changes in comparison with the instance
where no defects were present. This series of experiments was rst conducted
with no insulation in the cavity between the window unit and the window
rough opening and thereafter with berglass batt insulation and SPF. This per-
mitted comparing the relative importance of insulating the cavity on the per-
formance in regard to the risk to condensation of these approaches to window
installation practice. The information developed from these tests provides guid-
ance to window manufacturers, window installers, and knowledgeable practi-
tioners investigating window deciencies and the effects of such deciencies on
thermal performance at windows.
The experimental results for determining the condensation potential of
anged windows when installed in a wood frame wall assembly are reported in
this study. The following observations and analysis were made through the set
of experiments carried out in this study.
The exterior side of the conguration was not sensitive to thermal ef-
fects induced by air leakage to the inside. This means that, e.g., the use
of IR scans may not be useful for visualizing convective effects in the
window-wall interface from the outside.
The temperatures on the IGU showed a signicant vertical thermal gra-
dient, and the spacer around the perimeter acted as an additional ther-
mal bridge causing low surface temperatures in all congurations. How-
ever, the IGU was not sensitive to the response that occurred inside the
cavity between the window frame and the rough opening.
The anged window used in the measurements was of lesser quality, as
several cracks and deciencies in the window frame, in certain in-
stances, directly affected results. Even for the installation with SPF
without deciencies, it was observed that the surface temperature on the
window prole dropped 2.3 C, possibly caused by insufcient airtight-
ness of the window frame.
Due to air ows around the window, there was a temperature drop up to
3.3 C 20 Pa and 5.4 C 40 Pa on the interior window prole. This
corresponds to a change in temperature index of 0.07 and 0.11, respec-
tively. As mentioned, half of this can be attributed to the low perfor-
mance window. It appears that the effect of cold air ow and air leakage
through the window frame have the same order of magnitude.
As the window installation was tested under severe conditions 50 C
and 40 Pa difference between interior and exterior climate, the overall
effect of air ows is rather limited. However, these results are only valid
for the vinyl frame window used in this study.
Convective air transport around the window was not sufciently re-
tarded by the installation of berglass insulation. Only the use of SPF
insulation correctly provided a seal to the perimeter, thereby avoiding
cooling the window prole.
MAREF ET AL., doi:10.1520/JTE103071 57
Acknowledgments
The writers wish to thank the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation for
partial funding of the project and acknowledge the contributions of Mr. Silvio
Plescia, Senior Researcher at the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation,
to this paper.
References
Manuscript received January 11, 2010; accepted for publication August 14, 2010; pub-
lished online September 2010.
1
Ph.D., Simpson Gumpertz & Heger, Rockville, MD 20850.
2
Owens Corning.
Cite as: Pazera, M. and Salonvaara, M., Drying Characteristics of Spray-Applied
Cellulose Fiber Insulation, J. Test. Eval., Vol. 39, No. 2. doi:10.1520/JTE102971.
Copyright 2011 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
59
60 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Introduction
Spray-applied cellulose ber insulation CFI has gained popularity during the
past several years. The installers perceive numerous benets with spray appli-
cation in comparison to dry blown installation. The density of a cured spray-
applied product is lower; it is self-supporting and does not require permanent
retainers, which translates into cost savings for the installers. In order to avoid
costly delays interior nishes may be installed shortly following the application
of spray-applied CFI. Limiting the drying out period can result in high quantity
of residual moisture to remain in CFI, which might lead to moisture related
problems such as condensation on the inboard side of the exterior sheathing. In
instances when high moisture contents persist for prolonged period of time, the
risk for mold and microbial growth on materials adjacent to the CFI increases.
Spray-applied CFI is installed damp within the stud cavity. During instal-
lation, water is sprayed in a controlled manner onto the dry insulation at the
exit point of the applicator hose. Moisture activates the dry adhesives within
the CFI matrix and imparts cohesion between bers. The excess CFI is evenly
trimmed with the inboard surface of the studs and reclaimed. Prior to the
installation of interior nishes i.e., gypsum wall board, CFI remains exposed
for a period of time to allow the residual moisture to dry out. In current prac-
tice, the CFI manufacturers typically recommend 2448 hr timeframe as a suf-
cient period to dry the residual moisture. The CFI manufacturers and Cellu-
lose Insulation Manufacturer Association CIMA 1 provide limited
information regarding the drying periods and safe moisture content levels in
CFI for installation of interior nishes, specically in cold climate/weather ap-
plication. Typically, manufacturers recommend a maximum of 3540 % initial
moisture content at the time of installation and recommend the installation of
gypsum wallboard when moisture content reaches 25 %. One manufacturer
prescribes initial moisture content to be 30 % with 10 % reduction prior to the
installation of gypsum wallboard. Another manufacturer species two moisture
content levels for permeable walls and walls containing low permeability layers
on both sides of the wood-framed wall. Controlling moisture content at the
time of installation is not simple, owing to the fact that measuring the moisture
content of the brous insulation in the eld is not accurate. The technical lit-
erature provided by some manufacturers includes detailed recommendations
for the use of heating devices in cold weather/climate applications and dehu-
midiers in high-humidity conditions.
Despite these recommendations, detailed guidelines that provide compre-
hensive drying recommendations for varying climatic conditions specically
cold weather/climate applications, types of wall systems, and initial moisture
contents are missing. CFI installed in warm and relatively dry environments
can exceed 1 or 2 weeks before moisture content decreases to acceptable mois-
ture content levels. The drying rates can increase substantially, prolonging the
PAZERA AND SALONVAARA, doi:10.1520/JTE102971 61
drying period from days to weeks. In addition, the measured moisture contents
in the eld can be in excess of the recommended levels. A higher moisture
content in the CFI at the time of installation can result in higher dry densities,
and thus the actual volumetric moisture contents can be two to three times
greater than recommended. In addition to higher densities and reduced cover-
age, prolonged drying of the installed product is expected. Inadequate drying of
CFI in cold climates can result in high moisture levels and interstitial conden-
sation near or at the inboard surface of the exterior sheathing. High moisture
content can lead to linear expansion and swelling of oriented strand board
OSB sheathing as well as increased risk for mold and microbial growth on
surface of materials adjacent to CFI. These factors not only impact the service
life and durability of building enclosure but also could affect indoor air quality.
Objectives
Approach
Drying Experiment
A drying experiment was carried out to determine the drying rates for CFI and
monitor changes in temperature and RH at the upper surface of the CFI and at
the transition between the upper surface of the OSB sheathing and the lower
surface of the CFI. The experimental set-up consisted of a rectangular cavity
62 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
measuring 44.5 121.9 cm2 constructed out of 3.80 8.90 cm2 wood-frame
and OSB sheathing on one side Fig. 1. All wood-framed cavity surfaces were
painted with ve coats of vapor impermeable paint to impart unidirectional
drying and prevent moisture from being absorbed into the frame and sheath-
ing. Prior to the installation of spray-applied CFI, three wireless temperature
and RH sensors were mounted on the inboard surface of the sheathing two at
both ends and one at the center of the cavity to log conditions during the
drying test. Following the CFI installation, three more wireless sensors were
placed on the top surface, and the test cavity was immediately moved into the
chamber and the drying test was started. Since the surfaces of the test frame
were sealed and evaporation only occurred through the top CFI surface, mois-
ture near the bottom of the cavity at the inboard surface of the sheathing
remained at higher moisture content the longest.
The drying experiment was conducted in an environmental chamber with
temperature, RH, and air ow rate set to 23 0.2 C, 50 2.5 %, and
0.2 0.02 m / s. The upper surface of the test assembly was exposed to the air
ow, and drying occurred through the top surface of the CFI. Constant condi-
tions in the chamber were maintained using a dedicated environmental control
system mounted on the top of the chamber Fig. 2. The system consisted of a
centrifugal fan, ultrasonic humidier, heaters, and cooling coil. The chamber
functioned on the basis of displacement ventilation with one side of the cham-
ber serving as air inlet and the opposite side functioning as air outlet. In a
closed loop, the conditioned air was forced through the inlet using a centrifugal
fan. At the chamber outlet, the air was recirculated through the HVAC system.
Part of the air was bypassed in the system, and the remaining part was recon-
ditioned to maintain the required temperature RH and air ow. At the chamber
outlet, a portion of the air is bypassed, and a portion of the air is recirculated
through the environmental control system where it is cooled and dehumidied
as it passes through the cooling coil, mixed with the bypassed air, reheated, and
PAZERA AND SALONVAARA, doi:10.1520/JTE102971 63
Hygrothermal Simulations
100
50
Monitorpos. 3
Monitorpos. 4
25 Measured Course 2
Measured Course 3
Measured Course 5
0
0 2.3 4.6 6.9 9.2 11.5 13.8
Time [days]
FIG. 3Drying of CFI lled wood-framed assembly. Comparison of measured and pre-
dicted RH from simulations near exterior sheathing surface facing the interior.
100
RH3 no liquid transfer
RH4 no liquid transfer
RH3 with liquid transfer
50
25
0
0 2.3 4.6 6.9 9.2 11.5 13.8
Time [days]
FIG. 4Drying of cellulose lled CFI stud wood-framed stud cavity. Comparison of
predicted from simulations RH levels near the exterior sheathing surface facing the
interior.
4. These research ndings highlight that accurate material properties are im-
portant to the improvement of modeling results.
Liquid transport properties in low density and brous materials such as
insulations are rarely measured and are typically deemed unnecessary for sev-
eral reasons. First, these insulations are installed in the dry cavity inboard of
the wetness plane, and it is assumed that these will not come into contact with
bulk moisture. Second, the materials are non-homogenous and compressible
and pose difculties in measuring moisture transport. Third, materials are typi-
cally not capillary active and do not absorb liquid water into the material ma-
trix. Fiberglass and mineral wool insulations are examples of insulations that
do not absorb water in any considerable amounts. CFI insulation is strongly
absorptive, and liquid transport is a critical material characteristic that cannot
be neglected if reliable simulation results are expected.
A drying experiment was simulated again with two sets of material prop-
erty data, sets that included and excluded liquid transport property. The RH
plots in Fig. 4 show a good agreement between the measured and simulated
results with CFI that included liquid transport properties. However, a consid-
erable deviation from the measured data was obtained in simulations with
material property data that excluded the liquid transport. The data shows a
slower drying i.e., higher RH levels of the CFI with exclusion of liquid trans-
port, which is expected.
The results emphasize the importance of reliable and accurate material
characteristics in simulations and highlight the critical role in modeling that
verication methods have as quality control steps. The validated CFI properties
including liquid transport were used in subsequent simulations.
the adjacent materials in typical residential wall. The focus was on evaluating
the ability of spray-applied CFI to dry immediately after its installation. The
wall system consisted of the following components listed from the exterior to
the interior of the building enclosure: Spun bonded polyolen water resistive
barrier, 1.25 cm OSB sheathing, and 3.8 14.0 cm2 wood-frame wall with
spray-applied CFI. The cladding was omitted since insulation is often installed
prior to the installation of exterior nishes. The gypsum wallboard was ex-
cluded to allow the CFI to dry out to the interior. Figure 5 shows the compo-
nents of the simulated wall assembly.
FIG. 6Predicted moisture content proles in OSB sheathing during a 3 month simu-
lation period with CFI installed during each month of the year.
FIG. 7Predicted moisture content proles in the 2.54 cm CFI layer 1 week following
its installation.
installed between October and December, the moisture content in the OSB
remains above the as-installed moisture content levels at the end of the 3
month simulation.
Moisture content proles in two insulation layers show a signicant differ-
ence 1 week into the simulation period. The 2.54 cm layer of CFI adjacent to
the exterior sheathing surface facing the building interior is at higher moisture
content than the remaining insulation. Moisture content proles in the insula-
tion i.e., layer adjacent to the exterior sheathing installed during the months
of December through March indicate no change during the rst week of drying.
During the same period, moisture content proles in the 11.4 cm insulation
layer show a reduction from initial 40 % to below 20 % in all simulated cases.
The CFI closest to the surface of the exterior sheathing remains at highest the
moisture content for the longest period. The plots also show that with late Fall
and early Winter installations, the moisture content in CFI near the sheathing
surface remains unchanged for several weeks, indicating slow if any drying
during this time period. This leads to a higher risk for occurrence of moisture
condensation on the surface of the sheathing. When exterior temperatures fall
to below freezing levels, the condensed moisture can freeze.
FIG. 8Predicted moisture content proles in the 11.4 cm CFI layer 1 week following
its installation.
60 F, and three different ventilation rates 2.0, 1.0, and 0.5 ACH were intro-
duced to remove indoor moisture sources. The resulting indoor conditions are
presented in Fig. 9 for the month of January. The lower ventilation rates result
in higher absolute humidity of the indoor air than outdoors, subsequently re-
ducing the potential for the insulation to dry.
Maintaining a well ventilated house with 2.0 ACH, the expected average
indoor RH is 55, 37, or 26 % at respective indoor air temperatures of 40, 50,
and 60 F. Figure 7 shows the lower quartile, median, and upper quartile of the
RH range for the nine different indoor climates.
The results show that moisture content in the OSB increases throughout
the rst month following the installation of CFI. The two parameters evaluated
specically the indoor temperature and the ACH rate has a different affect on
moisture content in the OSB. Indoor temperature has a substantially lower
inuence on moisture content in the OSB sheathing in comparison to the ACH
Fig. 10. Increasing the indoor temperature from 40 to 50 and 60 F changes
the moisture content in the OSB by fraction of a percent. Increasing the ACH
on the building interior from 0.5 to 1.0 and 2.0 ACH decreases the moisture
content in the OSB from 19 to less than 17 % at the end of 1 month drying
period Fig. 10.
The moisture content trends show that the 11.4 cm CFI layer facing the
building interior dries out faster Fig. 12 in comparison to the 2.54 cm CFI
70 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
FIG. 9Indoor temperature and RH matrix for the sensitivity analysis of indoor cli-
mate on drying of CFI. Ventilation rate decreases from left to right, and temperature
increases from top to down 40, 50, and 60F.
layer adjacent to the OSB sheathing Fig. 11. The greatest temperature effect
occurs in the insulation layer closest to the building interior, which allows the
insulation to dry faster and results in lower nal moisture content. The interior
climatic conditions i.e., increase in heating set-point had the least effect on
drying of the 2.54 cm insulation layer adjacent to the exterior sheathing. The
higher indoor ACH provides faster drying of the CFI layer facing the building
interior.
The above results highlight the complex and interactive nature of moisture
response in walls with spray-applied CFI. Following its installation, the mois-
ture movement in walls is dominated by two processes: Drying and moisture
redistribution. Several factors including exterior and interior climatic condi-
tions, initial moisture content of the CFI, and permeability of the adjacent
material layers affect the drying characteristics of the spray-applied CFI. The
simulation results show that drying of CFI to the building interior is not always
PAZERA AND SALONVAARA, doi:10.1520/JTE102971 71
FIG. 10Moisture content of OSB as a function of time with CFI installed in a house
with different indoor temperatures and ACHs.
FIG. 11Moisture content of the 2.54 cm CFI layer closest to OSB as a function of
time after the installation of CFI in a house with different indoor temperatures and
ACHs.
months due to redistribution of moisture into the sheathing from the insulation
and low potential for drying toward the building exterior. Low temperatures
lead to low vapor pressures in the wall closest to the exterior. Potential for
drying through the exterior sheathing increases exponentially with outdoor
temperature increase.
Figures 1315 respectively show simulated temperature and moisture con-
tent proles 1 week following the installation of CFI in June, October, and
January. In all three cases, moisture dries out albeit at different rates as indi-
cated by the varying moisture prole histories. During cold weather installa-
tion, moisture in CFI is redistributed toward the exterior side of the assembly
Fig. 13. A steep moisture gradient develops in the insulation layer adjacent to
the exterior sheathing. A slightly steeper moisture content prole also develops
TABLE 1Amount of outward and inward drying during a 3 month period with CFI
installed in January, June, and October.
FIG. 12Moisture content of the 11.4 cm CFI layer closest to indoor air as a function
of time after the installation of CFI in a house with different indoor temperatures and
ACHs.
in the OSB sheathing adjacent to the CFI. Figure 13 indicates a larger tempera-
ture difference in comparison to temperature proles in Figs. 11 and 12. During
cold weather, as interior temperatures falls below the 40 F set-point, the heat-
ing system turns on to maintain the interior temperature above the set-point.
The steeper temperature gradient in the wall contributes to greater vapor pres-
sure difference between the interior which is now maintained above 40 F and
colder exterior and a stronger driving potential for moisture transport. In cold
climate zones during late Fall and Winter, vapor pressures are higher on the
building interior than the exterior. The predominant direction of vapor pres-
sure drive is toward the exterior.
Initially, the interior surface of the CFI can dry toward the interior consecu-
tively; moisture inside the insulation is driven toward the exterior side of the
wall. Even in the presence of permeable exterior sheathing, cold weather sig-
nicantly reduces the drying potential of the built-in moisture due to the low
partial pressure of water vapor at these temperatures. Simulation results show
that drying toward the building interior is the predominant mode drying spray-
applied CFI. To allow moisture to dry to the building interior the partial pres-
sure of water vapor inside the insulation must be higher than that in the indoor
air.
In cold conditions, this is not often possible. The exterior surface of the CFI
is cold, and the partial pressure of water vapor is lower than on the building
interior. The required indoor RH as a function of outdoor temperature to allow
74 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
FIG. 13Temperature, RH, and moisture content proles after 1 week of drying with
CFI installed in June. A 0.26 kg/ m2 of moisture dries toward the building exterior, and
1.82 kg/ m2 of moisture dries toward the building interior in 3 months.
for drying of the exterior layers of the insulation toward indoors is shown in
Fig. 16 for warm indoor conditions. Maintaining the indoor temperature sev-
eral degrees higher than outdoor temperature and providing dehumidication
are the preferred approach of moisture removal of CFI. If dehumidication is
not a feasible option, then providing continuous ventilation using drier outdoor
air is also possible.
FIG. 14Temperature, RH, and moisture content proles after 1 week of drying with
CFI installed in October. A 0.15 kg/ m2 of moisture dries toward the building exterior,
and 1.59 kg/ m2 of moisture dries toward the building interior in 3 months.
69 hr to dry the insulation layers below 25 % 25.4 and 101.6 cm layers, respec-
tively. Similarly, in June, the drying took 58 and 47 hr. In October, the drying
occurred in 113 and 101 hr. The drying of the layer closest to the exterior
sheathing is slowest in the Winter during cold months, whereas the insulation
layer closest to the indoors dries slowest during the Fall.
The center depth location in the insulation layer dried to below 25 % mois-
ture content level in 118 hr in January, in 74 hr in June, and in 128 hr in
October. With CFI installed in Winter months, moisture content measurements
at the center depth are lower than moisture content of the insulation layer near
the exterior sheathing. The insulation layer closest to the exterior sheathing
and its drying rate becomes a critical factor during the colder months. Depend-
ing on the indoor conditions, this layer may not dry prior to the onset of
warmer weather. During the cold months, vapor drive from indoors in walls
without vapor retarders may increase the moisture content to even higher lev-
els.
Conclusions
Modeling results show that drying characteristics of walls with spray-applied
CFI are signicantly affected by the interior/exterior boundary conditions.
76 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
FIG. 15Temperature, RH, and moisture content proles after 1 week of drying with
CFI installed in January. A 0.24 kg/ m2 of moisture dries toward the building exterior,
and 1.84 kg/ m2 of moisture dries toward the building interior in 3 months.
Warm weather conditions rarely cause any difculties in drying, but cold
weather can lead to prolonged high moisture contents in the insulation and
exterior sheathing. Spray-applied cellulose should not be installed during cold
seasons unless drying can be achieved in the full depth of the insulation layer
prior to installing interior nishes or unless it can be demonstrated that redis-
tribution of the initial moisture will not lead to high moisture contents in any
material layer. The spray-applied CFI installed in typical wood-frame walls will
dry more inward than outward. The walls will not fully dry unless vapor pres-
sure of the interior air is maintained below the critical limit, which is depen-
dent on the outdoor exterior sheathing temperature. Water vapor perme-
ability of the exterior sheathing will also affect the drying rate of the CFI lled
cavity.
The current practice of measuring moisture content at center depth of the
cavity is not representative of moisture contents at other locations and is a
misleading indicator whether the insulation in its full depth is dry enough.
Guidelines describing how drying of walls with CFI are dependent on the in-
door humidity and the outdoor temperature and how moisture content of the
insulation should be developed. Ignoring the moisture content of CFI and in-
PAZERA AND SALONVAARA, doi:10.1520/JTE102971 77
T indoor=68F
Maximum allowable indoor Relative Humidity
100
Maximum allowable RH in doo r , % 90
80
70
60
50
40
30 Indoor RH that allows panel to dry
20
10
0
23 32 41 50 59 68
T outdoo r Tp an e l, F
FIG. 16Maximum indoor RH that allows any drying from the panel surface toward
the indoor climate which is at 68F. If indoor humidity is higher the panel will keep
getting wetter and drying can happen toward the outside only. Drying at cold tempera-
tures will be slow.
stalling gypsum wallboard soon after its installation without allotting enough
drying time under favorable drying conditions can lead to a multitude of mois-
ture related performance problems including dimensional changes in the exte-
rior sheathing and framing, moisture condensation and frost build up on the
surface of the sheathing as well as increased risk for mold growth.
Most material data sets exclude critical material properties such as liquid
transport for CFI. Typically, sophisticated and costly equipment such as
gamma-ray or nuclear magnetic resonance is required to quantify liquid trans-
port as a function of moisture content. These measurements have successfully
been performed with rigid materials such as sandstone, limestone, and brick.
However, large inaccuracies can be expected when measuring with compress-
ible and non-homogeneous materials such as CFI. Signicant experience and
knowledge base are required to perform these measurements correctly and to
analyze the results to derive the properties. Simpler water uptake tests quanti-
fying total moisture content as a function of time are typically used to estimate
the liquid transport properties. There is a need for another test, e.g., drying test,
to be used in conjunction with the water uptake test to validate the derived
property. Standardization of the test methods currently not available is needed.
References
ERRATUM for JTE102971, Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Volume 39, Issue 2,
March, 2011 and STP1498, Condensation in Exterior Building Wall Systems, published
May, 2011, ASTM International
STP1498 Correction:
Page 60, last line increase should be decrease
Page 63, FIG. 2, Colling Coil should be Cooling Coil
Reprinted from JTE, Vol. 39, No. 2
doi:10.1520/JTE102995
Available online at www.astm.org/JTE
Manuscript received January 25, 2010; accepted for publication August 14, 2010; pub-
lished online October 2010.
1
Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto Univ., Kyoto 619-0224, Japan.
2
Professor, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto Univ., Kyoto 619-0224, Japan.
Cite as: Umeno, T. and Hokoi, S., Moisture Damage in Vented Air Space of Exterior
Walls of Wooden Houses, J. Test. Eval., Vol. 39, No. 2. doi:10.1520/JTE102995.
Copyright 2011 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
80
UMENO AND HOKOI, doi:10.1520/JTE102995 81
Introduction
Most of the exterior walls of wooden houses in Japan have a vented air layer
between the exterior cladding and the insulation Fig. 1. This vented air layer is
designed to dehumidify the exterior walls by discharging humidity to the out-
side and allowing outdoor air to enter, decreasing the risk of condensation in
the exterior wall during winter. A windbreak layer is installed between the
vented layer and the insulation layer to prevent any degradation of insulation
performance caused by the inow of outdoor air.
The vented air layer also aids waterproong by draining away any rain
water that penetrates the exterior walls. A pressure equalizing design mini-
mizes the amount of rain water penetrating through the cladding due to out-
door wind pressure, and any rain water that does enter is drained away through
the vented air space. The windbreak layer also acts as a waterproong layer.
Recently, the number of residential buildings that use structural plywood
on their exterior walls has been increasing. The plywood works as a windbreak
layer, and materials such as house wrapping sheets are then attached over the
plywood for waterproong purposes. The plywood also has the ability to absorb
and desorb moisture.
Several studies have been carried out on the vented air layer and the most
effective thickness for discharging water vapor to the outside. However, most of
these studies have only investigated the performance of vented air layers under
experimental conditions, not in a eld environment. This paper describes a case
of the moisture damage involving stain on the outer surface of the plywood of
the exterior wall in a wooden residential building. Two climate chambers were
used to clarify the conditions under which the stain appeared. The hygrother-
mal characteristics of an exterior wall with a vented air layer were examined
using numerical analysis, and the possible causes of condensation in the vented
air layer were investigated.
(a) Stain on the flashing (b) Bottom edge of house wrapping sheets
(c) Outside of house wrapping sheets (d) Inside of house wrapping sheets
(c),
Outdoor Indoor
Stain (e)
dish brown water was found owing between the plywood and the house wrap-
ping sheets. The stain was shaped like marble pattern and distributed uni-
formly. The stain consists of organic materials, mainly phenol. Though it is not
clear whether the stain is derived from the veneer or the binder, it can be said
that the stain is from the plywood. The house wrapping sheets were moist and
wrinkled. The stain was mainly seen at the contact points between the plywood
and the house wrapping sheets. Furthermore, screws and staples in the ply-
wood had rusted.
Figure 2g shows the distribution of the stain on the east wall. Much stain
was found at the lower part of the full two-story walls. In contrast, the amount
of stain found under the windows was insignicant. The stain seemed to have
run down over the surface of the plywood. There was no evidence of conden-
UMENO AND HOKOI, doi:10.1520/JTE102995 83
Solar
radiation
Rain
sation on the inner surface of the plywood, insulation, or the posts and beams.
The walls near the eaves showed no sign of either condensation or leakage of
rain.
The stain usually appeared in houses with a thin vented air layer and was
mainly found on the east-facing walls. The stain was usually seen during the
rainy season or in Summer.
The stain does not necessarily damage the wall materials. However, the
appearance of the stain means the plywood is wet, which is strongly related to
fungi and decay of plywood. Also, many residents regard the stain as some
trouble, and claim to have been caused by the builders. The phenomenon that
residents require improvement should be treated as damages, and the causes of
stain are presumed as below.
Cause of Stain
Since the stain was distributed uniformly all over the surface of the plywood, it
was unlikely that rain water had directly leached out the chemical components
of the plywood. It seems more plausible that condensation occurred on the
outer surface of the plywood. As the inner surface of the plywood and the
insulation had not been damaged, the possibility of condensation due to mois-
ture from the indoor air was low. The initial water content of the construction
materials could not have been the source of the condensation problem because
the stain appeared a few years after the construction. For these reasons, we
concluded that condensation had occurred during the rainy season on the out-
side surface of the plywood. Figure 3 shows the proposed condensation pro-
cess. This is the phenomenon studied as solar vapor drive 1. The moisture
source of solar vapor drive is usually the moisture contained in the exterior
walls, which is originally from rain or condensation due to night cooling by
long-wave radiation. In the present case, the main source of water seems the
rain water penetrating through the joints of the cladding or the highly humid
air from the outside because the outside surface of the exterior walls is usually
well waterproofed in Japan.
1 Humidity of the vented air layer rises due to either rain intrusion or
highly humid outdoor air.
2 When the temperature of the exterior walls rises due to solar radiation,
84 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Temperature []
40 80
0 0
6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 Time
(b) Measured hygrothermal conditions
vapor desorbed from the exterior walls raises the humidity of the
vented air layer.
3 Condensation occurs on the outer surface of the plywood whose tem-
perature has not yet risen.
4 The condensed water is held for several hours on the outer surface of
the plywood due to the waterproong action of the house wrapping
sheets, and the stain then separates from the plywood.
5 The condensed water containing the stain is drained away through
gaps between the plywood and the house wrapping sheets.
The moisture source for the condensation may either be rain water or out-
door air or both. A temperature humidity difference between the vented air
layer and the plywood surface seems to be caused by solar radiation in the
morning, which explains why the stain is usually found on the east-facing
walls. Since humidity increases readily in spaces with a small volume and low
ventilation rate, the stain tends to appear in walls with a thin vented air layer.
Experimental Procedures
The experimental procedures were as follows. An external test wall, consisting
of a wooden post-and-beam framework covered in plywood and house wrap-
ping sheets, was constructed between two climate chambers Fig. 4a. The
temperature and humidity of climate chamber 1 were controlled in order to
simulate the vented air layer, and chamber 2 was used to simulate the external
surface of the insulation layer of the external wall. Figure 4b shows tempera-
ture and humidity measured in a vented air layer of a residence without any
stain appearance during the rainy season in Japan. The temperature of vented
air layer and surface of plywood in the experiment were based on these mea-
UMENO AND HOKOI, doi:10.1520/JTE102995 85
Experimental Results
In cases 1 and 2, neither condensation nor stain was observed on the plywood
surface. In case 3, under the severest test conditions, a small amount of con-
densation was observed on the plywood surface immediately after the start of
the experiment. The amount of condensation increased over time. After 24 h,
reddish brown water was observed on the ashing. Figure 5 shows the change
in the appearance of the test wall during the experiment in case 3. Condensa-
tion was seen on the plywood surface and stain appeared on the inside surface
of the house wrapping sheets, accumulating along the lines of wrinkles Fig.
5b.
The stain accumulated on the waterproof tapes at the bottom of the house
wrapping sheets Fig. 5c, and some drained through the gap between the
waterproof tapes Fig. 5d. After 1 week, mold was observed on the plywood
surface, and rust was found on the staples of the house wrapping sheets Fig.
5e and 5f.
Figure 6a and 6b shows the wall temperature and the dew point tem-
perature of the vented air layer Room 1 in cases 2 and 3. In case 2, where stain
did not appear, the temperature of the plywood was higher than the dew point
temperature throughout the experiment. In case 3, where stain was generated,
the surface temperature of the plywood was lower than the dew point tempera-
ture.
The moisture content of the plywood is shown in Fig. 6c. It was around 15
wt % before the experiment in case 3. However, the moisture content increased
rapidly during the course of the experiment and eventually reached 30 %.
The stain formation observed in the experiment was similar to the moisture
damage seen in the exterior walls of actual residences. This indicates that stain
could appear in the vented air layer of exterior walls when condensation oc-
curred on the plywood surface, and the condensed water remained there for
longer than 1 day.
86 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
(a) Stain on the flashing (b) Inside surface of a house wrapping sheet
gap
tape
(c) Stain backed up on waterproof tape (d) Draining through the gap in the tape
X T
r + c + r = T 2
t t
where:
UMENO AND HOKOI, doi:10.1520/JTE102995 87
35 40
Vented air
layer Vented air
layer
Temperature []
Plywood
Temperature []
30 35
Dew point
Dew point
Plywood
Insulation
25 30 Insulation
20 25
5/2
5/4
5/6
4/30
4/21
4/23
4/25
4/27
Date Date
(a) Temperature and dew point temperature (b) Temperature and dew point temperature
of vented air layer (case 2) of vented air layer (case 3)
40
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
35
30
Moisture content [wt%]
25
20
15
10
Stain occured
5
0
4/14 4/21 4/22 4/28 5/1 5/2 5/7
Date
(c) Moisture content of plywood
= w , = w
X T
0 = porosity m3 / m3,
a = density of dry air kg/ m3,
= moisture capacity to variation of humidity ratio kg/ m3 kg/ kg,
= moisture capacity to variation of temperature kg/ m3 K,
t = time s,
X = humidity ratio kg/ kg,
T = temperature K,
= vapor conductivity kg/ ms kg/ kg,
r = heat of phase change J/kg,
c = heat capacity J / m3 K c = 0macpma + scps,
ma = density of moist air kg/ m3,
s = density of a solid kg/ m3,
cpma = specific heat of moist air,
cps = specific heat of a solid J/kg K,
= thermal conductivity W/mK, and
= moisture content kg/ m3.
The hygrothermal properties of the wall materials used are listed in Table
24,5, and Fig. 8a shows the sorption isotherms of ber cement and plywood.
With respect to the house wrapping sheets, the vapor transfer resistance was
omitted and the heat transfer resistance was included into the heat transfer
coefcient for the space between the plywood and the vented air layer. The
temperature and humidity for the vented air layer were calculated based on the
air exchange rate obtained from the ventilation calculation, taking into account
the chimney effect 6. The air velocity in the vented air layer was calculated by
Eq 3 considering buoyant force due to the temperature difference between the
vented air layer and the outdoor air
v=
B2
2B1
+ PT B22
B1
+
4B12
3
where:
B1 =
a
2
1 + Zin + Zout, B2 = 12
lh
l2w
, PT = T g lh
T a T o
Ta To
, Zin = 1
0.6in
1 ,
2
Zout = 1
0.6out
1 2
Zin = pressure loss coefcient of the inlet of the vented air layer -,
Zout = pressure loss coefcient of the outlet of the vented air layer -,
u = viscosity coefcient of the air Pa s,
lh = height of the vented air layer m,
lw = thickness of the vented air layer m,
UMENO AND HOKOI, doi:10.1520/JTE102995 89
50
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Relative humidity [%]
(a) Sorption isotherms
Temperature Relative humidity
100
Relative Humidity [%]
80
Temperature []
60
40
20
0
3/11
3/21
3/31
4/10
4/20
4/30
5/10
5/20
5/30
6/19
6/29
7/19
7/29
8/18
8/28
3/1
6/9
7/9
8/8
(b) Outdoor temperature and humidity
East West South North
800
Solar Radiation [W/]
600
400
200
0
6/10 6/11 6/12
(c) Solar radiation measurements on walls
FIG. 9Temperature of the plywood and dew point temperature of the vented air layer.
UMENO AND HOKOI, doi:10.1520/JTE102995 91
Thickness
18 mm 4 mm
Max. m/s 0.239 0.037
Min. m/s 0.000 0.000
Average m/s 0.039 0.004
Air exchange rate 1/h 23.65 2.47
reference weather data for Tokyo. Figure 8b shows the outdoor temperature
and humidity, while Fig. 8c shows the solar radiation on the test walls used in
the simulation.
Results
The calculated temperature of the external surface of the plywood and the dew
point temperature of the vented air layer for an east-facing wall are shown in
Fig. 9a and 9b. The temperature of the plywood was always higher than the
dew point temperature, and in both cases studied, condensation did not occur
on the plywood surface during the 6-month period. Figure 9c and 9d shows
the humidity ratio of the vented air layer. The humidity ratio varied due to the
absorption and desorption of moisture by the plywood and the ber cement.
The humidity ratio for a vented air layer 4 mm thick was lower than that for a
vented air layer 18 mm thick because the moisture inow from the outdoor air
was low.
The air velocity in the vented air layer is shown in Table 3. In the case of a
vented air layer 4 mm thick, the average velocity was 4 mm/s, corresponding to
an air exchange rate of 2.47 1/h. In the case of an air layer 18 mm thick, the
corresponding values were only 10 % as large.
Figure 10 shows the time variation of the temperature and humidity distri-
butions inside the wall on July 23rd for a vented air layer 18 mm in thickness.
The plywood temperature varied slowly and fell below that of the vented air
layer after 7 a.m. The humidity ratio of the vented air layer rose higher than
that of the outdoor air after 6 a.m. due to incoming moisture from the ber
cement.
Figure 11 shows the calculated difference between the plywood tempera-
ture and the dew point temperature of the vented air layer. The temperature of
the plywood surface was higher than the dew point temperature in every case,
regardless of the orientation of the exterior walls and the thickness of the
vented air layer.
The calculated results show that condensation on the outer surface of the
plywood did not occur due to the moisture inux from the outside and that the
possibility of stain generation was low. However, since the calculated results
showing that the possibility of condensation was lower with an air gap 4 mm
thick than with an air gap 18 mm thick do not agree with the observed results,
rain penetration through the exterior cladding rather than condensation
could be the reason for the stain generation.
92 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Conclusions
This study claried stain generation on the plywood facing the vented air layer
of the external wall of a wooden residential building and investigated the
mechanism of stain generation by means of experimentation and numerical
analysis.
Experiments carried out in climate chambers simulated actual eld situa-
tions and claried the conditions responsible for stain generation. Stain forma-
tion was observed on the plywood when condensation on the plywood re-
mained in place for longer than one day.
The hygrothermal characteristics of the vented air layer were evaluated by
means of numerical analysis, and the possible causes of condensation in the
vented air layer were investigated. It was concluded that outdoor airow into
the vented air layer could not be the cause of condensation leading to the stain
generation on the plywood. Instead, rain penetration through the exterior clad-
ding was a more probable cause of stain generation.
UMENO AND HOKOI, doi:10.1520/JTE102995 93
FIG. 11Temperature differences between the surface temperature of the plywood and
the dew point temperature of the vented air layer.
References
ABSTRACT: It has long been noted that interior vapor barriers in wood frame
walls in hot-humid climates can lead to interstitial condensation within walls.
The bases for this recognition are predictive simulations, anecdotal observa-
tions, and a limited number of experimental studies. This paper describes an
experimental study conducted in a hot-humid climate that investigated the
inuence of an interior vapor retarder and compares observed performance
with simulation predictions. The wall performance data reviewed here was
gathered as part of a larger test program evaluating the performance of a
range of typical wood frame, residential wall constructions in a hot-humid
climate. The approach chosen was to use real-time eld exposure using a
test hut located in Tampa, Florida. The test hut had two long sides, which
provided the ability to test 16 wall specimens each. Wall specimens were
instrumented with a variety of temperature, humidity, and moisture sensors.
In addition to natural weather exposure, the wall specimens could be manu-
ally wetted by a water injection system to simulate rain leakage. More spe-
cically, this paper focuses on using the data collected before and after the
installation of an interior vapor barrier vinyl wallpaper to show the change in
moisture loading and the potential condensation within the walls resulting
from the installation. The eld data is compared with predictions of the wall
behavior using a commonly available hygrothermal model. There is increas-
ing reliance on the use of predictive models to assess the moisture perfor-
mance of building assembly designs. These predictive models need to be
validated against real data to test their variance from real systems.
KEYWORDS: condensation, water management, wall assemblies
Manuscript received February 26, 2010; accepted for publication October 8, 2010; pub-
lished online xx xxxx.
1
PhD., Research Fellow, DuPont Building Innovations, Richmond, VA 23261.
2
Senior Research Technologist, DuPont Building Innovations, Richmond, VA 23261.
Cite as: Weston, T. A. and Minnich, L. C., Moisture Measurements and Condensation
Potential in Wood Frame Walls in a Hot-Humid Climate, J. Test. Eval., Vol. 39, No. 3.
doi:10.1520/JTE103053.
Copyright 2011 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
94
WESTON AND MINNICH, doi:10.1520/JTE103053 95
Introduction
It has been long noted that the use of an interior vapor retarder or vapor im-
permeable vinyl wallpaper on internal wall surfaces can lead to moisture ac-
cumulation and mold growth in the gypsum wall-board within the wall systems
13. Water may enter the wall through leaks or when humid air leaks into the
wall. This water is then trapped in the wall by impermeable building materials.
An extensive simulation study of the use of vapor barriers was conducted to
support changes in the requirements for vapor barriers and retarders in the
International Energy code. The results showed that although interior vapor
retarders were benecial in cold climates, there was signicant potential for
moisture damage from condensation when vapor retarders were used in
warmer, mixed-climates 4. Hot-humid climates were not included in this
study.
Cautions of the use of interior vapor barrier are more important in hot-
humid climates 5,6. Hot-humid climates, as dened in the International Resi-
dential Code IRC, include a signicant area of the United States including
Florida, the gulf coast regions of Texas, Lousiana and Missippi, and the Atlantic
Coast of South Carolina and Southern North Carolina 7. The IRC exempts
hot-humid climates from interior vapor barrier requirements.
The use of hygrothermal modeling has increased in recent years. It is being
promoted to examine the robustness of building system design. Accompanying
the increase in the use of models is the increase in the publication activity of
standards and manuals, which govern the use of simulation models. This is
illustrated in the publication of ASTM Manual 40 in 2001 and ASHRAE Stan-
dard 160 in 2009 8,9. Although many commercially available simulation mod-
els have been benchmarked, their use requires exact material properties and
weather conditions for good agreement between simulations and measured
data 5.
This study examines the predictions of one commonly used model and
compares the measured eld data to examine the accuracy of its predictions of
condensation and moisture accumulation. More specically, it examines the
prediction of the effect of the application of vapor impermeable wall covering
to typical residential walls in hot, humid climates.
Experimental Method
FIG. 1RBETS.
local weather patterns, the unit was orientated with the wall systems facing east
and west. The 16 different wall specimens were duplicated on each side of the
unit to assess the exposure differences. The test station conguration provided
for no overhang or other protection from roof run-off, which would typically be
in place in residential construction. To limit roof run-off a drip cap was in-
stalled at the top of the wall specimens, as shown in Fig. 2. The most problem-
atic area was the brick clad specimens, which protruded further than the other
wall specimens see Fig. 3. The brick wall specimens on the west wall were the
only specimens that were observed to have signicant roof run-off.
The wall specimens are shown generically in Fig. 4. The wall specimens
contained R-13, unfaced berglass batt and painted gypsum on the interior.
Four different claddings were studied on this unit: Vinyl siding, ber cement
siding, stucco, and brick. Several different water-resistive barriers housewraps
were used behind the claddings and over oriented strand board OSB sheath-
ing. All materials were widely available and commercially purchased.
Each wall specimen was equipped with a number of sensors measuring
temperature, relative humidity RH, and moisture content. Each sensor was
placed at a predetermined location and within each layer of the wall system
i.e., gypsum, interstitial, cladding face, etc.. The interior of the test station had
a HVAC system, which allowed the interior of the unit to have a controlled
temperature and RH. Additionally, the units weather station tracked the wind
speed and direction, rainfall, temperature, and RH. Each side of the test station
had a driving rain gage and a horizontal solar sensor. All of this information
was monitored remotely through the test units data acquisition system. Lastly,
in order to include the effects of incidental water intrusion from possible con-
struction defects, each wall assembly contained a manual water injection sys-
tem located 1.2 m 48 in. from the bottom of the wall specimen. This system
simulated a point defect in the construction of the wall and water intrusion,
which may likely occur. A known amount of water was introduced either be-
tween the wall assemblys sheathing and water-resistive barrier or between the
wall assemblys sheathing and cavity insulation.
The walls in the RBETS were exposed to natural weather conditions for 18
98 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
months. The data for the full 18 month period is reported elsewhere 10. This
study examines only an 2 month period Aug. 14Oct. 11, 2007, in the
middle of which vapor impermeable vinyl wallpaper was installed in the inte-
rior of the wall assemblies. At the beginning of this period August 14, 700 mL
of water was injected between the OSB sheathing and the water-resistive bar-
rier. A duplicate water injection was conducted on September 11 after the in-
stallation of the vinyl wallpaper on the inside of the walls. Moisture conditions
at the junction of the insulation cavity and the interior of the gypsum wall-
board were measured by electrical resistance moisture pins in a wooden wafer
see Fig. 5. The use of wooden wafer moisture sensors as surrogates in appli-
cations where the materials do not allow for direct moisture measurement is a
common practice. The performance of this type of sensor has been evaluated
for use in eld moisture monitoring 11. The actual measurements were found
to depend on the material properties of the wood wafer, resulting in a slower
wetting response than drying response. This allows for better indication of
longer-term wetting rather than short-term or diurnal wetting events.
Experimental Results
exposure. The opposite effect of exposure was seen with the brick cladding
walls, which exhibited signicantly higher moisture content on the west expo-
sure. The cause of this difference in behavior was discovered at the end of the
test period when it was discovered that the west exposure brick walls had a
water leak at their roof interface. This leak caused a much higher level of water
entry into the wall than that caused by climatic exposure and the intentional
water injection combined. Because of this water leak, the west exposure brick
clad specimens were removed from the further analysis
Effect of Cladding
Figures 12 and 13 show the effect of cladding on the moisture content of the
gypsum wall-board. The highest moisture content is in the stucco walls
brick walls fiber cement siding walls vinyl walls. Reservoir cladding
showed higher moisture than non-reservoir cladding or sealed reservoir clad-
ding. The moisture content is also inuenced by the amount of air movement
or ventilation of the cladding, the stucco having the least ventilation and the
vinyl being a known leaky cladding. The effect of cladding seen in this experi-
ment was in agreement with past research 4,1214.
Visual Observations
The wall assemblies were disassembled November 1215, 1 month after the
cessation of data collection mid-October. Wall assemblies were visually exam-
102 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
ined for signs of moisture accumulation or mold growth. The only walls in
which visible mold was observed on the gypsum wall-board was the brick clad-
ding walls with western exposure. These walls exhibited much higher moisture
contents than the other walls and were later determined to have a leak at the
roof wall interface.
Simulation Model
WUFI 4.2 Pro3 was chosen as the simulation model because it is a well-
validated and benchmarked model for hygrothermal applications. It is impor-
tant to note that due to the inherent limitations of the model, results of the
3
WUFI Wrme und Feuchte instationir is a software family developed by the Fra-
nhofer Institute of Building Physics and adapted for use in North America by the Oak
Ridge National Laboratory under contract with the U.S. Department of Energy.
WESTON AND MINNICH, doi:10.1520/JTE103053 103
Environment
The model uses historical weather data 30 years continuous data for a par-
ticular region to calculate the hygrothermal response of the wall system. The
simulation engine uses hourly weather data for that region to calculate the
expected dynamic moisture response of the wall system over time based on the
varying weather conditions. Weather les for a 10 % cold year and a 10 % warm
year for Tampa, Florida, which are embedded in the WUFI software, were cho-
sen for the simulations. The criterion is the yearly average temperature, and
106 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Simulation Inputs
Simulation model WUFI 4.2 Pro
Material data
Material Source
Interior surface S-D value set as 100 m
Vinyl wallpaper vapor barrier default
0.0125 m gypsum board WUFI Generic N. A. Database
0.089 m ber glass WUFI Generic N. A. Database
0.0157 m OSB WUFI Generic N. A. Database
SBPO WRB WUFI Generic N. A. Database
WUFI Generic N. A. Database for ber
cement board modied with a higher vapor
permeability to account for the air
Fiber cement siding movement through the siding
Brick WUFI Generic N. A. Database
Stucco WUFI Generic N. A. Database
Shield to rain water and no
Vinyl siding resistance to vapor diffusion
Orientation East, west
WUFI dened typical built-in
moisture with the exterior 0.003 m
raised to 148 kg/ m3 to simulate
Initial conditions water injection
Two periods: from 8/14 to 9/11
Calculation periods and from 9/12 to 10/11
WUFI Database: Tampa, cold year
Exterior climate and Tampa, warm year
WUFI SPC 160 option using
AC with dehumidication with the
following settings: Floating indoor
temperature shift 2.8 oC,
set-point for heating 21 oC,
set-point for cooling 22 oC, RH
Interior climate control set-point 50 %
thus the selected les did not necessarily represent the years with tenth percen-
tile coldest and warmest temperatures over the mid-August to mid-October
portions of the year. A summary of the differences between the two weather
les is shown in Table 2.
Interior conditions were specied by selecting the ASHRAE Standard 160
option within the WUFI software with air-conditioning with dehumidica-
tion. ASHRAE Standard 160 states that if the design or operating specications
for the building specify indoor operating temperatures, or the indoor design tem-
peratures are specied by applicable code, regulation, or law, these temperatures
shall be used. The WUFI software requests both heating and cooling set-points.
WESTON AND MINNICH, doi:10.1520/JTE103053 107
Wall Construction
The wall construction used in the simulation was representative of the experi-
mental wall assemblies. Material properties were assigned from the material
property database included as part of the modeling software. The wall system
from exterior to interior was as follows.
1 Claddings: Material properties for stucco and brick were obtained from
the generic North American material database provided within WUFI
program. The material properties for ber cement siding were esti-
mated using properties for ber cement board from the WUFI generic
North American database modied with a higher vapor permeability to
account for the air movement through the siding. Because of its high
degree of air leakage and non-absorptive properties, vinyl siding was
Simulation Results
The simulation results are analyzed by examining two responses:
1 The surface RH at the insulation cavity side of the gypsum wall-board
and
2 The moisture content of the gypsum wall-board.
110 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Effect of Cladding
The results appear to be independent of cladding. See Fig. 24.
tion period when no interior vapor barrier is present. The moisture content
rises dramatically in the second simulation period and, in many cases, contin-
ues to rise at the end of the period.
Effect of Cladding
There was very little effect of the cladding on the simulated moisture contents.
The stucco walls had slightly higher moisture content than walls with other
claddings. The non-stucco cladding wall moisture contents were all approxi-
mately the same. See Fig. 29.
Simulations did not show the effects of exposure observed in the eld
test. This indicates that local site conditions such as shielding and shad-
ing of adjacent structures may not be adequately assessed by simula-
tions.
Simulations did not predict the differences between claddings that were
observed during the experiment. There are several possible explanations
for this. The main differences in performance due to cladding are ex-
pected to result from differences in either the absorptivity or the venti-
lation of the respective claddings. Differences due to the absorptivity of
the claddings were likely minimized in the simulations as the weather
les had very few rain events during the second simulation period see
Fig. 19. Cladding effects may have been observed if simulations are run
over longer periods of time. Additionally, it is difcult to specify clad-
ding ventilation in the simulations, as air movement is not input di-
rectly. It is possible that a better representation of the air movement
through and ventilation behind claddings would have resulted in more
differences between claddings in the simulations. Finally, differences
may have been due to the selection of generic material properties rather
than actual material properties.
Bulk water leaks, such as the roof leak over the west exposure brick
walls, overwhelm other water entry mechanisms and are not included in
standard wall performance simulations.
114 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
FIG. 26Simulated gypsum wall-board moisture content, ber cement siding walls.
116 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
FIG. 29Simulated gypsum wall-board moisture content, Tampa warm year, east
exposure.
Conclusions
The results of both the experimental data and the simulations conrmed that
the use of interior vapor retarders in hot-humid climates reduced wall drying
and was detrimental to the moisture performance of wall systems. RH pre-
dicted by the simulations was in excess on the mold growth minimization cri-
teria according to the ASHRAE Standard 160 criteria for all of the wall assem-
blies once an interior vapor barrier was installed. Although mold was only
observed in the experimental walls that had an additional roof leak, it is pos-
sible that mold would have been present if the test walls had been exposed for
a longer period of time after the vapor barrier installation. Additionally, the
experimental data indicates that cladding system has a distinct effect on mois-
ture conditions at the back surface of the interior wall-board when an interior
vapor retarder is present. This difference was not predicted in the simulations
run in this study. Possible causes included the use of generic material proper-
ties and short durations on weather les. Additionally the characterization of
ventilation of claddings is difcult to specify using the simulation software. A
parametric simulation study would be required to further explore these issues.
References
Anton TenWolde1
Manuscript received November 29, 2009; accepted for publication June 14, 2010; pub-
lished online August 2010.
1
Madison, WI 53705.
Cite as: TenWolde, A., A Review of ASHRAE Standard 160Criteria for Moisture
Control Design Analysis in Buildings, J. Test. Eval., Vol. 39, No. 1. doi:10.1520/
JTE102896.
Copyright 2011 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
119
120 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Introduction
of the assumptions, material properties used and other choices made for the
analysis.
ASHRAE Standard 160 applies to new buildings, additions, or retrot and reno-
vation of existing buildings and includes all types of buildings, building com-
ponents, and materials. The purpose of ASHRAE Standard 160 reads as fol-
lows: Given the role that moisture plays in the degradation of building
envelope materials, components, systems and furnishings, the purpose of this
standard is to specify performance-based design methods for predicting, pre-
venting, mitigating, or reducing moisture damage depending on climate, con-
struction type and system operation. These methods include a criteria for
selecting analytic procedures, b design input values, and c criteria for evalu-
ation and use of outputs.
The standard species the minimum attributes for analytical procedures,
depending on the building design and other parameters. For instance, if the
construction is a brick wall, the analytical procedure should be able to handle
water absorption and redistribution in the brick. In contrast, in the unlikely
event that the construction does not contain hygroscopic materials and is air-
tight, a simple vapor diffusion analysis may be sufcient. The standard also
denes design input values, or design moisture loads, primarily by prescrib-
ing default values in case the designer does not have actual design specica-
tions. This includes interior as well as exterior such as rain and humidity
loads. The introduction of the concept of moisture load parallels the use of
mechanical loads in structural analysis. A load here is used in the sense of a
burden or demand on the building. The response of the building to this load
can be analyzed, and the performance can be judged acceptable or unaccept-
able failure. In the standard, the performance of the building design is evalu-
ated using the design loads specied in the standard, and the results are com-
pared with the performance criteria described in the standard. If the
performance is unacceptable, for instance if the analysis indicates high poten-
tial for mold growth, the design should be changed and reevaluated. The stan-
dard may also be used to design or evaluate the heating, ventilation, and air-
conditioning HVAC equipment and controls. The indoor design loads may be
manipulated by varying the design of HVAC equipment and controls, and the
design analysis is used to evaluate the building performance in response to this
manipulation. An example of a HVAC design change that affects moisture de-
sign loads is the addition of a dehumidier to lower indoor humidity.
As with structural design loads, moisture design loads should be more se-
vere than average loads. If average loads were used, actual loads would likely
exceed design loads 50 % of the time. An international consensus has emerged
that design analysis should be based on loads that will not be exceeded 90 % of
the time. This standard has adopted this approach whenever feasible. Follow-
ing is a description of the main features of the standard. Of course, it is not
possible to present all the details in this paper.
122 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Internal Loads
The choice of indoor environmental conditions is extremely important, espe-
cially for design analysis of buildings in cold climates. The standard encourages
designers to use their own design parameter values if they are known and part
of the design, or if they are prescribed by code, regulation or law, to use those
values. If they are unknown or not included in the design, the standard pro-
vides a simplied procedure or default values. In residential buildings, indoor
humidity is rarely explicitly controlled, and default design assumptions are
usually needed for these buildings. Internal moisture design conditions include
temperature, humidity, and air pressures. In case design values are available
from HVAC or other design specications, they should be used. Whenever pos-
sible, the standard prescribes higher than average loads because the standard
applies to design analysis.
Number of Number of
Bedrooms Occupants Moisture Generation Rate
1 bedroom 2 8 L/day 0.9 104 kg/ s 0.7 lb/h
2 bedrooms 3 12 L/day 1.4 104 kg/ s 1.1 lb/h
3 bedrooms 4 14 L/day 1.6 104 kg/ s 1.3 lb/h
4 bedrooms 5 15 L/day 1.7 104 kg/ s 1.4 lb/h
Additional
bedrooms +1 / bedroom +1 L / day +0.1 104 kg/ s +0.1 lb/ h
cm
pi = po,24 h + 1
Q
where
pi = indoor vapor pressure, Pa in. Hg,
po,24 h = 24-h running average outdoor vapor pressure, Pa in. Hg,
c = 1.36 105 Pa m3 / kg 10.7 in. Hg ft3 / lb,
m = design moisture generation rate, kg/s lb/h, and
Q = design ventilation rate, m3 / s cfm
The simple mass balance approach does not work when a dehumidier or
air-conditioner are operating because the rate of moisture removal is difcult to
quantify. The standard therefore resorted to a correlation between indoor de-
sign humidity and outdoor design humidity for cooling 5. This approach does
produce reasonable levels of indoor humidity, which are related to outdoor
humidity conditions, and are more realistic than the values prescribed under
the Simplied Method.
The situation is much simpler when air-conditioning or dehumidication
equipment is controlled with a de-humidistat, in which case the anticipated
humidity setting can be used the Standard sets a default of 50 % RH in case
the setting is not known.
The Full Parametric Calculation allows the designer to go beyond the pre-
vious two methodologies and use more sophisticated tools. This may include
building ventilation modeling, using design weather data see the next sections
and equipment models that can estimate moisture removal rates. It also may
involve models that include the effect of adsorption and desorption of water
vapor in various building materials and furnishings. However, the principle of
using design loads i.e., higher than average loads must be adhered to.
External Loads
External design loads include loads from wind, rain, temperature, humidity,
and solar radiation. To ensure that the analysis is done with appropriately se-
vere weather conditions, the standard requires using 10 consecutive years of
weather data or the use of Moisture Design Reference Years MDRY. In the
current standard MDRYs are dened as the 10th-percentile warmest and 10th-
percentile coldest years from a 30-year weather analysis. Unfortunately, such
126 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
weather data are currently not available for most locations. Current ASHRAE
research will most likely lead to a change in the denition of MDRY in the
standard.
Performance Criteria
Performance criteria are needed to evaluate the results from the design analy-
sis. The standard focuses on surface mold growth because under most circum-
stances, they are likely to be the most stringent of all performance criteria. If
mold is of no concern rarely, if the material is not conducive to mold growth
or if temperatures are too cold or warm for mold growth, other criteria such as
surface condensation or structural degradation may become critical.
Conditions for mold growth are complex and depend on mold species, and
the rate of growth varies with temperature and other parameters. However, as
with the rest of the standard, the standard needed to strike a balance between
the complex reality and needed simplicity of use of the standard. The criteria
for mold growth in the standard have been adapted from the International
Energy Agency IEA, Annex 14 7. The IEA criteria were based on observa-
tions of the most common mold species in the indoor environment, data from
the literature, and the collective judgment of the Annex 14 participants. The
criteria in ASHRAE Standard 160 apply to the humidity and temperature con-
TENWOLDE, doi:10.1520/JTE102896 127
ditions at the surface of building materials. To avoid mold growth, the current
ASHRAE Standard 160 requires that the following conditions must be met:
1 30-day running average surface RH 80 % when the 30-day running
average surface temperature is between 5 C 41 F and 40 C
104 F,
2 7-day running average surface RH 98 % when the 7-day running av-
erage surface temperature is between 5 C 41 F and 40 C 104 F,
and
3 24-h running average surface RH 100 % when the 24-h running av-
erage surface temperature is between 5 C 41 F and 40 C 104 F.
The standard allows less stringent criteria for materials that are naturally
resistant to mold growth e.g., concrete, masonry, glass, and metals or have
been chemically treated to resist mold growth.
Reporting Requirements
One of the more important aspects of ASHRAE Standard 160 is its requirement
for extensive documentation. The designer needs to provide a description of the
building envelope assembly and building materials. In addition, data need to be
provided on relevant properties of the building materials, such as thermal prop-
erties, moisture properties, density, and airow permeability. Some additional
information about the building, its operation, and the construction process is
also needed. And nally, choices made in the moisture analysis need to be
described.
buildings in coastal climates also seem to afrm that the rates in Table 2 may
be too high 8. A preliminary analysis of the limited amount of the more recent
measured data suggests that the 32 % exceedance level for a household of one
to two persons is 67 kg/day 1316 lb/day, not 8 kg/day 18 lb/day as listed in
Table 2 8. Moreover, the results from measured data also suggest that the
addition of 4 kg/day 9 lb/day for the third occupant Table 2 is too high and is
more likely to be on the order of 12 kg/day 24 lb/day. Using these lower
values for moisture production drastically lowers design indoor humidity lev-
els, especially for larger homes multiple bedrooms in cold humid climates.
However, additional measurements are still ongoing, and the results of those,
as well as the results of analysis of other existing data will guide the revision of
the design moisture production rates. However, at this time there seems to be
little doubt that they will be revised downward.
Performance Criteria
The current standard contains an error in the criteria for mold growth. The
recommendations by IEA Annex 14 6 were not transferred correctly: The sec-
ond requirement that the 7-day running average surface RH should be less than
98 % is not correct and should be changed to 89 %. Thus, in the revised version,
the second criterion will read: 7-day running average surface RH 89 % when
the 7-day running average surface temperature is between 5 C 41 F and
40 C 104 F. However, more likely the committee may decide instead to sim-
plify this criterion to one: 30-day running average surface RH 80 % when the
30-day running average surface temperature is between 5 C 41 F and 40 C
104 F and eliminate criteria 2 and 3.
The standard would benet from additional performance criteria for mate-
rials, such as corrosion and structural degradation. However, data on the mois-
ture tolerance of building materials are very hard to come by, and it will be a
challenge to include more criteria in a succinct manner.
weather data for locations not included in the initial 100. This methodology
will be included and referenced in the next standard.
Summary
Many of our current recommendations for moisture and condensation control
are not based on quantitative analysis under a consistent set of design assump-
tions, even though a growing number of computer tools are beginning to make
such analysis practical. To address this issue, ASHRAE published ASHRAE
Standard 160, Criteria for Moisture-Control Design Analysis in Buildings, in
January 2009. The standard provides performance-based procedures and crite-
ria for moisture design analysis for buildings. It hopes to help accomplish a
reduction in building failures in service, provide consistency in design ap-
proach and recommendations, offer more exibility in design for moisture con-
trol and better ability to incorporate new materials, and provide greater trans-
parency by requiring reporting of design assumptions. It sets criteria for
moisture design loads, moisture analysis methods, and satisfactory building
performance. The standard can be used for design analysis of the building
envelope or to help guide specications for HVAC equipment and controls.
Eventually, it should form the basis for prescriptive moisture design rules based
on a uniform set of design assumptions and loads. This paper describes the
rationale behind this standard, what is in it, and its potential uses and areas of
uncertainties.
A standing ASHRAE Standard Project Committee has now been formed to
update the standard. Substantial changes are expected in many sections of the
standard, especially in the sections dealing with design indoor humidity calcu-
lations and design weather data. The handling of air ow and performance
criteria is less likely to change substantially, with the exception of the criteria
for mold growth.
130 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
References
Manuscript received January 14, 2010; accepted for publication August 14, 2010; pub-
lished online October 2010.
1
Building Science Centre of Excellence, British Columbia Institute of Technology, 3700
Willingdon Av., Burnaby, BC V5G 3H2, Canada Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected]
2
Dept. of Architectural Science, Faculty of Engineering, Architecture and Science, Ry-
erson Univ., ON M5B 2K3, Canada.
Cite as: Tariku, F. and Ge, H., Moisture Response of Sheathing Board in Conventional
and Rain-Screen Wall Systems with Shiplap Cladding, J. Test. Eval., Vol. 39, No. 3.
doi:10.1520/JTE102973.
Copyright 2011 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
131
132 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Introduction
Field Experiment
Test Facility
The experimental study is being carried out at BCIT BETF photo shown in Fig.
1. The research facility is designed to evaluate the hygrothermal performance
of full-scale building envelope assemblies under simulated indoor and real cli-
matic outdoor conditions. The 44 28 ft2 two-story structure can accommo-
date in total 62 4 8 ft2 1.2 2.4 m2 panels. The panels are removable, al-
lowing for ease of implementation of any type or location of testing required.
Two mechanical systems are tted within the facility allowing the separation of
interior spaces into two conditioned horizontal zones, thus allowing control of
the indoor boundary conditions, namely, temperature and relative humidity, at
the desired values. Each system can maintain indoor temperature within the
range of 18 26 C, with a precision of 2 C, and relative humidity within the
range of 4080 %, with a precision of 5 %. The facility is equipped with a data
acquisition system with over 600 channels, allowing for the monitoring of hy-
grothermal conditions within wall assemblies including temperature, relative
humidity, MC, heat ux, air velocity, wind-induced pressure, and incidence of
condensation and rain penetration. The facility is also equipped with a weather
station mounted on the rooftop of the facility to measure the outdoor boundary
conditions including wind speed, wind direction, solar radiation on both hori-
zontal and vertical surfaces, and horizontal rainfall. Driving rain on wall sur-
faces is also collected. More information about this facility can be found in Ref
16.
of the 2 6 in.2 38 140 mm2 wood-frame test panels from exterior to inte-
rior, in sequence, is as follows: Horizontal shiplap ber cement siding, two
layers of 30 min rated asphalt-impregnated building papers as a weather bar-
rier, 12.5 mm plywood as a sheathing board, 138 mm glass ber insulation,
6-mil polyethylene sheet as a vapor and air barrier, and interior nish gypsum
board, 12.5 mm. The rain-screen wall has a 19 mm air gap between the sheath-
ing membrane and cladding. The schematic diagrams of the vertical cross-
sections of the conventional and rain-screen walls, along with the correspond-
ing sensors that are installed to measure the MC and temperature of the
plywood, are shown in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively.
The cores of the test walls including framing, insulation, polyethylene
sheet, and plywood sheathing were fabricated and instrumented in a controlled
environment in mid-June 2008, and therefore, a good workmanship has been
achieved. The test panels were stored inside the shop for about 1 month before
being installed on the test facility, therefore, the initial MC of plywood sheath-
ing boards and wood-frame members can be deemed uniform. The building
TARIKU AND GE, doi:10.1520/JTE102973 135
papers, the cladding ber cement siding, and the interior layer gypsum
board were installed after the walls were in place on the test facility. To provide
the thermal and moisture separation from the surrounding existing walls, the
polyethylene sheet was wrapped around the edge of the stud to overlap with the
building papers. The 2 in. gap between each test wall was tted with rigid
insulation and sealed to the side with sealant and backing rod.
To measure the MCs of the plywood during the monitoring periods at dif-
ferent heights, three pairs of moisture pins were installed on each test panel
from the inside along its center line. The three moisture measurement points
were at the lower, middle, and upper position, more specically, at the one-
quarter, half, and three-quarter wall height. Figures 2 and 3 show the locations
of the moisture pins along with the thermocouple, which were installed at the
middle height of the wall. In addition to providing information about the ther-
136 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
mal responses of the two wall systems, the thermocouple readings are used for
conversion of the three electrical resistance measurements of the correspond-
ing wall systems. The MC measurement system was developed and calibrated
in the building science laboratory of BCIT with an accuracy of 2 % in the range
of 625 % MC. This system was used in a previous study 14, in which both
gravimetric and moisture pin measurements were taken and the discrepancy is
within 2 % 12.
30-gauge premier grade type T copper and constantan thermocouple
wires were used to measure temperature. They were calibrated by using an
isothermal bath accuracy of 0.1 C with Agilent Switch Unit model 34970A
at three different temperatures: 10, 20, and 30 C. The system measurement
accuracy is 0.5 C. The MCs of plywood and stud were measured by using
electric moisture pins. The moisture pins are stainless steel screws and, using
gravimetric samples, the measuring system was calibrated to a range of 625 %
for plywood and 730 % for wood stud with an accuracy of 2 %. The MC and
temperature measurements are scanned every 5 min and recorded by the data
acquisition system.
Climatic Conditions
The test panels are exposed to Vancouver weather conditions on the exterior
and controlled indoor temperature and relative humidity conditions on their
interior surfaces. The local outdoor climatic conditions including temperature,
relative humidity, wind speed and direction, global solar radiation, and hori-
zontal rainfall are measured with a weather station that is mounted on the
rooftop of the BETF. The wind-driven rain that impinges the test panels is also
measured with a rain gauge that is vertically mounted adjacent to the test
panels. The measured climatic conditions are presented and discussed in the
Results and Discussion section.
The indoor temperature and relative humidity conditions are controlled by
thermostat and humidistat, respectively. The temperature set point is 21 C and
has been kept constant throughout the monitoring period. The test facility is
equipped with humidication systems and it is possible to control the indoor
relative humidity during the Winter period. But, as can be seen in Fig. 4, the
indoor relative humidity during the Summer period is considerably higher than
the set point of 40 %. This is due to the fact that the ventilation fan was con-
tinuously running and there is no dehumidication unit to remove the excess
moisture. Moreover, the moisture removal by the air conditioning unit might
have been limited due to the mild outdoor temperature and part-load operation
of the equipment, which generally happens in mild, wet climates like Vancou-
ver. The maximum relative humidity inside the BETF during the Summer pe-
riod was 71 %, which was recorded on July 28, 2009.
tion. Thus, the MC and temperature of the plywood in the two different wall
systems are discussed.
Figure 5 shows the MC of the sheathing board in the conventional wall
system. The MC of the plywood at the upper position is consistently higher
than at the middle and lower positions. In fact, until the end of April, the MC at
the upper position is higher than the 19 % MC level that is recommended to
avoid moisture related durability problems. In the rst two months, the ply-
wood was in a slow drying process. During this period, the indoor temperature
and relative humidity were relatively stable at 21 C and 36 %, respectively Fig.
4, and the exterior surfaces of the walls were exposed to ten wind-driven rain
events all under 0.1 mm/h, Fig. 6, higher outdoor relative humidity Fig. 7
and low solar radiation Fig. 8, which might have contributed to slow drying of
the sheathing board. The drying process accelerated in the month of May as the
ambient temperature Fig. 7 and solar radiation increased. The MC changes in
the plywood during the Summer months of June and July were minimal. This
is expected since the material was relatively dry and further drying was a very
slow process. During this period, the ambient temperature and solar radiation
FIG. 5MC of the sheathing board plywood in the conventional wall system at the
lower, middle, and upper positions.
138 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
FIG. 6The hourly wind-drive rain load on the test walls collected by a wind-driven
rain gauge next to the test panels.
as well as the indoor relative humidity were rather high, and there were no
wind-driven rain events see Fig. 4 and Figs. 68. The effect of indoor vapor
pressure on the drying process is expected to be low since there is a 6-mil
polyethylene sheet behind the interior layer gypsum board and good work-
manship was achieved in constructing the test wall. The MC of the plywood
starts to increase at the beginning of August and continues through the Winter
period. The plywoods MC increase during the late Summer and Fall seasons is
due to the reduction in the ambient temperature and solar radiation, which
reduce the plywood temperature, coupled with the presence of relatively humid
air.
As can been seen in Fig. 5, the MC difference between the upper and lower
positions on March 13 is about 4 %. The difference slowly decreases, reaching
the lowest value of 2 % at the end of July, and then increases during the Fall
season to 3 %. The MC of the plywood at the middle section is slightly higher
FIG. 7The daily average outdoor air temperature and relative humidity.
TARIKU AND GE, doi:10.1520/JTE102973 139
FIG. 8The hourly average and daily total horizontal global solar radiation.
than at the lower section. The difference in MC between upper and middle
positions is slightly higher than that between middle and lower positions. A
number of factors may have contributed to the vertical prole of MC in ply-
wood such as convection loop within insulation cavity, higher moisture expo-
sure on cladding at the upper level due to wind-driven rain, and under-cooling
induced surface condensation; however, further investigation is required before
the actual cause can be identied. Tables 1 and 2 show the maximum and
minimum MC readings, as well as the maximum MC changes, observed during
the drying March 13 to Aug. 1, 2009 and wetting August 1 to Dec. 6, 2009
periods, respectively. Although the lowest MC reading during the drying period
Table 1 is at the lower position 5.8 %, the drying rate is higher at the upper
section of the plywood 14.4 %. During the wetting period, the upper position
also has a higher wetting rate 8.1 % compared to the lower and middle posi-
tions 6.1 % and 6.6 %, respectively.
Figure 9 shows the drying rates of the upper and middle positions of the
plywood. The drying rates are relatively high during the month of May and
June. The maximum drying rate is 0.19 % per day corresponding to May 26,
2009, and decreases as the plywood gets drier below 70 % relative humidity.
In general, the upper section of the plywood shows a relatively higher drying
rate in July and a higher wetting rate in October as compared to the middle
section.
Figure 10 shows the hourly and daily average temperature measurements
of the plywoods interior surface at the middle section. The daily average am-
bient air temperature is also superimposed on the gure. During the March 13
TABLE 1Extreme MCs of plywood sheathing in conventional test wall during the drying
period March 13 to August 1.
TABLE 2Extreme MCs of plywood sheathing in conventional test wall during the wetting
period August 1 to December 6.
FIG. 10Plywoods interior surface and outdoor air temperatures in the conventional
wall system.
tials of the plywood in the two wall systems. Figures 12 and 13 show the daily
average MC and the drying rate curves of the plywood in the conventional and
rain-screen wall systems, respectively. Although the plywood in the rain-screen
wall starts with slightly higher MC, by June 4 it reaches lower MC compared to
the conventional wall due to its higher drying rate as shown in Fig. 13. The
higher drying rate might be the result of extra moisture removal from the wall
by the airow through the gap between the sheathing membrane and the clad-
ding. During this period March 13 to June 4, the daily average MC of the
ambient air, shown in Fig. 14, is below 8.0 g/kg, and can potentially remove
moisture from the moist sheathing membrane and thereby result in lower MC
in the plywood.
Figure 15 shows the monthly total wind-driven rain on the prevailing wind-
driven rain direction southeast and test wall direction northwest for March
to November 2009. Since the test walls discussed in this paper were installed in
the northwest orientation, which is opposite to the prevailing wind-driven di-
rection, the amount of the wind-driven rain that impinges the exterior surfaces
FIG. 11Transient MC of the sheathing board plywood in the rain-screen wall system
at the lower, middle, and upper positions.
142 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
FIG. 12MC of the plywood in the conventional and rain-screen wall systems data
presented is the daily average of the middle location.
of the test walls is signicantly lower in most cases under 0.1 mm/h and, in
some months, none at all. For example, between April 26 and September 8 see
Fig. 6, the test walls were not exposed to wind-driven rain load, although there
were rain events during the same period of time as shown in Fig. 16. Between
March 13 and December 6, 2009, the maximum wind-driven rain load is 0.95
mm/h, which is about one-seventh of the horizontal rain that is recorded in the
same rain event. The insignicant wind-driven rain exposure of the test walls
suggests that the prominent effect of the air gap in the experimental study
reported here might be more on providing cavity ventilation than providing
capillary break or drainage. The effect of the air gap in walls in other orienta-
tions or climatic conditions can be different, and possibly result in higher varia-
tions of moisture accumulation between the conventional and rain-screen wall
systems than observed in this study.
During the following two months June 4 to August 4, the drying rate of
the plywood in the rain-screen wall is lower than in the conventional wall see
Fig. 13. This effect is also probably related to the airow through the cavity in
FIG. 13Drying rate curves of the plywood in the conventional and rain-screen wall
systems middle location.
TARIKU AND GE, doi:10.1520/JTE102973 143
FIG. 14The daily averaged absolute humidity ratio of the outdoor air.
such a way that the air that ow through the cavity during the Summer period
has high vapor pressure as reected in Fig. 14 as high humidity ratio with a
maximum value of 13 g/kg on July 26 and can also have had the effect of
cooling the plywood Fig. 18 and thereby reducing the drying capacity of the
plywood by vapor diffusion. During the wetting period after August 4, the MC
of the plywood in the rain-screen wall increases more than the conventional
wall. Also, the heat gain due to solar radiation and ambient temperature, as
well as the plywood temperature, are continuously decreasing, which may fa-
cilitate moisture accumulation as the moist air ows through the cavity. The
drying rate curve see Fig. 13 shows further increase in the wetting rate of the
plywood in the rain-screen wall in the month of November
To assess the long-term moisture responses of the sheathing boards in the
two wall systems, the experimental study was extended for another 6 months
December 2009 to June 2010. The MC of the middle section of the sheathing
boards in the conventional and rain-screen wall systems during the 15 months
monitoring period are presented in Fig. 17. Similar to the discussion already
FIG. 15Wind-driven rain on the prevailing wind-driven rain direction southeast and
test wall direction northwest.
144 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
FIG. 16The hourly rainfall horizontal rain measured at the roof top of the BETF.
FIG. 17MC of plywood sheathing boards in the conventional and rain-screen wall
systems from March 13, 2009, to June 15, 2010.
TARIKU AND GE, doi:10.1520/JTE102973 145
FIG. 18Temperature difference between the plywood in the rain-screen and conven-
tional wall systems and the daily total solar radiation.
tion is also plotted. As can be observed from the gure, the temperature differ-
ence in the two walls seems to depend on the magnitude of solar radiation.
When the solar radiation is low, so is the temperature difference. Moreover, at
high solar radiation the plywood in the rain-screen wall has a relatively lower
temperature than the plywood in the conventional wall system. Since there was
no airow measuring probe installed in the current experiment, it was not
possible to verify whether higher solar radiation increases cavity ventilation
and, consequently, results in cooling of the plywood. In theory, cavity ventila-
tion may result in cooling or heating of the sheathing layer when the exterior
surface of the cladding receives high solar radiation or loses signicant heat by
long-wave radiation heat exchange with the sky and surroundings, respectively.
This is because the ambient temperature will be lower compared to the sheath-
ing layers during high solar gain, and the converse is true for the case of sig-
nicant heat loss by long-wave radiation. At low or an absence of solar radia-
tion, the latter may dominate and may result in a relatively higher temperature
reading in the rain-screen wall sheathing layer compared to the conventional
wall. In the result presented in Fig. 18, the hourly average temperature of the
plywood in the rain-screen wall is higher than in the conventional wall for 75 %
of the monitoring period. The temperature deviations of the two wall systems
during this part of the monitoring period are relatively small less than 3.5 C.
During the rest of the monitoring period, the temperature differences are rela-
tively high and occur between 4 p.m. and 7 p.m. in the afternoon, which may be
associated to the high solar radiation that reaches the test walls as they are
oriented in the northwest direction. At this time, the ambient air will be at a
lower temperature compared to the sheathing layer temperature and may pro-
vide cooling to the sheathing layer as it passes through the rain-screen wall air
gap.
Conclusion
An experimental study of the drying and wetting processes of the sheathing
boards in the conventional and rain-screen wall systems was carried out at
146 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
BCITs eld exposure test facility. Similar drying and wetting processes are
observed in both wall systems. For the wall types, orientations, climatic condi-
tions, and monitoring period considered in the study, the MCs of plywood at
the middle and lower positions have relatively low MC readings compared to
the upper position, but the upper position has the highest drying rates and
reaches the same MC level as the other two positions at the beginning of the
Summer season. An analysis of the drying and wetting of the sheathing boards
suggests that the plywood in the rain-screen wall has a tendency of faster dry-
ing and wetting in the Spring and Fall seasons, respectively, in comparison to
the plywood in the conventional wall. The airow through the air gap in the
rain-screen wall system might have facilitated the drying and wetting pro-
cesses. But, in the Summer, the plywood in both wall systems dried to about the
same level of MC.
In the experimental study reported here, the prominent effect of the air gap
in the rain-screen wall system might be more on providing cavity ventilation
than providing capillary break or drainage since the wall systems were exposed
to wind-driven rain loads of low magnitude. The effect of the air gap in walls in
other orientations, cladding type or climatic conditions can be different, and
possibly result in higher variations of moisture accumulation between the con-
ventional and rain-screen wall systems than observed in this study.
Acknowledgments
The writers would like to acknowledge the nancial support received from the
School of Construction and the Environment, BCIT, and Pacic Building Sys-
tems and the assistance of Stephen Roy and Wendy Ye.
References
Background
Moisture control is paramount when designing and constructing a building.
According to the Builders Guide to Hot-Humid Climates 1, controlling mois-
ture effects on exterior building walls is the most important factor in making a
structure durable. Creating an effective drainage plane requires the seamless
Manuscript received January 15, 2010; accepted for publication August 14, 2010; pub-
lished online October 2010.
1
Academic Magnet High School, Charleston, SC 29407.
Cite as: Stamatiades, G. P., Investigation of the Condensation Potential Between Wood
Windows and Sill Pans in a Warm, Humid Climate, J. Test. Eval., Vol. 39, No. 2.
doi:10.1520/JTE102970.
Copyright 2011 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
148
STAMATIADES, doi:10.1520/JTE102970 149
Hypothesis
This thesis explores condensation on metal sill pans in hot/humid climates and
the potential for decay of wood windows. The following sections will discuss
the science behind the thesis, the experimental set-up, the ndings, and the
subsequent implications Figs. 321.
Scientic Basis
Since this thesis relies upon observations of condensation and its inuence
upon materials, it is critical to have an understanding of the science behind it.
STAMATIADES, doi:10.1520/JTE102970 151
FIG. 3Psychrometric chart. Notice how the dot at 75F has a RH of 50 %. As the
temperature decreases represented by the arrow, the RH increases.
Condensation is directly related to the properties and behavior of air. The eld
of science associated with this topic is known as psychrometrics.
Psychrometrics
The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engi-
neers ASHRAE 5 denes psychrometrics as the science that deals with the
thermodynamic properties of moist air and uses these properties to analyze
conditions and processes involving moist air. ASHRAE 5 notes that there are
three types of air compositions: atmospheric air, dry air, and moist air. Atmo-
spheric air is the most common type: it includes the typical gasses that com-
pose air along with water vapor and all of the contaminants found in air. Dry
air contains only the gasses typically found in air, while moist air is dry air with
water vapor added. Thus, air is typically mixed with water vapor. The amount
of water vapor that exists in air, known as humidity, depends on the tempera-
ture and pressure of the air. When moist air is saturated with humidity at a
relative humidity RH of 100 %, condensation results. Excessive condensation
occurring on moisture sensitive materials may cause decay.
152 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Weather in Charleston
According to the exterior insulation and nishing system EIFS performance
study 8, Charleston has very warm summers, with daytime dry bulb tempera-
tures typically ranging in the 90s. Coupled with this, the RH in the atmosphere
is typically above 50 %. As these weather conditions indicate, Charleston has a
hot and humid climate, specically a mixed, coastal, Zone 3 climate 8.
These climate zones were dened by the U.S. Department of Energy to aid
engineers with energy efcient designs of buildings.
Methodology
signed for testing building materials in walls, such as insulation and vapor
retarders, as it is equipped for collecting numerical data, such as temperature
and moisture content. The EIFS performance study 8 expands on this by
writing that up to now, what has been lacking is a full understanding of the
hygrothermal temperature and moisture performance of all types of wall sys-
tems for typical climactic effect, such as wind driven rain, rainwater penetra-
tion, condensation, solar and night sky radiation, wind speed, and site/wall
orientation. This is attributed to the lack of data and research on this particu-
lar area, so the NET Facility was created. According to the EIFS performance
study 8, the building has computers that log data hourly. The recorded data is
then sent to Oak Ridge National Laboratory ORNL and processed 8.
ORNL was gracious enough to allow this experiment to be conducted at the
NET Facility, which is an ideal building since it is located in a hot and humid
environment. The facility has 30 interchangeable wall panels that can be exten-
sively instrumented to measure thermal and moisture performance character-
154 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
istics. One panel on the northwest elevation had been previously used to assess
the performance of a prototype window, but the testing was completed several
years ago. This panel was modied to work with a new wood window; the
exterior cladding was removed, and the rough opening was adjusted to accom-
modate the test window.
Window Installation
Once the panel construction was modied, a spun bonded polyolen weather
resistive barrier WRB membrane was placed over the opening, and it was
subsequently cut and folded to comply with the manufacturers installation
instructions. The membrane was weather lapped with existing WRB layers
above and below the window opening.
A metal sill pan was custom made for this window opening. Care was taken
to bend the metal to provide leak-proof corners where the end dams and back
dams met. Consequently, when water was poured on the sill pan during a test,
the water was unable to leak past the back and end dam intersections. It owed
toward the exterior as desired. The sill pan was then bedded into several beads
of plastic sealant. Self-adhering exible ashing was wrapped around the rough
jambs and lapped into the pan at the end dams. This conguration ensures that
water leaking past the window is directed to the pan for drainage to the exte-
rior.
The window was then placed into the rough opening and shimmed to en-
sure that it was plumb, level, and square. Next, it was secured through the head
and jamb members. Rigid ashing was placed over the window head to shield
the window and to direct water on the WRB to the exterior. Insulation was
installed within the cavities along the head and jambs. Additional ashing tape
and sealant were applied between the rough opening and the window to ensure
that the installation was leak proof and airtight on the exterior and interior,
respectively.
Lastly, the exterior of the test panel was nished with vinyl siding. This
acted as an exterior cladding that would screen the panel from undesirable
environmental conditions 9. In conjunction with the installation, RH, tem-
perature, and moisture content sensors were placed on various components in
order to obtain data. A more detailed description of the sensor placement is
given on the following page.
Data Collection
With these sensors, computers collected the corresponding data at hourly in-
tervals. This data was then sent electronically to the researcher via e-mail for
conversion, organization, and analysis. Data collection began immediately after
the window installation was completed. From February to September, data was
recorded every hour of every day with one exception. A power failure caused an
FIG. 11Sensor placement picture and diagram. The lower shaded region represents
the sill pan. The upper shaded region represents the underside of the window sill.
STAMATIADES, doi:10.1520/JTE102970 157
interruption in data collection from June 19 to June 30. Retrieved data was
ultimately organized in Microsofts Excel, and corresponding graphs were
made within the same software.
cavity under the sill, the exterior dewpoint of the exterior, and the surface RH at
the point T1 in Fig. 11.
remaining dates, rain was reported the day prior. This may be the reason for
the surge in moisture content on these particular days. However, on May 7 and
September 3, no rain was even reported the day before. Hence, an explanation
is needed for the spike in moisture content.
Two additional items of interest can be gathered from this graph. First, a
trend line shown in the graph as the black line peaks in the summer and
decreases as the winter approaches, indicating that the moisture content fol-
lows a seasonal trend rather than an accumulative trend. Second, there are
some noticeable divergent spikes in the graph between the two moisture con-
tent pins, MC1 and MC2. This shows that moisture was greater at one end of
the sill pan, indicating that water leakage, rather than atmospheric properties
in the cavity, may have caused this increase.
FIG. 17RH at sensor RH1 from February to September. Trend line is a second order
polynomial.
though the RH values of these areas surged over 80 % in some instances, they
were quite brief, and a longer period of time under this condition would have
been required to promote mold growth. This low RH value may be attributed to
signicant interior air leakage which the researcher attempted to prevent. The
data indicated that leakage into the cavity occurred since the air properties of
both zones matched quite often, resulting in the oscillations seen in the graphs.
Hence, further research is needed, for the possibility of sill pan condensation in
conditions without interior air leakage still exists. It is especially interesting to
note that the exterior air and cavity air were very similar until the interior air
leakage began. Thus, if the interior air leakage had never occurred, the trend in
the beginning would have continued, and the outcome of the experiment may
have been entirely different.
A few improvements could have been made regarding the experiment. An
air leakage test of the window before and after the data collection period would
have provided insight on the air tightness of the assembly and would have
helped to determine if air leakage was a substantial factor in the experiment.
Also, recording manometers could have been used to collect data regarding the
air pressure differences between the interior, the cavity, and the exterior. These
two steps could have proven whether or not the interior air leakage mentioned
above was a factor. Additional steps could have been taken to reduce the air
leakage during the experiment.
One topic to reect upon is the inherent limitations for this experiment.
Unfortunately, only one panel was available for usage at the NET Facility. A
STAMATIADES, doi:10.1520/JTE102970 163
FIG. 18RH at sensor RH2 from February to September. Trend line is a second order
polynomial.
second concurrent window test would have been ideal, for this could further
validate the data collected. This would have also increased the chances of col-
lecting data from an installation that was not affected by interior air leakage.
Furthermore, an experiment that could have tested the effectiveness of differ-
ent designs/congurations and that was least susceptible to high moisture con-
tent levels and high RH levels would have been excellent. This may be an idea
for future research. Lastly, time was a limitation on the experiment: ideally, the
experiment should have collected data for another year to see if moisture con-
tent increased year over year. This would show that while the moisture content
trend is seasonal, it may also be accumulative to a certain degree.
Although sill pan induced condensation did not occur as often as expected,
the possibility still exists that it may occur often enough in an airtight window
assembly to cause mold growth. Had interior air leakage been eliminated in
this experiment, the results could have been much different. Additional re-
search on this topic could contribute useful data to the engineering eld.
Acknowledgments
The writer would like to thank ORNL for allowing him to use their facility and
equipment. The writer would also like to thank his advisor, Mrs. Floyd, for her
help and guidance throughout this process. Finally, the writer would like to give
164 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
special thanks to his mentor, Mr. Larry Elkin, for his expertise, enthusiasm, and
patience from start to nish.
References
Manuscript received January 10, 2010; accepted for publication October 8, 2010; pub-
lished online November 2010.
1
Senior Architect, Raths, Raths, and Johnson RRJ, 835 Midway Dr., Willowbrook, IL
60527.
2
Principal, Raths, Raths, and Johnson, Inc. RRJ, 835 Midway Dr., Willowbrook, IL
60527.
Cite as: Flock, S. K. and Hall, G. D., Interior Metal Components and the Thermal
Performance of Window Frames, J. Test. Eval., Vol. 39, No. 3. doi:10.1520/JTE102968.
Copyright 2011 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
169
170 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Introduction
The term condensation is often misused and misunderstood with relation to
building performance. Condensation is the term used to represent the phase
change from vapor to liquid and forms when the surface temperature drops
below the dew point. Most people identify condensation as the fog that forms
on the bathroom mirror after a shower or the water droplets collecting on the
exterior surface of a cold glass on a hot, humid day.
Hygroscopic building materials such as precast concrete or brick masonry
rarely experience the formation of condensation and liquid water accumulation
when surface temperatures fall below the dew point. In these cases, the sorp-
tion of water vapor into the material becomes bound water and results in an
increase in the moisture content. Consequently, the moisture content of these
hygroscopic building materials is in constant ux due to sorption and desorp-
tion as the indoor and outdoor environments change 1. In many cases, the
sorption of moisture vapor from the surrounding air can be accommodated by
building assemblies without detriment. However, these same materials can ex-
perience frost formation when the exposed surface temperatures are simulta-
neously below freezing and the dew point. The accumulation and subsequent
thawing of the frost can contribute to damage to building materials.
Nonporous surfaces, such as glazing and frame components, can also pro-
duce condensation or frost formation that may contribute to localized deterio-
ration of building components, as well as reduce the overall system perfor-
mance. Although this problem can occur on the interior of fenestration
products regardless of frame material, the problem is often most prevalent with
metal frames. As a result, remedial measures are commonly required to alter or
modify the window details after installation. In the authors experience, repairs
that involve window removal to correct and mitigate condensation formation
can become costly and disruptive to occupants. Therefore, an effort to control
the condensation formation while the windows are in place is often a desirable
option. This paper will explore the affect of in situ repair efforts to raise the
interior surface temperatures of metal window frames to prevent surface con-
densation formation. Understanding the prevention of condensation formation
also relies on a basic knowledge of heat transfer mechanisms, dew point, meth-
ods of reducing heat transfer, and thermal performance ratings.
Heat Transfer
Heat ow occurs across the building envelope as the thermal energy tries to
reach equilibrium by moving from higher to lower temperatures. Heat is trans-
ferred through a wall or window system by a variety of means including con-
duction, convection, and radiation. The aforementioned heat transfer mecha-
nisms are dened as follows.
Conduction is the transfer of heat due to direct molecular contact within
a homogenous material or multiple materials. The rate at which this
transfer occurs depends on the conductivity of the materials or assem-
blies through which it ows and the temperature differential across the
materials 2.
FLOCK AND HALL, doi:10.1520/JTE102968 171
Dew Point
Water will condense out of moist air and form frost or water droplets on a
nonporous surface when the surface temperature drops below dew point. The
dew point temperature for moist air is determined by the temperature and
moisture content of the air as measured by relative humidity RH. RH is the
ratio of water vapor in the air at a specic temperature to the maximum
amount that air can hold at that temperature and is expressed as a percentage.
Frame Materials
The conductivity of the material selected for the window construction has a
direct inuence on the surface temperature of the frame. For commercial and
high-rise residential design, aluminum emerged as the window and curtain
wall framing material of choice due to its favorable framing characteristics,
structural properties, and density. However, one drawback of metal window
frames is the signicant increase in the thermal conductivity in comparison to
wood, vinyl, and berglass. Based on the generic material properties published
in the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engi-
neers ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, the conductivity value for alumi-
172 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
num is 1526 Btu in. / h F ft2, in comparison to 0.063 Btu in. / h F ft2 for
wood and 2.8 Btu in. / h F ft2 for vinyl 3. Although, the conductivity rates
can vary as a result of temperature changes; higher conductivity values ulti-
mately result in greater heat transfer and corresponding heat loss. In addition,
the conductivity rate of solid materials is only one factor among many contrib-
uting to condensation formation.
Because window frames with high conductivity rates conduct heat more
readily from the interior to the exterior, interruptions or breaks are now pro-
vided in the cross-sections of the aluminum framing members to reduce the
heat ow and improve the interior frame temperatures. First introduced in the
1950s, the use of a poured-and-debridged thermal break, became one method
of overcoming the higher conductivity values associated with aluminum. Due
to a number of performance issues, such as thermal break shrinkage, manufac-
turers have further rened and improved the traditional technologies in recent
years, incorporating the use of thermal struts and polyamide in many newer
window products.
Glazing Materials
Prior to the 1960s, the windows installed in most buildings were glazed with a
single pane of glass. During Winter in northern climates, storm windows were
often installed in conjunction with single panes to address thermal issues and
reduce air inltration. As a result, signicant improvements for transparent
glazing components stemmed from assembling multiple glass panes into one
unit. These congurations are identied as insulating glass units or IGUs. The
addition of each air pocket and glazing material can result in a reduction of
thermal transfer. Although, double panes are the most common, triple glazed
products are sometimes used when the desire for increased energy efciency
exists. Continued developments with surface coatings i.e., low-e have also
improved the performance of IGUs. Increased thermal benets may also be
achieved by incorporating gas lls in the space between panes, such as argon or
krypton. However, concerns exist with gas lling practices and their mainte-
nance over time.
Spacers
The element that separates the panes of glass in an insulated glass unit is
known as the edge spacer. At one time, non-thermally broken aluminum box
spacers were used; however, the high thermal conductivity of aluminum cre-
ated greater heat loss at the edges of the IGU. This led to improvements in
spacers, commonly referred to as warm edge technology. Warm edge technol-
ogy can be achieved by a variety of materials and congurations including, but
not limited to, desiccated matrix, thermally broken aluminum, and thermally
improved stainless steel. A sealant is used in combination with spacer technolo-
gies at the perimeter of the glazing unit. Butyl, silicone, and urethane products
have all been utilized in an attempt to create durable seals; however, the overall
performance and durability of the seal system can be dependent on implement-
ing good workmanship during fabrication.
FLOCK AND HALL, doi:10.1520/JTE102968 173
Interior Relative
Humiditya % Dew Point F C
10 13.26 10.4
20 27.7 2.4
30 37.2 2.9
40 44.6 7.0
50 50.5 10.3
a
Using 70 F 21 C as the interior temperature.
Installation Details
The design of opaque walls and their integration with fenestrations also di-
rectly affect the thermal performance of window units. For example, the tem-
perature of the cavity air within a brick veneer wall may be close to that of the
exterior air. During Winter months, if the window frame is directly exposed to
the cold, cavity air, the surface temperatures at the frame can be lowered. Often
times, attempts at controlling low surface temperatures at the frame, as well as
subsequent condensation formation, involves the application of insulating
components and/or air seals adjacent to the fenestration product. The intent of
insulation is to prevent the heat migration away from the window components,
as well as provide an air barrier from cold cavity air. However, inappropriately
placed insulation can also have a detrimental effect, serving to preclude the
interior heat from reaching the building components susceptible to condensa-
tion formation.
Operating Conditions
Building operations can also have a substantial effect on fenestration perfor-
mance. Even though measures are incorporated to maintain relatively consis-
tent temperatures and interior RH within many facilities, this condition may
not be practical in all cases. In buildings with higher indoor humidity require-
ments or spaces where control is not provided, an elevated interior humidity
can contribute to moisture problems. As the RH increases, the dew point raises,
resulting in an greater potential for condensation or frost at exterior walls and
fenestration products. As shown in Table 1, when the interior temperature is
70 F 21.1 C and the interior RH is 30 %, the dew point is 37.2 F 2.9 C.
However, when the interior temperature is 70 F 21.1 C and the interior RH
is reduced to 20 %, the dew point is 27.7 F 2.4 C. A RH of 30 % may be
typical of a hospital operating room with mechanical humidication, whereas
20 % may be closer to that of an ofce space.
Heat Source
Heated air will fall as it cools due to natural convection. This phenomenon can
produce stratication along cold walls and windows, as well as contribute to
colder air temperatures at the sill. In the past, the installation of radiators
174 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Reducing heat loss in residential structures rst gained attention in the 1970s
due to the high costs associated with energy use. This desire for enhanced
energy efciency led to advancements in wall assembly materials such as insu-
lation with higher R-values, windows with lower U-factors, as well as higher
condensation resistance factors CRFs. R-value is the measure of thermal re-
sistance. However, fenestration products are not accurately rated by R-values
due to the effects of solar radiation and air transfer. The U-factor
Btu/ h F ft2, also known as thermal transmittance, accounts for more
variables than the R-value and is typically associated with fenestration prod-
ucts. The U-factor is the total heat transfer based on conduction, convection,
and thermal radiation. In simplest terms, the lower the U-factor, the lower the
rate of heat transfer, and U-factors for windows are typically found between
0.20 and 1.20. However, windows are not homogeneous products; therefore, the
U-factor of the specimen is not constant across the sill, jamb, sash, or glazing.
Various test methods are available to obtain specimen U-factor including
AAMA 1503.1-97, Voluntary Test Method for Thermal Transmittance and Conden-
sation Resistance of Windows, Doors and Glazed Wall Sections 4, ASTM C1199,
Standard Test Method for Measuring the Steady-State Thermal Transmittance of
Fenestration Systems Using Hot Box Methods 5, and NFRC 100, Procedure for
Determining Fenestration Product U-Factors 6. These test methods standardize
specimen size, test conditions, instrumentation products, and calibration tech-
niques required to produce the U-factor of a fenestration product. The thermo-
couples are used to measure the interior surface temperatures of the frame and
glass of standard-sized window specimens. The U-factor is then calculated
based on the average difference between the warm and cold sides relative to the
time rate of heat ow. These test standards are intended to evaluate the perfor-
mance of the window product alone.
The CRF was established by American Architectural Manufacturers Asso-
FLOCK AND HALL, doi:10.1520/JTE102968 175
Surface Temperature,
Conditiona F C
Window 1, without n 37.7 3.2
Window 1, with n 3.5 in. vertical leg 43.0 6.1
Window 1, with n 5.5 in. vertical leg 46.6 8.1
Window 1, with n 3.5 in. vertical leg
and thermally conductive paste 42.7 5.9
Window 2, without n 40.5 4.7
Window 2, with n 3.5 in. vertical leg 44.8 7.1
Window 2, with n 5.5 in. vertical leg 47.5 8.6
Window 2, with n 3.5 in. vertical leg
and thermally conductive paste 44.4 6.9
a
Using 10 F 12 C and 70 F 21 C as boundary conditions.
States in residential and light commercial structures and, based on many build-
ing investigations, have experienced interior condensation problems at the
frame. Window 1 measures 25 3/4 in. 64.4 cm wide by 38 in. 96.5 cm high.
The frame extrusion is 41/ 2 in. 11.4 cm deep and is fastened to the wood
buck surround at the jambs only. The window does not incorporate a nailing
ange or other accessory components. Window 2 measures 23 in. 58.4 cm
wide by 36 in. 91.4 cm high, and the frame extrusion is 3 1/2 in. 8.9 cm in
depth. Again, the window is fastened to the adjacent construction at the jambs
only and did not incorporate a nailing ange. No solar sheeting or low-e coat-
ings were utilized at either window specimen.
In this study, the authors used an outdoor temperature of 10 F 12 C as
the exterior temperature for the simulations. This temperature value was se-
lected to coincide with the lower limit of the measured outdoor temperatures
during the initial mockup. This temperature falls between the 99 % heating dry
bulb exterior design temperature for suburban Chicago of 0 F 17.8 C as
published by ASHRAE 2 and the average minimum temperature of 20 F
6.7 C during the month of January 13.
Several iterations of installation details with and without interior ns at the
windowsills were modeled. The metal n detailed in the simulation was in
direct contact with the frame and with the application of thermal conductive
paste. The results of the simulations at the sill section of windows are listed in
Table 2. For the purpose of comparing the results of the various computer
simulations, the results are characterized by the surface temperature at the
lower edge of the sill frame. As indicated by the results, the application of a
metal n at the interior produced increased surface temperatures at the win-
dow frames. Additionally, increasing the size of the metal n resulted in an
additional rise in surface temperatures due to increased exposure to the inte-
rior heat. Therefore, if the results shown in Table 2 are compared against the
dew point conditions listed in Table 1, window 1 without the metal n may
result in condensation formation at an approximate interior RH of 30 % and
above. With the n in place, the surface temperatures are raised so that the
178 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Surface Temperature,
Conditiona F C
Window 1, without n 32.5 0.3
Window 1, with n 3.5 in. vertical leg 37.5 3.1
Window 1, with n 5.5 in. vertical leg 40.1 4.5
a
Using 0 F 17.8 C and 70 F 21 C as boundary conditions.
the metal n and reattached at the sill frame only. Data was collected in the
same manner as with the prior conguration.
The wall construction of the mockup chamber, from exterior to interior,
consisted of a weather-resistive barrier over wood sheathing, wood stud fram-
ing, and 2 in. expanded polystyrene insulation installed between framing mem-
bers. The windows were anchored to wood-frame surrounds and sealed to the
wood-frame members at the exterior and interior perimeters. It is the authors
experience that buildings often integrate windows into the wall system that are
ush with the cladding at the exterior, resulting in an interior recess at the
perimeter. The placement of the window and the presence of a return on the
interior can be signicant as it has a direct impact on the exposure of the
window frame to the interior heat source. Therefore, the mockup was cong-
ured with interior returns to evaluate the conditions often investigated for con-
densation problems. No nishes were installed at the interior of the mockup
chamber.
The exterior of the chamber was exposed to the elements during the Winter
climate in suburban Chicago Figs. 1 and 2. The exterior temperatures were
monitored with the use of thermocouples and recorded at regular intervals. The
mockup was oriented facing north so that the exterior of the windows was not
exposed to direct sunlight in an attempt to limit the effects of solar radiation
and heat gain. The interior of the mockup was heated by a radiant source
placed equidistant between both window units. No additional heating or venti-
lation was provided. The RH of the interior space was monitored; however, no
attempt at control was initiated as a part of this evaluation. The average inte-
rior RH in the hut for January and February was 18 %.
Thermocouples were installed at the interior of the window frames, and
surface temperatures were recorded at regular intervals. In order to compare
the surface temperatures of the window frames from one mockup congura-
tion to another, data points were selected at comparable interior and exterior
air temperatures. The baseline surface temperature data recorded at the win-
dowsill without the metal n in place were found to be generally representative
of the THERM models for window 1 and window 2 as shown in Table 4, when
180 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
the interior and exterior temperatures for these windows were similar to the
simulated boundary conditions.
The rst modication to the mockup windows consisted of the addition of
a metal n to the interior of the window frame. The n consisted of a 1-5 / 16
3-1 / 2 1 / 8 in.3 aluminum angle mechanically fastened to the frame using
self-tapping screws through the jambs at the top, middle, and bottom. Thermo-
couples were placed at the n, the adjacent jamb frame, and the unmodied
jamb without a n applied. The window temperatures shown in Figs. 3 and 4
were recorded. The temperatures enclosed within the parentheses are baseline
temperatures without the n installed, while the others are surface tempera-
tures with the n in place. The temperatures were veried with an infrared
thermometer and found to be in agreement with those obtained by the thermo-
couples.
The installation of the ns on both windows in the mockup identied the
relative temperature increases along the jamb of 3.2 3.9 F on window 1 with
a 4 1/2 in. frame section with the n in place. At window 2 with a 3 1/2 in
frame section, the temperature differentials with the n in place along the
jamb were 3 4.9 F. No impact on the sash and glazing temperatures were
noted upon the application of the n at the jamb in comparison to baseline
conditions; therefore, no further monitoring was performed on these compo-
nents. The installation of the ns on both windows in the mockup identied the
Surface Temperature,
Conditiona F C
Window 1, THERM 37.7 3.2
Window 1, chamber 37.9 3.3
Window 2, THERM 40.5 4.7
Window 2, chamber 40.5 4.7
a
Using 10 F 12 C and 70 F 21 C as boundary conditions.
FLOCK AND HALL, doi:10.1520/JTE102968 181
FIG. 5Window 1.
FLOCK AND HALL, doi:10.1520/JTE102968 183
FIG. 6Window 2.
at the jamb. The data reveals an improvement in heat transfer between the n
and the window frame with the thermally conductive paste applied between the
n and the frame.
The next conguration at the mockup windows consisted of the removal of
the jamb n and the addition of a metal n to the sill. The thermocouples were
again placed at the n and the adjacent frame. No monitoring was performed at
the head or jambs during this phase of the study. The following window tem-
peratures were recorded and again, the temperatures obtained with the n in
place at the sill of the mockup windows showed a relative improvement that
resulted in higher sill extrusion temperatures. The installation of the sill ns on
both windows in the mockup identied the temperature differences between
the n and frame to be 1.2 3.5 F at the sill on window 1 and 0.9 2.6 F at
window 2. However, THERM predicted less of a temperature difference be-
tween the n and the frame. The mockup was again modied to include the use
of a thermally conductive paste between the n and the window frame. The
addition of the thermally conductive paste at the interface between the n and
the frames reduced the temperature difference between the two components
and resulted in relative improvements closer to those suggested by THERM. By
using the thermally conductive paste, the temperature difference at the sill of
window 1 was reduced to 0.2 0.9 F, and at window 2, the temperature differ-
ence was reduced to 0.3 1.2 F at the sill. The temperatures enclosed within
the parentheses are baseline temperatures without the conductive paste in-
stalled, whereas the others are surface temperatures with paste Figs. 7 and 8.
Conclusions
The ndings described in this paper are intended to provide information for the
consideration of repair designers and consultants when modifying existing win-
dows that display condensation problems at the frame. However, further study
is needed to rene and understand other variables of this concept including the
184 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
achieving full contact between the remedial n and installed windows The ad-
dition of a thermally conductive paste between the remedial n and frame
resulted in a greater thermal improvement, closer to that of the computer simu-
lations, but also impacts the costs associated with remediation.
Although window conguration and installation can impact performance,
the exposed surface area of the n may also impact the relative temperature
increase at the frame. Increasing the exposed length of the n in THERM mod-
els to 5 1 / 2 in. 14 cm suggested a potential increase in frame temperatures
in comparison to window units without the n of 7 F 12.2 C to 9 F
12.7 C depending on the window conguration, in contrast to 4.3 F
15.4 C to 5.3 F 14.8 C with a 3 1/2 in. n. Covering the n with stools
or other interior nishes may be desirable for aesthetic concerns, but may
reduce the relative effectiveness of the n in improving surface temperatures on
the frame. For this reason, the use of stools, interior nishes at the window
return, or other materials that reduce the exposed window area should be ap-
proached with great care when attempting to increase the frame temperatures.
In conclusion, although the application of a metal n is not a substitute for
specifying appropriate products with good detailing in new construction, this
186 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
References
1 Rose, W., Water in Buildings: An Architects Guide to Moisture and Mold, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, 2005.
2 Straube, J. and Burnett, E., Building Science for Enclosures, Building Science
Press, Westford, MA, 2005.
3 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc.,
ASHRAE Handbook: 2001 Fundamentals, ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA, 2005.
4 AAMA 1503.1-97, 1998, Voluntary Test Method for Thermal Transmittance and
Condensation Resistance of Windows, Doors and Glazed Wall Sections, AAMA,
Schaumburg, IL.
5 ASTM C1199, 2000, Standard Test Method for Measuring the Steady-State Ther-
mal Transmittance of Fenestration Systems Using Hot Box Methods, Annual Book
of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.06, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, pp.
621639.
6 NFRC 100, 2001, Test Method for Determining U-Factors of Fenestration Sys-
tems, National Fenestration Rating Council, Silver Spring, MD.
7 AAMA 1502.3-1972, 1972, Voluntary Test Method for Condensation Resistance of
Windows, Doors and Glazed Window Sections, AAMA, Schaumburg, IL.
8 AAMA 1503.1-80, 1980, Voluntary Test Method for Thermal Transmittance and
Condensation Resistance of Windows, Doors and Glazed Wall Sections, AAMA,
Schaumburg, IL.
9 AAMA 1503-98, 1998, Voluntary Test Method for Thermal Transmittance and
Condensation Resistance of Windows, Doors, and Glazed Wall Sections, AAMA,
Schaumburg, IL.
10 NFRC 500, 2002, Procedure for Determining Fenestration Product Condensation
Resistance Values, National Fenestration Rating Council, Silver Spring, MD.
11 THERM 2.0: A PC Program for Analyzing the Two-Dimensional Heat Transfer
Through Building Products, LBL-40682. 1998. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory,
Windows and Daylighting Group, LBNL, Berkeley, CA.
12 WINDOW 5.0: User Manual, LBL-44780. 2001. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory,
Windows and Daylighting Group, LBNL, Berkeley, CA.
13 NOAA, Maximum/Minimum Temperature and Precipitation for Chicago, January
2008.
Reprinted from JTE, Vol. 39, No. 4
doi:10.1520/JTE102967
Available online at www.astm.org/JTE
Manuscript received January 10, 2010; accepted for publication October 19, 2010; pub-
lished online January 2011.
1
AIA, Associate, SmithGroup, Inc., Detroit, MI 48226.
2
FAIA, Principal, SmithGroup, Inc., Detroit, MI 48226.
3
P.E., Vice-President, SmithGroup, Inc., Detroit, MI 48226.
Cite as: Dunlap, A. A., Johnson, P. G. and Songer, C. A., Controlling Condensation
Through the Use of Active and Passive Glazing Systems, J. Test. Eval., Vol. 39, No. 4.
doi:10.1520/JTE102967.
Copyright 2011 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
187
188 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
formance of systems and materials, and this paper also describes both ac-
tive and passive technologies that have been successful in meeting these
needs. Passive design, through the use of high performance glazing, and
active technologies, such as heat tracing and heated glass, are considered.
Benets, risks, and appropriate uses of each are identied. Examples are
included to illustrate these approaches.
KEYWORDS: condensation, active glazing control, passive glazing
control, wall systems, high humidity, glazed exterior wall systems, con-
densation control, hygrothermal analysis, thermal analysis
Background
The following incorrect combinations of certain conditions can and often
does lead to signicant problems of condensation on and within exterior wall
glazing materials and assemblies Fig. 1. These combinations can include the
following:
Interior humidity
Interior temperature
Exterior temperature
Exterior humidity
Wall assemblies and materials
As a concept, it is a simple mix of common sense and physics; however, it is
a concept that is too often overlooked or misunderstood or simply ignored by
building designers, glazing system manufacturers, constructors, and building
owners.
This fundamental concept is the starting point for this discourse. Unfortu-
nately, it is also a concept that is not well understood nor adequately considered
by all who design, manufacture, and construct buildings and exterior glazed
wall systems and assemblies.
While these introductory statements may seem to be overly simplistic to
those familiar with these concepts as they apply to both buildings and exterior
wall design, our industry, design, and construction of buildings has known
about condensation for at least 60 years, and yet there is still confusion about
the physical realities of this issue and how to mitigate or control condensation.
In 1991 19 years ago!, Carlson wrote, Numerous books and technical
reports have been written on methods of preventing condensation-related
maintenance in buildings, yet the problem still persists. The simplest and most
illustrative book on the design of insulated buildings to prevent condensation
related maintenance problems was written by T. S. Rogers, architect, in 1951.
1 Since 1951 and certainly since 1991, there has been an abundance of re-
search and excellent development and distribution of analytical tools to ad-
equately evaluate and prevent condensation. There has also been abundant
discussion and education regarding these problems by committees within or-
ganizations such as the American Society for Testing of Materials committees,
specically Committee E06 on Performance of Buildings formed in 1946. This
does not even consider the work of the American Society of Heating, Refriger-
ating and Air-Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE and The National Institute of
Building Sciences groups, not to mention those outside of the United States,
even more concerned with condensation. However, given all of this information
and the wonderful tools, what is missing is a simple commitment from design-
ers, owners, manufacturers, and constructors to understand the issue and take
appropriate actions during the design, construction, operation, and mainte-
nance of buildings.
This paper addresses methods to accommodate and control the conse-
quences that will occur when signicant differences between interior humidity
and temperature, and exterior humidity and temperature exist for a building.
We will specically describe glazing systems and their adjacent construction.
These are described in a simple and direct way that will be useful to those
seeking information.
This paper does not address the following:
When buildings should be humidied
What types of buildings should be humidied
What level of humidication is required for specic building types
Whether or not some condensation is acceptable
How much condensation represents an acceptable amount
At what outside temperature condensation will start to occur and
How much of a typical year will be at or below that temperature
It should also be noted that the bulk of the experiential examples presented
in this discussion are based on commercial and institutional buildings and the
environments, materials, and systems normally associated with such buildings.
The problems are the same for other building and systems types, as are the
approaches for analysis and design. What may be different are the application
of a solution and perhaps the extent of the condensation problem.
Introduction
owner and designer should evaluate building uses and function to determine
the temperature and humidity conditions that will be provided.
These two measurable interior environmental properties, in combination
with exterior climatic conditions, must be considered in the design of the exte-
rior envelope and therefore must be properly understood and evaluated. Proper
evaluation of these conditions will provide the building and exterior wall or
envelope designer with the information required to properly design and specify
the wall systems.
The results of these differences may be condensation at an unacceptable
level within or upon the surfaces of wall systems or components. In order to
avoid this condensation, or limit its occurrence, it is necessary to identify a
number of important physical conditions of the building spaces and wall sys-
tems and components. These include the following:
Interior air temperatures
Interior relative humidity RH
Exterior air temperature
Exterior RH
Moisture permeability of each glazed wall component or system
Heat ow properties of the various materials within and in contact with
the glazed wall system
When each of these conditions are adequately understood, there are meth-
ods that can be employed to determine where condensation will occur, under
which conditions it will occur, in what amounts it will occur, and therefore the
risk. By utilizing the evaluation tools available today to determine these factors,
a wall designer can start to develop physical properties of the wall system that
can control the risks attendant to uncontrolled condensation. This process may,
and most often does, require multiple evaluations and wall system modica-
tions in order to develop an assembly with the requisite properties to provide
the appropriate performance.
The important issue is that modeling of the wall systems can and should be
performed before the wall design is complete, and in effect the model provides
the necessary tool to guide the wall design. This is a very important point to
recognize. It is very difcult to change the wall design after this point without
considerable difculty. After the wall design is completed, the path from there
to construction is pretty much a straight line with little room to adjust systems
and components without impacting schedule, cost and coordination.
We will not describe or analyze opaque walls in this paper. There are many
systems and materials that can be utilized to avoid the occurrence and subse-
quent problems of condensation in these types of walls. The approach is pretty
much the same as utilized for glazed wall systems; however, it is generally a
much easier process when properly applied. For glazing systems, such as win-
dows or curtain walls, there are fewer alternatives available. By denition, glaz-
ing systems are intended to have large amounts of transparent vision surface
combined with small amounts of opaque framing materials. Remember that
glass is limited in its ability to provide high thermal resistance levels. The ma-
terials essentially establish the basic properties of the window or curtain wall
systems: Metals, glass, and plastics of various types and sealants in small quan-
tities. Most of these are very resistant to moisture vapor ow through the
DUNLAP ET AL., doi:10.1520/JTE102967 191
material. If condensation does occur, the questions will be: How much and
where?
However, there are options, including thermal performance or the degree
of thermal resistance provided by the insulating glass units IGUs and the
framing system. We have identied two distinctly different approaches to con-
trolling condensation in exterior window and curtain wall systems: Active and
passive. For purposes of this discussion, we have developed the following de-
nitions for these approaches that are specic to moisture migration control:
Passive approachA method of controlling moisture migration and re-
sultant condensation in and on glazed wall systems which relies upon
the specic physical properties of the various materials of the system.
Active approachA method of controlling moisture migration and re-
sultant condensation in and on glazed wall systems, which relies upon
input of heat into or onto the glazed wall system or components, in
addition to the specic physical properties of the various materials
within the systems. Such input may include heat applied close to or in
direct contact with the glazed wall system.
As in all building systems, the success of either approach lies in a compre-
hensive analysis of the physical properties for each material, including their
heat ow characteristics and ability to resist moisture migration. Some of the
approaches to resisting moisture condensation within or upon window and
curtain wall systems seem to y in the face of the accepted denitions of
green or sustainable as used in todays construction industry. This is due at
least in part to the simple fact that the most effective and reliable methods of
resisting condensation often rely upon taking heat from the inside of the build-
ing, in some form and transferring it into and through the window or curtain
wall system to avoid a dew point temperature 2.
Certain building uses in certain climates will require what at rst may seem
like an unreasonable approach and an extraordinary amount of analysis and
detail to properly design the exterior wall construction. However, upon
thoughtful consideration, it will be seen that the solutions are attainable
through the use of readily available analysis tools to identify what is required,
followed by the application of reasonable design and construction techniques
and appropriate materials.
Analysis Methods
ing relative performance of various systems. However, the rating methods used
do not address the system as installed in a specic building application. The
test methods are standardized to allow for comparisons of various systems.
An inherent problem with these methods is that they are standardized.
Buildings are not designed to standard sized glazing systems, they are not in-
sulated test boxes, and the mullion congurations and interior conditions all
combine to result in a very specic set of uniquely constructed individual as-
semblies. These varying conditions contribute to the project specic needs of a
particular building, and also contribute to the divergence away from the results
determined by the standard tests for condensation resistance.
Proper condensation control analysis includes consideration of the entire
glazing system. It evaluates the project specic components, materials, and
in-service conditions that are part of the exterior glazed wall. This form of
analysis requires the design professional to evaluate the specic components
and combination of components in order to determine if there is a possibility
for condensation to occur. Condensation control analysis does not look at av-
erage temperatures. It is quite the opposite; it is a very detailed look at a glazed
wall system to nd even small possibilities of condensation. Evaluating the
glazing system for locations in which the surface temperature is below the dew
point temperature accomplishes this.
Several passive and active approaches are available to prevent and avoid con-
densation on and within exterior glazed wall systems. Analyses presented in
this paper will be limited to consideration of colder climates, similar to those in
Climate Zones 3 and colder, as dened by ASHRAE Standard 90.1 3, and those
interior spaces where the RH is actively applied or generally above 20 %. Gen-
erally speaking, if condensation were to occur on the exterior of a system, it
would likely be located in a warm southern climate, and it would typically not
be detrimental to the exterior envelope as it would drain to the ground. How-
ever, in colder northern climates, if condensation were to occur, it would likely
be on the interior side of the glazing system. This will have detrimental effects
on the buildings durability and functionality and perhaps indoor air quality. In
order to avoid condensation on the interior surfaces of the glazing system,
these surfaces of the system must remain above the interior dew point tempera-
ture due to the relatively low permeability of most glazing systems.
A common misunderstanding when performing analyses of glazed exterior
walls is that the heat from the sun will provide additional warmth needed to
keep the system above the dew point temperature. This is a true statement in
some cases; however, the additional heat is only available for a few hours dur-
ing each day, and it will not be applied evenly or to all exterior elevations of the
building. Analysis of systems and the components should be performed to rep-
resent a worst-case condition, typically nighttime. The coldest temperatures
typically occur at night. This is when radiation is lost to a dark night sky, a
property of heat ow commonly known as black body radiation. The black
body, in this case, is essentially a completely dark night sky. Since it is com-
DUNLAP ET AL., doi:10.1520/JTE102967 193
pletely dark, it reects no light or radiant energy back to the glazed wall. This
insures a worst-case or maximum radiant energy heat loss from the glazed
wall. The rate of radiant energy transfer is essentially proportional to the color
temperature of the receiving body. The night sky acts as an innite sink absorb-
ing any radiant energy that is transmitted in its direction. For the purposes of
this paper, the analyses of the various systems and components assume a night-
time condition.
Our descriptions of passive and active methods of controlling condensation
utilize various analysis tools to show comparisons between the methods avail-
able. The following parametric conditions were established for each analysis:
Static interior and exterior temperatures and RH
Exterior temperature of 18 C 0 F
Interior temperature of 21 C 70 F
Passive Approach
A dependable approach to avoid and prevent condensation is to utilize passive
methods. Passive methods do not rely on supplemental systems to be effective.
Once in place, and when properly maintained, passive methods will provide a
specic level of condensation control, no more and no less. Systems that can be
employed to control condensation are numerous and can range from varying
the constituent materials used in the assembly to being very selective of the
location of the glazing assembly within a wall system in/out to details of the
structural anchorage and transition of the glazing system to the adjacent wall
system.
A common and perhaps obvious passive approach is simple: Provide the
proper materials and components, design the assembly, and install it properly.
The performance attribute with the most effect on condensation control is ther-
mal conductivity. IGUs and the framing system have multiple options for com-
ponents that can be utilized to provide a range of condensation control. The
following are some of the variables that effect performance of IGU systems:
Glass type: Clear or tinted
Glass assembly type: Single pane, double pane, triple pane, vacuum in-
sulating glass, and combinations
Glass coatings: Low E, reective, surface location, and multiple coatings
IGU spacer type: Aluminum, stainless steel, rubber, and warm-edge
technologies
IGU gas interspace types: Air, argon, and krypton
Framing material type: Steel, aluminum, wood, plastics, and combina-
tions
Framing type: Non-thermally improved TI, TI, and thermally broken
TB
Glazing method: Wet or dry
Of these variables, the type of IGU utilized has the potential for the largest
impact on the ability of the system to accommodate elevated levels of humidity
mainly because the glass constitutes the majority of the system area. There are
numerous types of IGUs available, each with a specic performance level.
Three basic glass types are considered Fig. 2 to demonstrate the differences in
194 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
performance. All three units are composed of clear uncoated glass. Given an
exterior temperature of 18 C 0 F and an interior temperature of 21 C
70 F, the three glass types were analyzed with WINDOW 5.2 4 software to
determine the maximum interior RH that can be tolerated without formation
of condensation. As expected, when the insulating value of the glass unit in-
creases, so does its ability to tolerate higher levels of RH. This is identied by
the glass units indicated in Fig. 2. In the three cases shown, the single pane
glass unit, Fig. 2a, can accommodate 11 % interior RH, while double pane
IGU, Fig. 2b, and triple pane IGU, Fig. 2c, can accommodate 40 % and 55 %
RH, respectively, for the specic conditions indicated. This analysis only pro-
vides the center-of-glass COG temperature. Additional analysis is required to
determine how the frame and edge spacer affect the performance as a whole.
The next step in improving the condensation control of the system would
be to add a coatings to one or more surfaces of the unit. In typical designs, an
IGU often will employee one low E coating to improve the insulation value of
the glazing unit. To demonstrate the improvement that can be achieved in this
way a high quality low E coating is applied to the No. 2 surface of the unit
shown in Fig. 4 refer to Fig. 3 for description of glazing unit surface designa-
tions. Again, as suspected, the unit with the low E coating can tolerate a higher
level of interior RH. Of interest, the double pane IGU with a low E coating
performs almost as well as the uncoated triple pane unit in Fig. 4.
The framing components considered here are all modeled at the midpoint
of the glazing framing. In many situations, this condition is the best-case sce-
nario. Often, the surfaces temperatures at intersections of vertical and horizon-
tal framing members can be at least 3 C lower, which will also reduce the level
of RH that can be tolerated. Currently, none of the industry standard computer
modeling software programs has the capabilities to simulate three-dimensional
conditions such as these intersections.
Another modication that can be implemented to the framing to inuence
the condensation control of the system is the depth of the framing members.
When using metal framing members, the amount of metal that is exposed to
the interior and exterior of the building will have an effect on the surface tem-
perature of the glazing system. The metal components of the framing essen-
tially function like radiators that conduct or transfer heat from the warmer side
to the colder side. Given this function of the framing, it follows that having a
large amount of metal on the interior side of the wall system relative to the
exterior side will accomplish an enhanced level of condensation control.
Figure 8 illustrates results of computer models of two glazed exterior wall
systems using the same IGU and TB frames. The only difference between the
two models is that the depth of the metal on the interior side of the system has
been signicantly increased. By limiting the amount of metal exposed to the
exterior and maximizing the amount exposed to the interior, the metal frame
can provide a benecial inuence on the entire system. The additional framing
transfers the heat from the interior to the IGU, which can provide warmer
surfaces that can then tolerate higher interior RH. The shorter framing has a
cold point of 3 C 38 F, which would be able to tolerate a maximum RH
level of 30 %. The deeper system has a cold point of 8 C 47 F, which
would be able to tolerate a maximum interior RH of 45 %.
Another passive modication to the glazed wall components is the IGU
edge spacer. This edge spacer component is used to keep the individual panes of
the IGU separated, thereby creating an air cavity. The air cavity provides the
insulating property of the standard IGU and must be sealed air and vapor tight
200 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
to keep the IGU performing properly. The IGU is warmest at the COG and
coldest at the EOG. As previously discussed, this condition is partially caused
by the framing, but it is also partially caused by the type of spacer used. Essen-
tially, the spacer creates a thermal bridge between the two panes of glass, pro-
viding a direct path for heat loss to the cold exterior and thereby reducing
surface temperatures of interior components.
There are multiple types of spacers available. A common type of spacer
used in the commercial industry is fabricated from aluminum. These spacers
function as a thermal bridge at the EOG, which contributes to potential con-
densation. However, there are many new technologies that have been developed
to reduce the thermal bridging. As a group, these are generally referred to as
warm-edge spacers. This category of spacers is comprised of various types of
materials such as stainless steel, foam rubber, and even spacers that incorpo-
rate poured and debridged thermal break methods. Other types of warm-edge
spacers are also available. The basic goal they all have is to reduce thermal
transfer at the EOG.
Often use of warm-edge spacers will provide an increase in surface tem-
perature at the EOG of at least a few degrees. When designing and analyzing
glazing systems that need to tolerate high levels of humidity, the use of this
technology is sometimes required to reduce the potential for condensation.
Figure 9 indicates the computer model output for two glazed wall systems with
the same IGU and the same TB frames. The only difference is the spacers. One
is modeled with a typical aluminum spacer, and the other with a warm-edge
spacer. A noticeable increase in surface temperature is indicated for the warm-
edge spacer. This permits the glazed wall system to tolerate higher RH. The
system with the standard spacer has a cold point of 1 C 34 F, which would
be able to tolerate a maximum interior humidity level of 26 %. The one with
the warm-edge spacer has a cold point of 4 C 40 F, which would be able to
tolerate a maximum RH of 33 %, a signicant improvement.
DUNLAP ET AL., doi:10.1520/JTE102967 201
steel lintel is a continuous piece from the interior to the exterior that essentially
creates a thermal bridge, again negating the purpose and capabilities of using
TI or TB glazing systems.
To eliminate or reduce the negative effect of steel lintels on glazed wall
systems, special attention is required for the lintel design. The goal is to ther-
mally break the lintel, and there are various methods that can be utilized to
provide a thermal break in the lintel assembly. One approach spaces the steel
lintel from the face of the backup wall. In this approach, the lintel is only
attached periodically with clips, allowing the full thickness of cavity wall insu-
lation to be installed between the lintel and the backup wall. Although there are
still thermal bridges at the clip locations, the overall effect of this method of
attachment will greatly reduce thermal transfer and thus the potential for con-
densation.
Another method to thermally break the lintel is similar to the rst one.
Again, the rst step is to disconnect the lintel from the backup structure. Plac-
ing a plastic or berglass reinforced plastic shim between the steel lintel and
the backup structure at connection points will provide a thermal break to help
reduce the risk of condensation. The plastic material could be continuous or a
shim with insulation installed between the shim locations.
Figure 12 illustrates the difference in surface temperature that can be ex-
pected when the same glazed wall system is used with two different lintel con-
ditions. As indicated by the computer models, the glazing system with the typi-
cal lintel has a cold point surface temperature of 3 C 37 F, which would only
be able to tolerate a maximum interior RH of 30 %. The other, installed with
a TB lintel, has a cold point temperature of 6 C 43 F, which would be able to
204 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
and not supplemental sources of heat to reduce the risk of condensation. These
methods do not use independently applied energy to keep surfaces warm. It
becomes apparent that as we continue to add performance to the glass and
framing materials, position the systems in the optimal locations, and modify
the adjacent surfaces, we will reach a point of diminishing return for perfor-
mance. The level of RH that is to be tolerated will be a key determinant in
deciding which and how many passive approaches are necessary. However, a
wide variety of interior humidity levels can be tolerated by proper selection and
application of these passive approaches.
Active Approach
The previous section described several methods to limit condensation potential
using the physical properties of the various materials within and adjacent to
the glazed wall system. In some situations, the passive approach may not pre-
vent condensation from occurring. In those cases, additional measures must be
taken to tolerate a higher RH. These situations require addition of an active
system that relies upon heat input from an independent source into the glazing
system. An active system may include application of heat close to or in direct
contact with the glazed wall system.
The following situations often require applications of active systems to con-
trol condensation.
Glazed wall systems that are offset from the primary plane of the exte-
rior wall. In these cases, the warm air from the room may not be able to
reach the surface of the system to adequately elevate the glazing and
frame temperatures sufciently to prevent condensation.
Existing glazing systems that were never intended to tolerate a high RH,
such as historic buildings with new uses. This may be the situation
when retrotting existing buildings to accommodate a new occupancy
or function. However, this can also arise due to poor initial system se-
lection or design, or improper operations during construction.
Buildings that lack a perimeter heat source to provide more proximate
heating of glazed wall systems to help prevent condensation.
Inaccurate or non-existent mechanical system controls, which result in
uctuations in the interior RH beyond the ability of a specic glazing
system to avoid condensation.
Presence of window treatments, such as roller shades, which partially
insulate the window from the heat of the room, thus lowering the sur-
face temperature of the glazed wall system.
These are just some of the common scenarios that are found to be prob-
lematic for typical glazed wall systems. When passive systems cannot ad-
equately prevent condensation in conditions such as these, there are active
control approaches that can be used to help correct a problem. Active ap-
proaches are, however, inherently more complex and by denition include the
application of energy through the use of electrical or mechanical devices and
varying levels of control. Even though an active approach may provide excellent
206 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
results, the use of these devices and systems can substantially elevate the degree
of difculty in analyzing and predicting the surface temperatures of the glazing
system.
The following discusses various active methods and their application to a
variety of conditions and provides insight to the analysis techniques that can be
used to accomplish a functional design.
from above or below. This approach would seem to be far more reliable than
stationary radiators or xed radiant panels, knowing that the heated air will be
more reliable in impacting the window surfaces. Unfortunately, this too pre-
sents its own set of difculties.
In many cases the building architecture prevents us from locating air sup-
plies in the most advantageous and reliable locations. Deep window surrounds
and unique ceiling designs with complex soft constructions may present the
most challenges. In such cases, it is very difcult to accurately predict the
outcome and resultant surface temperatures without advanced analysis. Com-
putational uid dynamics CFD analysis, in combination with other thermal
analysis tools, may be the best approach to most accurately predict the out-
come and result in a successful design. However the difculty of this analysis is
most often prohibitive.
Warm air supplies must also provide dry air, not just warm air. If this air
supply is highly humidied, it may elevate the RH in the vicinity of the window
surfaces, elevating the local dew point, which in turn, can result in condensa-
tion on glass and frame surfaces. This is why certain old rules of thumb, such
as providing a minimum of 15 m 50 ft per min of air velocity across window
surfaces will prevent condensation, are not valid. In reality, the humidity of the
air, the physical geometry of the window and architecture, and numerous other
conditions make it impossible to provide such simple guides to avoiding con-
densation.
conduction are minimal. The idea is to heat the water or wire, have it placed
directly against the metal frame, which will conduct the heat into the framing
system and raise the surface temperature above the dew point temperature.
The elevated frame temperature, in turn, heats the EOG and, to some extent,
can even elevate temperatures at other regions of the glass. These active sys-
tems can be very useful for counteracting the negative effect of window shades
or non-TB window frames. In fact, in some conditions, the window shade can
help trap the heat generated by the heat tracing system between the glass and
the shade itself.
The analysis of the resultant window frame surface temperatures is not a
straight forward application within industry standard heat transfer analysis
programs such as THERM. As described in the included case study, tech-
niques can be used that allow heat trace applications to be modeled using these
programs. However, this type of unique analysis must be approached with care
and conservatism.
When evaluating whether to use either electric or hot water heat tracing,
there are risks and benets to both systems that must be considered.
Hot WaterIn most applications of hot water heated glazed wall systems,
the frame extrusions are too complex to easily accommodate hot water piping
even when exible tubing is considered. More often, such applications provide
heat directly to the larger supporting members or larger primary frame ele-
ments. Figure 16 shows just such an application where the skylight supporting
frame system incorporates extruded metal panels with channels to accommo-
date hot water circulation. Water temperatures in the metal panels can vary
between 50 and 70 C 120 160 F. The glass and frames of the skylight are
then heated through the combined actions of conduction, convection, and ra-
diant heating. This skylight, above an 80 % RH natatorium, located in the cold
climate of Michigan, does not experience condensation and the frames and
glass remain dry throughout the Winter.
The hot water system approach can be easily controlled to turn on and off
at a specic exterior air temperature and also can be used as a primary heating
element for the space or room. Heat output can be closely matched to the need.
The analysis of this approach can be very difcult, even more so than for elec-
tric heating elements. This is because in most cases, a more substantial amount
of the heating energy is transferred by radiant heat exchange. The analysis
must incorporate specic applications of the heat exchange program as well as
the use of radiant transfer surfaces. This type of application must be ap-
210 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
A Case Study for Electrical Heat TracingThe following process was fol-
lowed in developing an electrical heat tracing system as a solution to a building
glazing system that experienced a condensation problem. The process included
dening the problem, determining the environmental conditions, discovering
additional considerations, developing options, and evaluating the options. The
nal results are also presented.
computer models that would accurately replicate a heat trace cable. Unfortu-
nately, the computer modeling software used does not include an option de-
signed specically to accomplish this task. Replication of the heat trace cable
was modeled through careful and considered use of the options available
within the software. THERM 5.2 includes constant heat ux boundaries that
can be applied to the surfaces of the modeled components. The units used for
this type of boundary condition are expressed in BTU/ h ft2. When applied to a
material surface, this type of boundary will result in a hotspot on the model.
In order to replicate the effect of the heat trace cable, the published heat output
of the cable was converted to units that are compatible with the constant heat
ux boundary condition and applied to the models. The new computer models,
with the heat trace cables replicated, indicated that the surface temperatures
would be above the dew point temperature and should greatly reduce the risk
of condensation Fig. 21.
Desk-top mockups were then created to verify that the heat trace cable
would actually perform as predicted by the modeling. The desk-top mockup
was composed of a 12 12 in2 corner intersection of the curtain wall system
FIG. 21Existing curtain wall system with blinds and heat trace.
with an IGU very similar to those used on the project. The heat trace cable and
attachment/concealment system that was planned was also installed on the
mockup. During the desk-top mockups, minor adjustments of the mechanical
attachment method used to secure the heat trace cable were required in order
to ensure sufcient contact of the cable to the curtain wall framing surface Fig.
22. After rening the attachment method, it appeared that the heat trace cable
would be an effective method of raising the curtain wall system surface tem-
peratures. One of the keys to a successful installation was that the cable must
have substantial contact with the framing system in order to adequately con-
duct the heat generated by the cable. If insufcient contact area is achieved,
then the effectiveness of the cable is dramatically reduced.
After reviewing the successful computer modeling and preliminary desk-
top mockups, it was determined that a full-scale on-site mockup would be in-
stalled on the curtain wall system within the library to conrm that the heat
tracing would effectively eliminate the condensation Figs. 23 and 24. Note
that the heat trace application provides for relatively simple replacement if it
should become necessary. The on-site mockup was installed in the winter
months which allowed for results to be observed and reviewed immediately.
Interior temperatures, exterior temperatures, and surface temperatures of the
curtain wall system were recorded with the heat trace system turned on. The
information was then compared to computer modeling for validation of results.
The physical temperatures recorded and the temperatures that were obtained
from the models varied within 0.5 2.2 C 1 4 F Fig. 25. This installation
demonstrated the validity of the proposed corrections and provided a good
correlation to the THERM analysis.
The on-site mockup was left in place for 1 year to verify that it would
function as predicted and eliminate the risk of condensation. During the trial
period, the mockup area did not experience condensation. Based upon this, the
heat trace system was installed on the remainder of the building curtain wall.
The heat trace system was connected to the buildings direct digital control
system, which allowed for the system to be automatically turned on and off at
predetermined outside air temperatures. Additionally, the heat trace cable uti-
At this time we are not aware of any calculation methods or analysis pro-
grams that can predict the expected frame temperatures.
Heated glass can help solve issues with lower performing windows, such as
those found in historic buildings. When historic windows need to be exposed to
humidied environments, heated glass can be installed as an inboard storm
window. The heated pane is used to directly heat the historic window main-
taining its surface temperatures above the dew point. The heated glass interior
storm may not need to be tightly sealed, and the much warmer temperatures of
the historic window can withstand elevated RH. In this application, the heated
glass also directly heats the outboard historic window and frame as well as its
own frame, providing condensation resistance Fig. 28.
While this type of application may change the appearance of the existing
historic windows to some extent due to the addition of the interior window
frame, the exterior appearance can be reasonably maintained.
This approach can be used in new construction as well to accommodate
very high RH environments and conditions that require interior shading de-
vices.
HVAC systems. It is relatively easy for HVAC systems having active humidica-
tion to over humidify the spaces served. Likewise, perimeter heating systems
may not be controlled accurately or be adjusted properly to provide the best
opportunity for the window systems to remain condensation free.
thought of as an exacting science, at least not at this time. For critical applica-
tions and possibly also for applications of substantial numbers of repetitive
assemblies, approaches that provide physical models of the intended applica-
tion may be warranted. Unfortunately, building physical mockups and perform-
ing real world testing are costly and time consuming and are not considered a
practical approach in our industry at this time.
Summary
The two basic approaches to controlling or eliminating condensation on and
within glazed exterior building walls are dramatically different in approach,
limitations, initial costs, energy demands, appearance considerations, and their
long term ability to perform and be maintained. The following provides a sum-
mary for each consideration.
Passive
Approach Protection from condensation provided by the physical prop-
erties and arrangement of the materials used for the glazed wall system.
Limitations Can accomplish medium performance for vision walls.
Condensation resistance for walls with vision glass Fig. 30 will be lim-
ited by the ability of glass and framing systems to resist condensation.
Appearance considerations Traditional appearance for glazed wall sys-
tems will be attained.
Initial costs Relatively low cost impact for reasonable levels of conden-
sation resistance.
Energy Supplemental use of applied energy is not required outside of
normal space conditioning needs.
Maintenance needs No special maintenance needs to retain initial con-
densation resistance performance.
Active
Approach Protection from condensation provided by a combination of
physical properties and arrangement of the materials used in addition to
input of heat energy applied to the glazed wall system.
Limitations Can accomplish high performance. Condensation resis-
tance for walls with vision glass Fig. 30 can be greatly increased by
introduction of heat energy applied to the wall system.
Appearance considerations Can be coordinated into the architectural
aesthetic with good planning.
Initial costs High cost impact for increased levels of condensation
resistance. Cost impact varies depending upon degree of performance
required and active systems approach selected.
Energy Active use of supplemental energy applied to the system to
attain enhanced performance. Degree of energy usage proportional to
performance levels and environmental requirements Fig. 31.
Maintenance needs Maintenance required for systems applying energy
DUNLAP ET AL., doi:10.1520/JTE102967 223
For purposes of this paper glazed wall systems refers to walls with vision glass which allows
light to pass from the exterior of the building to the interior. This precludes the use of insulating
products or insulation with other materials which would be used as spandrel or non-vision
panels. If spandrel glazing is used without insulation or other means to seal the interior side of
the spandrel glazing from the heat and moisture effects of the building interior environment, they
can be considered as vision panels even if an opacifier coating is applied to the interior surface.
The degree of energy required to counteract the natural tendency of condensation to occur on or
within the glazed wall system is directly proportional to the RH of the interior air, the difference
between interior and exterior temperatures, and the difference between the interior and exterior
RH. With currently available materials, in all cases energy will be required to resist condensation
in very high humidity environments if the temperature difference causes the dew point to occur
in a location where the surface(s) are exposed to the water vapor in the air.
Acknowledgments
Graphics are through the courtesy of Ryan Asava, Jerry Carter, and Zach Rusu
of SmithGroup, Inc.
References
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the air becomes saturated and condensation begins.
3 ASHRAE Standard 90.1, 2007, Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise
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4 THERM 5.2 and WINDOW 5.2. 2006. Thermal modeling software programs de-
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5 NFRC 100, 2004, Procedure for Determining Fenestration Product U-Factors,
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6 Engineering Weather Data. Version 1.0. Dec. 23, 1999. National Oceanic and At-
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7 AAMA, 1503.1, 1998, Voluntary Test Method for Thermal Transmittance and Con-
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Reprinted from JTE, Vol. 39, No. 2
doi:10.1520/JTE102959
Available online at www.astm.org/JTE
Manuscript received January 8, 2010; accepted for publication August 14, 2010; pub-
lished online September 2010.
1
P.E., Principal, Building Consultants & Engineers, Inc., 1520 West Canal Court, Suite
240, Littleton, CO 80120.
2
P.E., A.I.A., President and Principal, Building Consultants & Engineers, Inc., 1520 West
Canal Court, Suite 240, Littleton, CO 80120.
3
P.E., Vice-President and Senior Principal, Building Consultants & Engineers, Inc., 1520
West Canal Court, Suite 240, Littleton, CO 80120.
Cite as: Morgan, C. M., McGowan, L. M. and Flick, L. D., Case Study of Mechanical
Control of Condensation in Exterior Walls, J. Test. Eval., Vol. 39, No. 2. doi:10.1520/
JTE102959.
Copyright 2011 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
226
MORGAN ET AL., doi:10.1520/JTE102959 227
interstitial space, was the desired method to correct the condensation prob-
lems that were occurring. These repairs have proven to be effective. This
paper discusses the original design and construction, the method of evalua-
tion of the condensation problems that occurred, and the design and results
of the implemented repairs.
KEYWORDS: condensation, exterior walls, windows, vapor barrier
ing and air plenum terminated about 3 m 10 ft south of the north exterior
wall, exposing the steel roof framing and steel roof deck in this area. The ves-
tibules and stairwells were typically open to the surrounding space and had
exposed framing at the second oor and roof levels.
Along the north and east exterior walls, the interior surface of the pre-
cast concrete wall panels and the berglass batt insulation were visibly
wet. The open-cell backer rod behind the sealants at joints in the precast
concrete wall panels and at joints around the window frames was satu-
rated with water.
Water-damaged and stained gypsum board and interior nishes indi-
cated mold contamination within the exterior wall assembly. Mold was
found within exterior walls along the majority of the north and east
elevations of the building. Figure 4 shows an example of moisture-
related damage to the gypsum board at the head condition of a bay
window.
Where the oor and roof structure met the north and east exterior walls,
the embedded steel plates and the exposed steel beams above the sus-
pended ceiling were covered with surface rust. Water was observed drip-
ping down the interior face of the steel at the second oor at the open
stairwells at the northeast corner of the building.
Along a portion of the exterior side of the east exterior wall, water was
observed draining out of the joint between the bottom of the precast
FIG. 4Damaged gypsum board and interior nishes at head of bay window.
MORGAN ET AL., doi:10.1520/JTE102959 231
FIG. 5Water leakage between precast concrete wall panels and foundation wall.
concrete wall panels and the top of the concrete foundation stem wall.
Figure 5 shows an example of this condition.
Along the exterior side of the north elevation, evidence of moisture was
observed discharging out of joints between the window frames and the
precast concrete wall panels and between joints in the metal panel clad-
ding system near the bay windows. Figure 6 shows an example of this
condition.
Water was observed discharging from the roof expansion joint located
above the east half of the building and the central corridor. On the east
half of the building, water was also observed discharging from below the
roof counterashing and above the base ashings of the roong mem-
brane along the parapet walls. During times of cooler weather, this
water formed icicles.
Signs of moisture were observed around the interior of the skylight glaz-
ing assemblies located along the central corridor, and water was ob-
served discharging from the sill framing member of the skylights, both
on the interior and exterior of the building. Figure 7 shows an example
of this condition.
FIG. 7Water discharging from the sill framing member of the skylight.
hind sealant in joints in the precast concrete wall panels. The temperature of
the interior surface of the precast concrete wall panels was measured using a
hand-held infrared thermometer to be about 7 C 44 F.
beams nor was it terminated to the underside of the steel beams. One layer of
unfaced berglass batt insulation, about 9 cm 3 1/2 in. thick with a listed
insulative value of R-11, had been installed between the perimeter steel beams
and the precast concrete wall panels; however, in some locations the insulation
was poorly installed and did not extend the full height of the beams. Where
these conditions were checked, the interior surface of the precast concrete wall
panel was wet to the touch and the berglass batt insulation appeared to be
moist. In a few locations, the insulation between the beams and the exterior
precast wall panels had not been installed.
At the east wall, where the perimeter steel beam transitioned from the
enclosed area above the suspended ceiling to the area of exposed framing, the
space between the beam and the precast concrete wall panel was not sealed nor
had gypsum board been installed the close the gap around the beam. Near this
gap, the berglass batt insulation and the exposed surface of the precast con-
crete wall panel were wet to the touch.
aluminum curtain wall framing was measured using a hand-held infrared ther-
mometer to be about 8 C 46 F on a day when the exterior temperatures were
3 C 27 F.
Bay Windows along North ElevationThe bay windows were similar to the
punched windows, except that the aluminum framing system was positioned
15 cm 6 in. beyond the face of the precast concrete wall panels. At each bay
window, small side lights returned to enclose projected portions of the windows
to the exterior surfaces of the precast concrete panels. Steel framing and metal
wall cladding was constructed to inll portions of the bay windows at the oor
lines and above the bay windows.
The design drawings showed a large steel angle supporting the bottom of
the bay window assembly and indicated a thermal separation between the alu-
minum framing and the steel support structure. In the as-constructed condi-
tion, the bottom of the bay window frames were supported by steel shim plates
on a continuous structural steel assembly welded to steel plates embedded in
the face of the precast concrete wall panels.
Although the design drawings indicated that the foil-facing on the ber-
glass batt insulation was to extend into the rough opening at the sill and be
sealed to surfaces at other locations, this was not done in the as-constructed
details. The structural steel under the bay windows was wet and signicantly
rusted. The interior surface of the precast concrete wall panels above the bay
236 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
FIG. 9Ductwork and diffusers installed along north wall in attempt to mitigate con-
densation on bay windows.
windows was wet, and berglass batt insulation was saturated with water. The
inside surface of the metal cladding was also wet as the result of condensation
from the building interior. Mold also appeared to be growing on the top surface
of the interior gypsum board soft.
RoongSix test cuts into the built-up roong system were made to exam-
ine the details and components of the roong assembly and to observe whether
moisture inltration into the roong assembly had occurred. Three of the test
cuts were made adjacent to the parapet walls; one test cut was made at the
northwest corner above a non-humidied portion of the building, and the other
MORGAN ET AL., doi:10.1520/JTE102959 237
two test cuts were made above the east half of the building. Two test cuts were
made in the eld of the roof above the east half of the building 6 m 20 ft
from the exterior walls, and one test cut was made near the roof expansion
joint.
The perimeter test cuts revealed that the steel roof deck terminated 2 cm
3/4 in. short of the precast concrete wall panels and that no air barrier or
vapor retarder had been installed along this gap. Rigid polyisocyanurate insu-
lation board with asphalt-adhered tapered perlite insulation was installed over
the steel roof deck and terminated ush with the precast concrete wall panel.
Fiberglass felt plies were adhered to and terminated at the top of a perlite cant
strip and were covered by a granular-surfaced modied bitumen base ashing
membrane. The base ashing membranes were adhered onto the roof-side sur-
face of the precast concrete wall panels and terminated 18 cm 7 in. above
the roof surface. Sheet metal counterashing and a rubberized plastic sheet
membrane lapped over the top of the base ashing and extended up the vertical
face of the parapet wall perimeter wall and under the sheet metal parapet cap.
The test cut that was made near the northwest corner of the building over
non-humidied ofce space revealed voids in the base ashing, which were
lled with water. Using a pin-style digital moisture meter, moisture was found
in the tapered perlite insulation, but the polyisocyanurate insulation was dry.
Air ow from the interior of the building was evident where base ashing was
removed.
At the second and third perimeter test cuts, water owed out from the
berglass felt plies and the perlite cant strip when the base ashings were cut
and removed. Also, the surface of the precast concrete wall panel behind the
base ashing was visibly wet. Using a pin-style digital moisture metre, the ta-
pered perlite insulation was found to be saturated, but the polyisocyanurate
insulation was dry.
A test cut at the expansion joint above the east half of the building revealed
conditions similar to the perimeter test cuts. Moisture was found behind the
base ashing and in the perlite cant strip and berglass felt plies. One differ-
ence was that wood blocking forming the expansion joint was also saturated
and moisture was found on the underside of the elastomeric ashing that cov-
ered the expansion joint. Moisture meter readings revealed that the tapered
perlite insulation was saturated, but the polyisocyanurate insulation was dry.
At the two test cuts made in the eld of the roong above the east half of
the building, no visible moisture was observed and the components were dry to
the touch. Using a pin-style digital moisture meter, both the tapered perlite
insulation and the polyisocyanurate insulation were found to be dry.
ing, gypsum board, and a vapor impermeable membrane were utilized to allow
the upper portions of the walls to conform to the irregularities of the steel deck,
and the new wall was sealed to the underside of the steel deck. Figure 11 shows
the approximate cross-section through the modied wall section.
A new, separate mechanical system was installed to supply warm, dry non-
humidied air into the dry corridor space. Air supplied from this new me-
chanical system was supplied in new ductwork and delivered the warm, dry air
to the dry corridor near the oor level and return air vents were positioned in
the upper portion of the dry corridor space. The new mechanical system was
sized to provide a sufcient number of air exchanges within the dry corridor
and to account for air loss from the laboratory space into the interstitial space.
The exhaust-side ductwork was equipped with sensors to monitor and auto-
242 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
matically adjust the number of air exchanges should excessive moisture accu-
mulate within the dry corridor. The laboratory spaces were maintained at the
required 48 % RH at 21 C 70 F and at a slightly positive space pressuriza-
tion relative to the dry corridor. The dry corridor was also maintained at a
MORGAN ET AL., doi:10.1520/JTE102959 243
slightly positive pressure relative to the building exterior. This ensured that the
quality of the air in the clean-rooms was maintained by not allowing non-
ltered air from within the dry cavity or from the building exterior to ow
into the laboratory.
To further monitor the performance of the new dry corridor space, tem-
perature and humidity sensors were installed within the interstitial space at
multiple locations. These monitoring sensors could be observed through the
glass panels in the clean room walls and were monitored regularly following
the repair work.
For the existing exterior walls, all of the interior gypsum board and insula-
tion was removed, allowing the interior surfaces of the precast concrete wall
panels and the light-gauge steel framing to be cleaned. All of the joints in the
precast concrete wall panels and the metal cladding were re-sealed with closed-
cell backer rod and polyurethane sealant. Following mold remediation activi-
ties on the interior of the precast concrete wall panels, new unfaced berglass
batt insulation and gypsum board were installed. New light-gauge steel framing
was used to box around the perimeter steel beams parallel to the precast con-
crete wall panels, and unfaced berglass batt insulation and gypsum board
were installed. The gypsum board was sealed at all perimeter conditions to
create an air seal and was painted with a vapor-permeable paint.
Unavoidable penetrations in the new clean room walls and in the repaired
exterior walls, such as electrical outlets and junction boxes, were designed with
compressible gaskets at the outlet covers and rubber gaskets around the junc-
tion boxes box to reduce the amount of air loss through the walls.
Roong
To reduce the risk of moist air from entering into the roong system, all of the
perimeter base ashings, expansion joint, drain penetrations, and mechanical
unit penetrations located above the east half of the building were repaired and
modied. The openings in the steel roof deck along and around these areas
were sealed to minimize air exltration. Damaged materials were removed and
replaced.
Skylights
The damage to the skylights was twofold. The structural assemblies were com-
promised by the delamination of the berglass panels from the aluminum
framing grid, and leakage was discovered along the edges of the skylight units.
The manufacturer of the skylights provided a structural repair, which reduced
the spans of the skylights by the installation of new structural beams below the
skylights. The leakage problems were repaired by re-sealing the perimeter
joints and re-working the transition from the skylight to the roong system.
The skylights were water spray tested to conrm that the leakage problems had
been corrected. Potential condensation problems with the skylights were re-
duced due to the improvements to the corridor walls.
Conclusions
Monitoring of the installed systems revealed that conditions immediately im-
proved within the building during the rst winter following the repairs. Con-
densation formation was eliminated on the exterior windows, walls, and sky-
lights throughout the building. The operation of the existing mechanical system
for the humidied laboratory spaces was reduced to a level of about 50 % of
maximum capacity. A number of air samples were taken by the industrial hy-
gienist in the exterior wall cavities 1 year following the repairs. No moisture
accumulation, contamination, or air-quality problems were identied.
Although the cost of the repairs to the building was high, in excess of $2.5
million dollars, the overall long-term maintenance costs of the repairs are ex-
pected to be relatively minor over the age of the structure.
It is clear that the original design and construction failed to account for the
signicant affect mechanically humidication and positive space pressuriza-
tion have on the building enclosure in cold climates. These factors need to take
primary importance in the design and construction of all aspects of the enclo-
sure elements and transition details in particular. By creating an interstitial
space supplied with warm, dry air between the mechanically humidied inte-
rior spaces and the exterior building walls, the need to create a perfect vapor
barrier at the exterior walls was eliminated. This also eliminated the need for
high-performance window assemblies.
References
Manuscript received January 26, 2010; accepted for publication October 19, 2010; pub-
lished online January 2011.
1
P.E., LEED AP, Building Technology, Simpson Gumpertz and Heger, Inc.,19 West 34th
St., Suite 1000, New York, NY 10001.
2
P.E., Building Technology, Simpson Gumpertz and Heger, Inc.,19 West 34th St., Suite
1000, New York, NY 10001.
Cite as: OBrien, S. M. and Patel, A. K., Considerations for Controlling Condensation in
High-Humidity Buildings: Lessons Learned, J. Test. Eval., Vol. 39, No. 4. doi:10.1520/
JTE102999.
Copyright 2011 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
247
248 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
climates. This paper will focus on design strategies for avoiding problems,
but also discusses remedial work to existing buildings, drawing on the au-
thors experience with the investigation and repair of high-humidity buildings.
KEYWORDS: condensation, high-humidity, museum, natatorium,
hospital, airow
Introduction
Condensation Overview
The following summary is not intended to fully describe the theory and mecha-
nisms of condensation, and is presented as a general background for a discus-
sion of specic condensation problems in high-humidity buildings only.
Condensation describes the phase change process by which water vapor
becomes liquid water. A given volume of moist air a mixture of dry air and
water vapor will begin to undergo this process at a temperature known as the
dew point. The dew point is a function of the absolute moisture content of the
air and is independent of air temperature. This is different from RH, which is a
function of both moisture content and temperature, making the dew point a
better parameter for comparison of moisture contents at different tempera-
tures. Thus, a higher dew point equates to higher moisture levels regardless of
interior temperature. In buildings, condensation occurs on surfaces that are
colder than the dew point temperature. To some degree, the nature of a surface
will affect condensation, as porous surfaces may absorb moisture as it forms
and before it becomes visible, while impermeable surfaces show condensation
almost as soon as it begins to form.
Modes of Condensation
Condensation in buildings can occur on both visible and concealed surfaces.
Condensation on visible surfaces such as the interior of windows and doors
occurs when those surfaces are colder than the dew point of the interior air.
Condensation on concealed surfaces can occur by one of two mechanisms.
The rst is water vapor diffusion. Water vapor in the interior air can diffuse
through vapor permeable material, such as gypsum wallboard, most brous
insulation materials, and many types of concrete and masonry. The process of
water vapor diffusion is relatively slow, and is dependent on the water vapor
permeability of the building enclosure and the interior and exterior tempera-
ture and moisture conditions. If water vapor reaches a cold enough surface in
the enclosure, it will condense. Condensation typically occurs at material sur-
faces i.e., sheathing or insulation facers, although it can occur within a ma-
terial under the right conditions. For reference, at constant interior conditions
of 70 F 21.1 C/30 % RH and constant exterior conditions of 20 F
6.6 C/80 % RH typical of a Winter day in the northeast United States, the
theoretical maximum accumulation due to water vapor diffusion through a
vapor permeable insulated exterior wall is 0.2 oz 6 mL/day per square foot
0.09 m2 of wall area. This example assumes a 5/8 in. 0.015 m thick gypsum
wallboard on either side of 6 in. 0.1524 m metal studs and R-19 RSI-3.34
glass ber batt insulation, with condensation occurring at the inner face of the
exterior wallboard. Actual accumulations will vary, as vapor diffusion rates are
dependent on interior and exterior conditions, the latter of which are rarely
constant. The potential magnitude of water vapor ow is determined by the
250 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
difference in water vapor pressure a property of moist air that, similar to the
dew point, is a measure of absolute moisture content across a component.
Greater differences in water vapor pressure generally equate to a stronger driv-
ing force behind vapor diffusion.
The second mechanism of condensation occurs due to air leakage through
the building enclosure. Moving air can transport both heat and water vapor. In
buildings without continuous air barriers or buildings with defective air bar-
rier systems, airow through cracks and gaps in the building enclosure can
transport signicant amounts of water vapor from the interior to the exterior,
often through circuitous paths in the enclosure. Unlike vapor diffusion, which
is a relatively slow process, moving air can quickly transport a large quantity of
moisture from the interior environment to components in the enclosure that
are colder than the interior dew point. Using the same example and interior/
exterior conditions described above, the theoretical maximum accumulation of
moisture due to a 2 cfm 0.94 L/s air leak is 13 oz 385 mL/day per square
foot 0.09 m2 of wall area. This represents a 60-fold increase in moisture
accumulation as compared to vapor diffusion alone, and shows that air leakage
is typically the dominant mechanism for concealed condensation in building
envelopes. For high-humidity buildings with elevated temperature and mois-
ture levels, the theoretical moisture accumulation due to air leakage may be
double or even triple the accumulations seen in typical non-humidied build-
ings.
High-Humidity Buildings
Moisture Levels
Most general use buildings without specic humidication will experience rela-
tively low interior RH levels during Winter operation. Since the level of mois-
ture in the interior air is dependent on occupancy and moisture in the exterior
air, interior RH levels during dry Winter months in colder climates may be as
low as 1020 %, at a temperature of 70 F 21.1 C, due to both ventilation
and incidental air leakage from the exterior to the interior. This is benecial to
reducing condensation potential, as the interior RH levels are generally lowest
when outdoor temperatures are low and the condensation risk is highest. Con-
versely, extremely tight buildings with little to no ventilation may experience
abnormally high RH levels during the Winter due to the buildup of occupant-
generated moisture. Even without humidication, occupant-generated mois-
ture can lead to high RH levels if not dissipated by air exchange with the
exterior.
Museums and natatoriums are the two most common types of high-
humidity buildings that a typical architect will design. The ambient airborne
moisture levels within these spaces are 2 and 3 times, respectively, greater
than those in a typical ofce building during Winter operation. Operating con-
ditions in museums and similarly, archival storage facilities do not typically
vary by season, and are generally in the range of 68 2072 F 22.2 C and
4050 % RH. Although the unofcial museum environment is often taken as
OBRIEN AND PATEL, doi:10.1520/JTE102999 251
also create a moderate condensation risk in mixed climates and even some
warm climates during parts of the year. This can be extremely problematic, as
interior condensation is rarely a concern in typical buildings in warmer cli-
mates and may not be taken into account in special-use buildings as a result.
Pressure Differentials
While interior temperature and RH levels have a direct impact on surface con-
densation risk, air pressure differentials can signicantly affect the risk of con-
densation due to airow. Museums and archives are often maintained at a
positive interior air pressure relative to the exterior as a contaminant control
measure. Positive interior pressure tends to force air out through small open-
ings in the building enclosure unsealed laps in barriers, window perimeters,
etc. as well as through large openings such as windows and doors. This pre-
vents the uncontrolled entry of exterior contaminants into storage and display
spaces 2. Similar pressure differentials in hospitals may be maintained for
similar reasons, such as protection of immune-compromised patients from
contaminants or potential infections 9. Negative pressure may be used for
containment in some areas. A unique feature of hospitals is that varying pres-
sure differentials are often maintained in adjacent areas, making airow con-
trol necessary both between internal zones and between the interior and the
exterior. Natatoriums are often maintained at a negative pressure with respect
to the exterior to prevent the migration of humid air from the interior to the
exterior. However, negative pressure systems are often incapable of overcoming
the stack effect in tall spaces caused by the buoyancy of warm air. This is
discussed in greater detail in the following sections.
This section presents common problems and design guidelines for addressing
condensation in high-humidity buildings during the design phase, based on
both theory and the authors practical experience investigating problems in
high-humidity buildings.
OBRIEN AND PATEL, doi:10.1520/JTE102999 253
FIG. 4Skylights mounted high within a space. Arrow indicates location of closest
heat source, a linear diffuser.
FIG. 62D thermal analysis results temperatures showing difference in window per-
formance with perimeter accessories installed. Interior and exterior conditions are
based on NFRC 100procedure for determining fenestration product U-factors 16.
tion of high-performance systems based on available test data; although the test
data itself may not be sufcient, it provides a good starting point for a design.
Once a system is selected, both the system and the perimeter conditions which
are not addressed in the performance data should be analyzed using two-
dimensional 2D thermal analysis tools to estimate interior surface tempera-
tures based on the actual design conditions for the project. This type of analysis
provides more realistic estimates of system performance than product-only test
data.
The thermal performance of fenestration systems is almost always maxi-
mized by aligning the insulating component of the fenestration i.e., the insu-
lating glass units with the insulation in the building enclosure Fig. 7 12.
However, that detailing is still unlikely to bring the performance of the compo-
nent up to the same level as its tested performance. In the event that the se-
lected fenestration systems cannot by itself resist interior condensation, a
secondary means of condensation control will be necessary. This is typical in
natatoriums due to the extreme interior moisture conditions, but may also
occur in some museums in cold climates. Providing supplemental heat to fen-
estration systems in the form of warm air directed at the system can signi-
cantly reduce or eliminate interior condensation by providing both increased
local temperatures, increased heat delivery to the system via moving air, and
increased evaporation rates for condensation that may form on the surface
again, due to moving air. This approach requires careful coordination with
the project mechanical engineer, as duct layouts and system capacities need to
be designed accordingly to provide sufcient heating of the affected fenestra-
tion components Fig. 8.
Other options for supplemental heating include electric resistance heat
trace and radiant heating systems. Heat trace, although effective at delivering
heat directly to frame components where it is needed the most, is relatively
inefcient and may require periodic maintenance, making it more suited to
258 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
when condensation risk is the highest due to low exterior temperatures and
moisture-resistant nishes should be used in the vicinity of the shaded areas.
A last option for reducing condensation on glazed components is to mini-
mize their use in high-humidity areas. Although simple and cost effective, this
option is often at odds with the aesthetic intent of an architectural design and
may not be seen as a viable option by the design team.
For opaque walls and roofs, the use of continuous thermal insulation and
an effective air barrier is the best defense against surface condensation. Pre-
venting condensation at interface details or potential thermal bridges often
requires thermal analysis to estimate both interior surface temperatures and
the effectiveness of design solutions.
Concealed CondensationProblems
As previously discussed, concealed condensation in building enclosures may
occur through one of two mechanisms: Vapor diffusion or air leakage. Figure 9
illustrates these basic mechanisms of condensation within wall systems. Al-
though vapor diffusion is a relatively slow process in typical buildings, it can be
greatly accelerate in high-humidity buildings to increase the vapor drive from
the interior to the exterior. Problems may also occur in milder climates if an
adequate vapor control is not provided or a vapor retarder is placed on the
building exterior both common practices in these types of climates.
Condensation due to vapor diffusion is typically much less severe than that
caused by airow through the enclosure. At typical natatorium conditions dur-
ing the Winter, a relatively small air leak 5 cfm can theoretically transport up
to 1 gal 3.78 L of water through the building enclosure over the course of a
day. For buildings without continuous air barriers, leakage rates of several hun-
dred cfm are not uncommon resulting in massive amounts of water being
transported through the enclosure 14. Since the dew point of the airow will
be essentially the same as that of the interior air, comparing the interior con-
ditions to the annual exterior temperatures can provide a rough assessment of
condensation risk i.e., whenever the exterior temperature is below the interior
dew point, condensation due to airow is a potential risk. Figure 10 shows a
260 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
FIG. 10Comparison of exterior temperatures in New York and Miami and interior
dew points in a typical museum and natatorium.
comparison of dew points and exterior temperatures for New York, NY and
Tampa, FL, and demonstrates not only the severe risk associated with colder
climates but the moderate risks in warmer climates as well due to extreme
interior environments.
The risk of condensation due to multiple small airows can actually be
greater than that from large concentrated airows. This is due to the nature of
moving air, which carries heat as well as moisture. A large volume of warm air
moving through a wall may actually raise the surface temperatures of sur-
rounding components, reducing the incidence of condensation. However, large
airows still present a signicant problem in terms of heat losses or gains,
depending on the season.
In addition to air leakage though the exterior walls and roofs of a building,
internal airows can also be problematic in high-humidity buildings. This is
most common in natatoriums that are part of a larger athletic complex, and
include both humidied and non-humidied space, but also occurs in hospitals
where temperature, humidity, and air pressure differentials may exist between
adjacent rooms Fig. 11. Partition walls are often problematic, since designers
do not regularly design air and vapor barrier systems for interior walls. How-
ever, the lack of airow control through partition walls can lead to problems
ranging from elevated humidity levels in adjacent spaces which can lead to
condensation in the enclosure systems of those spaces or condensation on/
within the partitions.
A second form of internal airow that can lead to problems is the migration
of interior air to colder locations in the enclosure that may still be inboard of
the air barrier. The most common example of this is at parapets, which may be
OBRIEN AND PATEL, doi:10.1520/JTE102999 261
completely airtight but, despite insulation on the interior or exterior, may still
remain cold. In taller parapets, the upper portions of the construction may be
close to the exterior temperature due to the distance from interior heat sources
Fig. 12 12. Although airtight, normal convective currents within the parapet,
even relatively short parapets, may bring humid interior air into contact with
these surfaces, resulting in condensation if a suitable air barrier is not provided
Fig. 13 12.
The consequences of concealed condensation within walls can vary signi-
cantly, from simple staining to severe deterioration that goes unnoticed until a
component e.g., interior gypsum wallboard fails. On the exterior, eforescence
of masonry Fig. 14 due to increased wetting and, in extreme cases, ice forma-
tion Fig. 15 on the exterior of the building, can occur. While some of these
problems may occur in non-humidied buildings, they rarely occur with the
same speed and severity as in buildings with elevated interior moisture levels.
FIG. 122D thermal analysis results temperatures for a tall parapet. Top half of para-
pet is at or near exterior temperature. Interior temperature=70F 21.1C, exterior
temperature=0F 17.8C. Surface lms based on ASHRAE 2005 Handbook of Fun-
damentals, Chapter 25 Table 1.
negative pressure with respect to the exterior 1. This measure prevents moist
air from escaping through the building enclosure, instead causing exterior air
to be drawn in through any discontinuities in the enclosure. Although air inl-
tration will increase heating and cooling loads, that increase is less of a prob-
lem than widespread condensation within the building enclosure. Maintaining
negative pressure within a natatorium is only practical if the enclosure is fairly
OBRIEN AND PATEL, doi:10.1520/JTE102999 263
FIG. 13Convective loops within wall cavity lead to condensation within cold parapet.
Diagonal line indicates dew point isotherm for interior conditions. Interior temperature
=70F 21.1C, exterior temperature=0F 17.8C. Surface lms based on ASHRAE
2005 Handbook of Fundamentals, Chapter 25 Table 1.
airtight. The leakier the enclosure, the greater the amount of mechanical
exhaust necessary to maintain negative pressure and the greater the risk of
localized condensation due to the cooling effect of incoming exterior air. After
a certain point, maintaining negative pressure becomes impractical due to ei-
ther equipment capacity limitations or excessive added heating/cooling loads.
The mechanical system must also be designed to overcome stack pressure
in tall spaces typical competition natatoriums have ceiling heights of 30 ft
9.14 m or greater. If the mechanical system is only designed to maintain
neutral or negative pressure at the pool deck level, the actual pressure at the
264 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
underside of the roof may be positive to the buoyancy of warm interior air 15.
The relationship between a tight building enclosure and the ability of the me-
chanical system to maintain negative pressure underscores the close coordina-
tion required to achieve a working design.
As previously discussed, maintaining negative pressure is typically not an
option in museums due to contaminant control issues. Similarly, contaminant
control or patient protection in hospitals may control pressure balances, mak-
ing negative pressure not an option in all areas. In these cases, effective air
barriers and moisture-tolerant materials must be used to control airow-driven
condensation.
FIG. 16Condensation on original exterior windows due to air leakage past interior
storm window.
FIG. 17Schematic diagram of return wall system for solid masonry retrot.
reason, mockup testing is often required to ne tune such a system and validate
the performance of the built assembly.
Summary
The design of high-humidity buildings, especially in colder climates, inevitably
requires the selection of building enclosure systems that offer higher perfor-
mance and, by nature, cost more than the types of systems included in general
use buildings. This is especially problematic in warmer climates, where the
additional expense of high-performance systems may not be seen as justiable
by designers or owners who are not familiar with the potential problems asso-
ciated with high-humidity buildings. Despite these perceptions, high-
performance systems and more detailed design and analysis are absolutely es-
sential to preventing condensation and the associated problems of degradation,
loss-of-use, and damage to a facilitys reputation. This is especially true in mu-
seums, where even a small amount of condensation in the wrong place could
cause irreparable damage to a priceless artifact.
The following is a summary of the design steps necessary for addressing
condensation in high-humidity buildings:
As a general rule, avoid the use of moisture-sensitive nishes in areas
that may experience condensation. Incidental condensation may be ac-
ceptable in some locations if it will not cause damage to the surrounding
construction.
Design continuous insulation systems for opaque walls and roofs, and
align insulation with fenestration components to maximize their effec-
tiveness.
Select high-performance fenestration systems and analyze in-place per-
formance using thermal analysis tools.
Provide supplemental heating systems where necessary to boost fen-
estration performance, including systems to provide heat between fen-
estration and shading devices or laylights.
268 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
References
Elizabeth Ordner1
Manuscript received January 20, 2010; accepted for publication August 14, 2010; pub-
lished online September 2010.
1
Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, 10 South LaSalle, Suite 2600, Chicago, IL 60603.
Cite as: Ordner, E., Fenestration Condensation Resistance: Computer Simulation and
In Situ Performance, J. Test. Eval., Vol. 39, No. 2. doi:10.1520/JTE102983.
Copyright 2011 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
269
270 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Environmental Conditions
Since both temperature and surface air lm conditions affect results, the NFRC
500 simulation procedure species the standardized boundary conditions
shown in Table 1 above and as referenced in NFRC 100-2010, Procedure for
Determining Fenestration Product U-Factors 6.
The standardized air temperatures and lm coefcients, though necessary
for a comparison standard, rarely reect in-service conditions, as temperatures
and wind speeds are not steady-state and only perchance meet
18.0 C 0.4 F outside and 21.0 C 69.8 F inside. Localized interior air
temperatures adjacent to a fenestration product are affected by heat register
placement, window treatments, and furniture placement. Heating systems are
generally designed to warm the interior surfaces of the fenestration product. If
the heat source is inappropriately placed or blocked, the fenestration surface
temperatures can signicantly decrease. Furniture and window treatments can
2
Note that the standardized NFRC simulation parameters are similar to the AAMA test
method procedures as described in the paragraph above, but for the purposes of this
paper, only the NFRC parameters are discussed.
TABLE 1Standardized boundary conditions for NFRC simulations.
1200 x 1500
Casement- Double XX
(47 x 59)
1200 x 1500
Fixed O
(47 x 59)
2000 x 2000
Glazed Wall OO
(79 x 79)
1500 x 1200
Horiz. Slider XO or XX
(59 x 47)
1200 x 1500
Vertical Slider XO or XX
(47 x 59)
act as insulators or prevent heat from reaching the fenestration, also decreasing
the surface temperatures. Wherever surface temperatures are decreased, the
potential for condensation increases.
FIG. 1NFRC simulation with no heat transfer between frame and surround solid
black line=plane of zero heat transfer.
FIG. 2In situ simulation with heat transfer occurring between frame and surround.
Note that due to misalignment of thermal planes, the interior side of the frame is colder
than when surround is not modeled solid black line=plane of zero heat transfer.
ORDNER, doi:10.1520/JTE102983 275
case of a curtain wall, for the purposes of NFRC simulation procedures, the
vision lite is the fenestration product and the insulated spandrel panel is the
surround. Spandrel insulation moves the thermal plane of the curtain wall
inward, thereby lowering interior surface temperatures of framing members
adjacent to the insulation. The heat transfer between the surround and the
fenestration product is not considered in the NFRC rating procedure; hence,
the rating procedure does not provide an accurate representation of in situ CR.
Case Study
Description of Software
NFRC-approved computer software includes WINDOW and THERM 9, which
were developed by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. THERM incor-
porates the nite element method to analyze two-dimensional, steady-state
heat transfer through a cross section. THERM is used to calculate frame and
edge of glass U-factors and can be used to demonstrate temperature and heat
ow patterns. WINDOW is used in conjunction with THERM to calculate cen-
ter of glass U-factors and total product U-factors, solar heat gain coefcients,
visible transmittance, and CR ratings.
on surface 2. Both the glass spandrels and the aluminum panels are insulated
with 100 mm 4 in. of mineral wool insulation with a galvanized steel back
pan.
An overall exterior view of the curtain wall is shown in Fig. 3. Curtain wall
shop drawings are included in Fig. 4.
When comparing the north and south curtain wall with blinds open and
closed, the following results were found.
The south curtain wall with the adjacent diffuser was 4F warmer at
the head and 3F colder at the sill than the north curtain wall with the
blinds open. As expected, the head at the south curtain wall was warmer
than the north curtain wall due to the closer proximity of the diffuser at
the south curtain wall washing more warm air on the upper surfaces.
Closing the blinds on the north curtain wall lowered the surface tem-
peratures at the sill by 2 3F at the frame and edge of glass and 4F at
the center of glass. Surface temperatures were slightly higher or un-
changed at the head.
Closing the blinds on the south curtain wall increased the frame surface
temperatures by 8 14F at the frame and edge of glass and 68F at
the center of glass. The increase in temperatures is due to incidental
solar radiation warming the air gap between the blinds and the glass. To
support this conclusion, readings were taken at night with the blinds
closed, and similar to the north curtain wall, the sill surface tempera-
tures were 3 4F lower than with the blinds open.
This data demonstrates the potential effect that diffuser placement and the
presence of window treatments have on the curtain wall. It is difcult to pre-
cisely determine the potential change in surface temperatures in the case study
due to the dynamic nature of the supply air supply air from the diffuser at the
adjacent lite had a warming effect on the north curtain wall head, and a curtain
wall specimen without supply air wash was not measured, the supply air by-
passing the vinyl blinds, and the effect of solar radiation when the blinds were
closed surface temperature readings were recorded during daylight hours
only; however, we can conclude that surface temperatures are indeed affected
by changes in surrounding environmental conditions.
When comparing the measured temperatures Method 3 to the predicted
temperatures Method 2, the following results were found.
TABLE 3Comparison of average measured surface temperatures Method 3, average simulated surface temperatures Method 2, and the
difference between the average measured Method 3 and simulated Method 2 temperatures for the north and south curtain wall with the
blinds open and closed.
1 Corner of glass upper 11.1 52.0 8.7 47.7 2.4 4.4 17.1 62.8 4.6 40.2 12.5 22.6
2 Head 13.7 56.6 10.2 50.3 3.5 6.3 17.9 64.3 6.8 44.2 11.1 20.0
3 Jamb upper 8.1 46.6 8.8 47.9 0.7 1.3 15.9 60.6 5.6 42.0 10.3 18.6
4 Center of glass upper 14.6 58.3 14.3 57.7 0.3 0.6 19.1 66.3 6.9 44.4 12.2 21.9
5 Jamb lower 8.8 47.8 8.3 47.0 0.5 0.8 14.4 58.0 5.6 42.0 8.8 16.0
6 Center of glass lower 9.8 49.7 13.9 57.1 4.1 7.4 13.0 55.4 6.9 44.4 6.1 11.0
7 Corner of glass lower 6.9 44.4 8.3 46.9 1.4 2.6 12.8 55.1 4.7 40.4 8.1 14.6
TABLE 3 Continued.
Conclusion
The NFRC 500 simulation method used to determine CR ratings is based on an
individual fenestration product of a standard conguration and size, simulated
in an opening that neglects heat transfer between the surround and the fenes-
tration product, with steady-state interior and exterior temperature conditions.
These CR ratings allow the ability to select a fenestration product based on its
ability to resist condensation as compared to another product. However, be-
cause various project-specic installation details and environmental conditions
are not simulated, CR ratings should not be used to predict if condensation will
actually occur after installation.
The case study presented demonstrates that when in situ conditions i.e.,
fenestration surround and environmental conditions are taken into account,
interior surface temperatures can be signicantly lower 20 F for this case
study than the surface temperatures used to calculate CR ratings. Therefore,
understanding how installation details affect a fenestration products thermal
performance, in combination with the rating methods discussed, is necessary
to help avoid the formation of condensation. In some cases where CR is critical
or where environmental conditions are more severe, a computer simulation
modeling actual installation conditions or a test mockup may be necessary to
verify the performance of fenestration products. In all cases, good judgment in
designing and specifying fenestration products/assemblies can help prevent
condensation problems.
References
Manuscript received January 10, 2010; accepted for publication October 8, 2010; pub-
lished online December 2010.
1
P.E., Simpson Gumpertz & Heger Inc., Waltham, MA 02453.
2
P.E., Simpson Gumpertz & Heger Inc., Rockville, MD 20850.
Cite as: Nelson, P. E. and Totten, P. E., Improving the Condensation Resistance of
Fenestration by Considering Total Building Enclosure and Mechanical System
Interaction, J. Test. Eval., Vol. 39, No. 3. doi:10.1520/JTE102969.
Copyright 2011 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
286
NELSON AND TOTTEN, doi:10.1520/JTE102969 287
ture, and interior furnishings can block heat ow and cause condensation; 4
how the two-dimensional thermal analysis can be used to evaluate the con-
densation potential and evaluate possible solutions; 5 the results of infrared
thermography used to evaluate both condensation problems and evaluate
the solutions; 6 the importance of long-term data logging and monitoring of
the results; and 7 the review of options for reducing condensation occur-
rences through passive heat n and insulation and active heat trace
means.
KEYWORDS: condensation resistance, air leakage, diffusive vapor
transport, thermal bridging, HVAC interaction, fenestration
Introduction
Condensation can occur at fenestration for numerous reasons. This includes
thermal performance of the fenestration product, the tie-in to adjacent struc-
tural and building enclosure components including insulation systems, and air
ow to the window from mechanical systems. Other considerations including
the effects of wind washing of the fenestration and air leakage that may occur
at the window surround can also affect the fenestration product and lead to
lowering of temperatures at the surface such that condensation occurs. We are
also nding many more projects that have elevated interior humidity levels to
improve human comfort or meet the control demands for industrial or com-
mercial applications with condensation problems. Sometimes, the elevated in-
terior humidity levels are linked to newer air tight buildings, which reduce the
outside air ventilation exchanges through a leakier building enclosure.
Window designers typically rely on the condensation resistance factor
CRF in choosing a window or curtain wall system. However, the CRF number
alone will not determine whether the fenestration product window, curtain
wall, storefront, etc. will condense. As noted by OBrien 1, the window posi-
tioning within the assembly can greatly affect its overall performance with
respect to condensation resistance. As such, the CRF number is only a starting
point in the selection criteria.
To improve the overall resistance to condensation at fenestration, several
factors must be reviewed including the following:
The climate outside the building
The interior environmental conditions temperature and relative humid-
ity RH
The method of anchoring/attaching the fenestration
The attachment of the air barrier and locations of all air seals
The method of gasketing/sealing the fenestration product
The tie-in to the building enclosures thermal barrier
The interaction with structural components that form part of the build-
ings structural system
The location of mechanical system supplied heat sources, the type of
heat source, and the method by wish the heat is delivered
The type of glazing and the construction of the glazing system i.e.,
insulated glazing unit IGU, heat mirror, etc.
Type and location of window framing and thermal breaks
288 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Any and all potential thermal bridges, including those that may be
caused by sun shade, light shelve anchorage systems, and other archi-
tectural features surrounding the windows
In addition, thermal analysis such as the calculation performed by using
THERM 2 two-dimensional 2D analysis and HEAT 3 3 three-dimensional
3D analysis are useful to assess the potential for condensation at design tem-
peratures, as well as at typical temperatures, for example, Winter temperatures,
for a particular climate. They can be used to examine the potential options to
provide remedial solutions to correct the condensation problems. With addi-
tional calculations, an estimate of the duration and the potential volume of
accumulating condensation can be projected. We discuss each of these factors
to show ways to improve the fenestrations resistance to condensation below.
The fenestration products as tested for CRF do not include the surrounding
construction, such as ashing systems, structural support and anchorage, the
adjacent wall elements, and insulation systems. The test is only used to exam-
ine the fenestration product. The CRF test, therefore, does not accurately pro-
vide the design team with data on the resistance of the overall construction. As
such, a second test using the entire intended assembly should be evaluated.
However, the use of thermal analysis tools, such as THERM 2, can provide the
design team useful information to understand what elements may need to be
rened to address the potential condensation problems without performing a
test. The case studies at the end of the paper provide several examples of using
the analysis tools to further examine thermal inefciencies.
The surrounding structure to the fenestration has a great inuence on its
overall performance 1,4,5. As fenestrations are typically the least energy ef-
cient component of a building enclosure with respect to the overall thermal
resistance, optimizing the fenestration placement to maximize the overall per-
formance is recommended. In doing so, it is then necessary to examine the
interaction of the fenestration with the surrounding elements to limit the peri-
ods of condensation. The ASHRAE 189.1 standard 6 for high performance
green buildings introduces an increased potential for condensation for fenes-
tration due to the requirements in some climate zones to super insulate walls
i.e., some to as high as R-40 overall as it makes fenestration placement more
difcult in certain wall types. A review of other concerns on overall energy
efciency will not be discussed in this paper.
To examine the fenestration placement within an opening, the following
should be studied.
What type of heat source will supply heat to the fenestration in Winter,
and how far is the heat ow source from the window?
Is the fenestration isolated from heat ow sources due to a temporary or
permanent obstruction, such as blinds or furniture?
Is the thermal break in the frame aligned with the IGU, and if any por-
tion of an accessory is also thermally broken, is it in line with the pri-
mary thermal break?
NELSON AND TOTTEN, doi:10.1520/JTE102969 289
Have potential air ows around the perimeter of the fenestration been
blocked off such that cold Winter time air and, in Summer, potentially
humid warm outdoor air are not allowed to come in contact with por-
tions of the window that are at or below the dew point temperature? Are
the air seals used to close off air ow paths durable, or will they require
regular maintenance?
Are there any framing elements or accessories/hardware that under-
mines the thermal break by bridging across the break and thus short
circuiting the system?
Will the structure, such as framing steel, concrete, stone, masonry, or
similar more thermally conductive elements short circuit the insulation
system at the fenestration interface?
Are any components such as attachments for interior light shelves or
exterior sun shades attached in such a way that the thermal path has
been altered to bypass the thermal break, and if so, do these create a
thermal bridge that increases the condensation potential?
Is the fenestration thermally attached to the exterior cladding such as
architectural precast concrete, brick masonry, stone, metal panel, or
similar materials, which might undermine the intent of the thermal
break of the fenestration?
Is the thermal break of the system aligned approximately with the mid-
point of the insulation system? Is the frame positioned such that the
inboard portion of the frame and the center of the IGU are inboard of at
least the midpoint of the insulation system?
We will discuss each of these items in the following sections.
Thermal Bridges
Ideally, the location of thermal insulation of the wall should be aligned closely
with the IGU and the thermal break of the window. The misalignment of the
292 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
thermal layers will cause the internal portions of the window to be cold and
condense. The amount of condensation can range from small localized zones of
beading water to heavy frost accumulation and wetting and water damage to
adjacent nishes. Additionally, the misalignment can lead to thermal discom-
fort from cold air ow and an increase in utility costs. Summer warm weather
conditions can also cause condensation on cold surfaces. Extraneous air ow
typically accompanies thermal alignment problems as the air barrier of the wall
cannot be adequately sealed to the windows.
The thermal pathways can be modeled in 2D or 3D heat transfer software,
such as THERM 2 or HEAT 3 3. These programs calculate the heat ow and
show how thermal bridges provide a path of lesser resistance through insula-
tion layers, thus lowering or raising temperatures. The colored heat ow dia-
grams help visualize the effect of thermal shortcuts and the location of poten-
tial condensation.
Common examples of how thermal misalignment can occur include mis-
alignment of the thermal insulation of the wall with the insulation break of the
window, thermal discrepancies in the window opening caused by stopping the
wall insulation too far from the edge of the window, constructing the window
opening with masonry or metal that forms a thermal short circuit, or designing
sun shades or architectural ns that act as the thermal short circuit for the
windows or the walls. The attachment of aluminum window frames to ther-
mally conductive components of the wall that extends to the outside may inu-
ence the window by allowing the cold to draw up into the window assembly
due to the increased heat loss through the more conductive components. Ther-
mally breaking the joint between the aluminum window and the thermal sur-
rounds may help improve the performance of the window. However, condensa-
tion may still occur in hidden areas. In such cases, additional evaluation is
needed to study the effects of this concealed condensation to determine if this
wetting will cause decay and durability problems and if adding heat to these
areas is needed to reduce the condensation effect.
FIG. 1Condensation on the window frame and glazing gasket at the sill.
tubing to the far side of the frame and slowly retracting it back to the entry-
point to ll the frame. The insulation used to retrot existing frames, if in the
wet zone, needs to be moisture tolerant.
Examples
We give below three examples where condensation occurred and the proposed
or implemented solution for each based on numerous past project experiences.
struction with an active heat trace. See Fig. 2 for the heat n conguration and
Fig. 3 for an example of the analysis results for the heat n. Window shimming
could not be added to these windows, nor could retrotting insulation within
the frame. On other projects where insulation within the frame and shimming
could be applied, we have found a temperature improvement at the sill as much
as 4 5 F. Here, we were able to add localized insulation to the window sur-
round. However, the heat trace was ultimately used due to the long distance to
many of the condensing windows from the nearest forced air diffuser. Had heat
from a diffuser been positioned closer to the window the passive solution
would have worked. The thermally conductive n takes heat from one location
and transfers it to another location. When insulated outboard of the n, this
transfer is quite efcient with minimal loss. The mock-ups on this project were
monitored by using temperature and RH sensors, as well as thermocouples
with data loggers.
or extra weeps at the head as well as the sill to vent the box, and the interior
pressurization of the building. The higher the interior humidity, the greater the
volume of condensation within the shadow box.
In these cases, the air sealing of the frame joinery and of the back pan/
insulation system as well as the venting of the box with dry outside air has been
effective in improving the condensation problems if there are tight internal
seals.
Conclusions
Based on our experience, we provide the following conclusions.
CRF numbers should only be used as a starting point in choosing fen-
estration for condensation resistance; the positioning of the product, the
interaction with the mechanical system, and the adjacent enclosure el-
ements can greatly affect its performance.
Analysis tools such as THERM 2 and HEAT 3 3 as well as CFD can be
used to evaluate both congurations for new work as well as retrot
work to evaluate condensation potential.
Air leakage through window surrounds can increase the risk for conden-
sation. The location and position of the air seals are critical to keeping
cold exterior air from entering into and short circuiting the thermal
insulation zone around the windows. An air leak from the outside to
inside can cause a consistent feed of colder air and result in increased
levels of condensation.
Details only provided in 2D may not adequately show the necessary
NELSON AND TOTTEN, doi:10.1520/JTE102969 297
FIG. 4Thermal analysis of the window system after thermal improvements at sill.
FIG. 5Thermal evaluation of structural retrot of new energy efcient windows into
an existing curtain wall.
298 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
tie-in at fenestration surrounds for the air seals at the sill-to-jamb and
jamb-to-head interface.
Interior air leakage into spandrel panel and shadow boxes in fenestra-
tion systems, especially humidied air, can result in condensation in the
shadow box. The amount of condensation is dependent on the pressure
difference between the interior and the exterior, the size of the holes in
the air barriers, and the ow path.
A careful review of furniture and blind placement is necessary to avoid
obstructing heat ow that is needed to warm cold windows.
The interaction of the mechanical system with the building enclosure is
many times overlooked. Windows that rely on constant heat ow from
the HVAC system are at higher risk for condensation when the HVAC
systems are set back i.e., reduced temperature.
References
Todd A. Gorrell1
Manuscript received February 2, 2010; accepted for publication October 19, 2010; pub-
lished online December 2010.
1
Senior Associate, Klein and Hoffman, 150 South Wacker Dr., Suite 1900, Chicago, IL
60606.
Cite as: Gorrell, T. A., Condensation Problems in Precast Concrete Cladding Systems in
Cold Climates, J. Test. Eval., Vol. 39, No. 4. doi:10.1520/JTE103017.
Copyright 2011 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
299
300 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Introduction
Panelized precast concrete is commonly used as a cladding material on build-
ings throughout North America, and for very good reason, it is an economical
and attractive cladding system for contemporary buildings. The low cost of
concrete materials and relatively fast installation can reduce the cost of precast
panel cladding versus other more labor intensive systems, such as unit ma-
sonry. The wide variety of colors and textures available, as well as optional
applied nishes thin applied stone and brick, for example, allows for a wide
range of architectural possibilities. The precast concrete cladding is used on
many building types, both low and high rise, and is often found on hospital
buildings, institutional facilities, and multi-family dwellings, such as condo-
minium buildings 1.
Some of the building types where precast concrete panels are specied can
have high interior relative humidity RH conditions whether intentional or
not, such as hospitals, museums, or residential buildings. In cold climates,
condensation problems can occur within the exterior walls of precast concrete
clad buildings, and if uncontrolled, the condensation water accumulation can
cause visible and extensive damage to interior nishes. The water within the
wall system can damage concealed structural components, such as panel an-
chor systems, structural steel framing, and metal wall framing. Moisture accu-
mulation within the wall can also lead to mold growth, which in severe occur-
rences may cause health-related injuries.
The condensation forming within the precast concrete walls is usually
caused by improper design and detailing of the wall system, and by inappro-
priate construction. This condition is largely preventable if the principles of
vapor and water management and thermal transfer are understood and ad-
dressed by both the designer and contractor. Condensation can also be caused
by the building owner maintaining improper environmental conditions after
the building is occupied. This too is avoidable with proper education of the
building owner and maintenance staff.
Condensation
The air around us contains signicant water in vapor form. The amount of
water vapor that air holds referred to as RH is affected by the temperature of
the air; warm air can retain more moisture than cold air. Water vapor is ab-
sorbed and released from an air mass by the processes of evaporation and
condensation, respectively. In cold climates during Wintertime, moisture is
often added to a buildings interior air with humidiers to increase the comfort
level for building occupants and to protect the nish materials, furniture, and
art work. Condensation occurs when warmer, moist air contacts a surface that
is colder than the dew point temperature of the air mass. This results in the
water vapor in the air transitioning to liquid water on the cold surface 1,2.
Wintertime condensation is typically a greater concern in cold regions, such as
U.S. Regions 5 through 8 as shown in Fig. 18 of Ref 1 in the Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institutes Designers Notebook for Energy Conservation and Con-
densation Control 1.
GORRELL, doi:10.1520/JTE103017 301
FIG. 1Water damaged ceiling tiles caused by condensation on precast panels above.
This building is in Climate Zone 5A, and the precast panels are insulated with foil-faced
rigid insulation applied directly to the precast panels.
During Wintertime, when warm, moist interior air is able to leak through
the exterior envelope of a building through holes and unsealed joints exltra-
tion, it can form condensation on the surfaces of cold building components
within the wall. Water vapor diffusion through a wall assembly without an
effective vapor retarder can also result in condensation within the wall, al-
though this is usually less of a problem than condensation caused by bulk air
leakage, which quickly transports far greater amounts of moisture than diffu-
sion alone 2.
In precast clad wall systems in cold climates, condensation is most often
observed within the wall assembly forming on the inside face of the precast
panel, which is nearly the same temperature as the exterior face except for
insulated sandwich panels. Condensation can also form on other exposed sur-
faces to the exterior of the wall insulation, such as steel anchors, steel framing
members, and other metal components.
The condensation that forms within the wall assembly will ow downward
until it meets an obstruction, such as the smoke seal at a oor slab, or a win-
dow head, which then results in the water being directed inward where it soaks
into and damages interior nishes, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Condensation
water can also soak into some insulating materials, thereby reducing their in-
sulating value and exacerbating the overall problem.
During extended periods of subfreezing temperatures, portions of the inter-
nal wall components will be below freezing and condensation will form within
the wall as ice, as shown in Figs. 3 and 4. As long as temperatures remain below
302 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
FIG. 3A small portion of ice accumulation on back face of precast concrete panel
after most of the ice had already melted. This precast wall is in Climate Zone 6A and
is insulated with batt insulation between metal studs with a polyethylene vapor retarder
behind the gypsum wallboard. The batt insulation was saturated with water.
GORRELL, doi:10.1520/JTE103017 303
FIG. 4The ice accumulation on metal curtain wall framing in direct contact with
precast panel insulation removed for inspection.
freezing, the condensation ice will accumulate until temperatures rise above
freezing and the ice melts, releasing large amounts of water into the building
interior at one time 2. This sudden melt condition is sometimes mistaken as
exterior water leakage through the wall instead of condensation.
FIG. 5The precast cladding is insulated with batt insulation in a stud wall and cov-
ered with polyethylene vapor retarder. This building is in Climate Zone 6A.
FIG. 6The precast cladding is insulated with direct-applied mineral wool insulation
with integral foil scrim vapor retarder with taped joints. This building is in Climate
Zone 5A.
GORRELL, doi:10.1520/JTE103017 305
Unanticipated Conditions
The design drawings typically include the details that are found within normal
line of sight, such as window jambs and heads, at oor lines, at column/wall
306 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
FIG. 9The unsealed vapor retarder at electrical penetration allows bulk air leakage
through the wall.
GORRELL, doi:10.1520/JTE103017 307
FIG. 7A view looking up through open ceiling tile at interface between window head
frame and a precast panel above. The foil scrim vapor retarder is not continuous to the
window frame, and the joint above the window is uninsulated. The bottom edge of the
precast panel is visible and directly exposed to interior air ow.
FIG. 10The unsealed vapor retarder at steel anchor penetration allows bulk air exl-
tration to the precast panel. In addition, the steel framing is uninsulated and will act as
a thermal bridge across the wall insulation.
308 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
FIG. 11A view looking up through an opening into a ceiling soft revealed the inter-
face between the curtain wall framing and the precast panels. The precast panel was
uninsulated and without a vapor retarder. Interior air was able to reach the back face of
the precast panels via the ceiling soft.
wall system, and during construction, this resulted in missing insulation and
vapor retarder at these interface locations. This omission created a direct path-
way for interior air to the precast panels and signicant condensation damage
occurred. Not all such conditions can be reasonably foreseen during the design
phase, but most can be addressed during construction if a building envelope
quality control program or a building envelope commissioning program is in
effect to help identify such deciencies 3.
Window Placement
Another form of condensation observed in precast clad buildings is at the inte-
rior surface of metal window frames, including thermally improved windows.
The accumulation of condensation water on the interior surfaces of the win-
dow frame is sometimes mistakenly attributed to water leakage through the
window, or a failure of the windows thermal break system, when in fact the
cause is related to either the design or installation of the window to the precast
interface detail.
Generally, this type of condensation problem is caused by poor placement
of the window assembly in relation to the precast panel, or by lack of thermal
separation between the precast panels and the thermally improved portion of
the window system. All too often, the thermally improved metal window sys-
tems are specied to be inset completely within the thickness of precast panel
cladding so that the interior portion of the window frame is directly adjacent to
GORRELL, doi:10.1520/JTE103017 309
FIG. 12Thermally improved window jamb inset into precast panel with no insulation
in the perimeter joint between window and precast panel. Under given temperature
differential, the interior surface of the window frame is below freezing and would likely
exhibit condensation.
the precast panel. In cold temperatures, the proximity of the cold concrete can
reduce the temperature of the window frame below the dew point temperature
of interior air.
To illustrate this scenario, a commonly observed thermally improved win-
dow jamb detail was modeled by using the THERM 5.2 heat transfer modeling
program 4, as shown in Fig. 12. The window system was placed directly ad-
jacent to a 6 in. 152 mm thick precast panel and no insulation was included in
the window perimeter joint. The model was analyzed at an exterior tempera-
ture of 10 F 23 C and an interior temperature of 70 F 21 C. If the
interior air is at 30 % RH, the dew point temperature of the air would be 37 F
2.8 C. The THERM model calculated the interior surface temperature of the
metal window frame to be 29.9 F 1.2 C, which is less than the dew point.
Therefore, this scenario would result in condensation, likely in the form of
frost, forming on the window frame.
Adding insulation to the window perimeter joint would improve the situa-
tion by increasing the temperature of the window frame by several degrees, as
shown in Fig. 13. Under some conditions, this added insulation alone may
prevent condensation on the window frame. However, repositioning the win-
dow inward to locate the thermal break of the window generally in line with the
wall insulation vastly improves the performance of the window system and
eliminates the likelihood of condensation on the window frame under normal
conditions, as shown in Fig. 14.
FIG. 13Same conguration as Fig. 12 with the addition of insulation in the perimeter
joint, resulting in the interior surface of the window frame rising by several degrees.
FIG. 14Window shifted inward to more closely align the window thermal break with
the wall insulation, thereby dramatically increasing the interior surface temperature of
the window frame.
GORRELL, doi:10.1520/JTE103017 311
choice for many projects, provided that the installed thickness of spray-
applied insulation can develop the vapor resistance required for the ap-
plication. The designer should keep in mind that re-rating require-
ments in some jurisdictions requires that additional steps should be
taken to protect or encapsulate this material in wall and roof assem-
blies.
Provide an appropriate level of drawing details to indicate the following:
Continuity of vapor retarder and insulation systems, including termi-
nation at wall openings. These details should clearly show that vapor
retarder membranes are sealed to window and door frames and do
not stop short in order to prevent internal air and vapor exltration
3.
Penetrations are properly sealed, and in the case of steel members,
insulated to prevent thermal bridging 3.
Locate window systems to prevent the thermally improved portion of
the windows from close proximity to cold wall components without
adequate thermal separation.
Consider the wall details that occur at locations other than the usual
line of sight locations. Cut the wall sections, both vertical and hori-
zontal, above ceilings and through soft areas to identify the problem
areas that could lead to air leakage and condensation.
Provide mechanical systems that properly monitor and regulate the in-
terior humidity conditions based on exterior temperatures.
Secondary drainage systems may be used to collect and drain incidental
water at the back face of precast panels, but these systems may not be
completely effective against condensation. These secondary drainage
systems typically consist of a gutter or reglet at the back of the precast
panels to collect water and drain it to the exterior through weep tubes.
However, there is usually a portion of the panel below these gutters
where condensation can form and ow down to the oor level where it
travels across the re/smoke seal and into the building. In addition,
when temperatures are cold enough that the condensation forms as ice,
the weep tubes will also be frozen and will not drain.
During the construction phase, the project team should incorporate
steps to identify and correct the potential air leakage and condensation
conditions as follows:
Specify and perform a quality control program or building envelope
commissioning program to inspect the installation of the exterior en-
velope systems and their components 3,5. Particular examination
should be performed at the interface between different systems and
different construction trades.
Specify and perform air leakage testing 3. Initial testing should be
performed during the building enclosure mock-ups to identify inad-
equacies in the design or construction prior to building-wide instal-
lation. Thereafter, perform regular intermittent testing during con-
struction at representative areas as determined based on the size and
complexity of the building enclosure design.
Upon completion of the exterior envelope for the building, consider
312 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
For the existing precast clad buildings that are experiencing condensation
problems, the resulting interior water damage is often mistakenly attributed to
water leakage from the exterior. An investigation of the problem area should be
performed to determine if the condensation is the actual cause, and should
include the following.
Review of the design drawings to identify possible causes for either
water inltration or the potential for condensation.
Determine the history and pattern of the observed water inltration.
Water leaks or damage that occurs only during Wintertime, particularly
after a thaw event, are likely due to condensation within the wall.
Perform an inspection of the wall exterior for possible avenues of water
leakage. This may require water testing to conrm or deny that leakage
from the exterior is occurring.
Investigate the as-built wall construction by using inspection openings
to identify pathways for air leakage. Also, inspect vapor retarder termi-
nations and seals, continuity of insulation materials, and internal signs
of condensation or water leakage. Pressurizing the building or specic
building areas and using a smoke pencil is useful to pinpoint air leaks.
Measure interior temperature and RH levels to determine if they are
possibly contributing to the condensation. These measurements should
be performed at the time of the condensation event. If available, the
historic HVAC data for the building temperatures and RH measure-
ments is also useful to determine the causes for observed condensa-
tion.
Once a condensation problem is identied, the repair options can be stud-
ied. Ideally, this would include removal of interior nishes to the extent neces-
sary to fully repair or replace the insulation and vapor retarder systems, and
sometimes that is the only effective solution. However, more often than not,
this extensive approach is either not possible, or is unnecessary. The simplest
solution may be modifying the mechanical systems, or the occupants habits, to
reduce the moisture levels in the building.
In most cases, the repairs will need to include some removal of interior or
GORRELL, doi:10.1520/JTE103017 313
FIG. 15A view looking up through a ceiling opening at spray foam insulation repair
installed on the back face of a precast concrete panel. The spray foam was applied to an
overall thickness to serve as both insulation and vapor retarder, as well as an air barrier
to seal openings in the wall system.
exterior nishes to expose and repair improper termination details of the insu-
lation and vapor retarder, such as at windows, doors, and at ceilings or oors.
These repairs typically consist of adding supplemental insulation materials to
complete the insulation envelope, and taping of gaps in the vapor retarder
membrane. As previously described, the use of spray-applied, closed-cell poly-
urethane foam is becoming a commonly used material in building walls, and
this is especially true for remediation of condensation problems, as shown in
Fig. 15. In addition to its physical characteristics, the ability of the expanding
foam product to be installed into tight joints and irregular openings, as well as
its ability to bond with many building materials, makes this product well-suited
to this application. However, careful evaluation and design of the application
and proper installation must be performed to provide an effective solution.
Where possible, it would also be prudent to perform and evaluate a trial
repair prior to embarking on a widespread repair project. A trial repair area
should be selected to include representative areas of the wall system that have
previously experienced condensation and are large enough to incorporate typi-
cal wall conditions joint conditions, interfaces with adjacent cladding systems,
etc.. The repair design should be fully executed in the trial repair areas by
using the same materials and techniques that would be used for a comprehen-
sive repair program. Depending on the conguration of the building and trial
repair areas, a special perimeter detailing may be required to isolate the trial
repair area from the adjacent wall to prevent inadvertent lateral air and water
vapor ow that may adversely affect the test results. The duration of a trial
repair should typically include all seasons for which condensation has previ-
ously occurred, which for cold climate regions usually means a full Winter
season. The trial repair area should be regularly monitored throughout the
duration of the test and compared with other wall areas to compare the relative
improvement of the repaired wall areas.
314 JTE STP 1498 ON EXTERIOR BUILDING WALL SYSTEMS
Conclusions
References
Author Index
A Morgan, C. M., 226-246
Subject Index
A G
D M
F N
P V