Armstrong's Handbook of Management and Leadership For HR - 4th
Armstrong's Handbook of Management and Leadership For HR - 4th
Handbook of
Management and
Leadership for HR
Also available by Michael Armstrong
www.koganpage.com
Fourth edition
Armstrong’s
Handbook of
Management and
Leadership for HR
Developing effective people skills for
better leadership and management
Michael Armstrong
Kogan Page
Publisher’s note
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sponsibility for any errors or omissions, however caused. No responsibility for loss or
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terial in this publication can be accepted by the editor, the publisher or the author.
First published as The Handbook of Management and Leadership in Great Britain and the United
States in 2005 by Kogan Page Limited
Second edition published as Armstrong’s Handbook of Management and Leadership in 2009
Third edition published in 2012
Fourth edition published as Armstrong’s Handbook of Management and Leadership for HR
in 2016
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A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.
01 Leadership 3
Introduction 4
Leadership defined 4
Leadership theories 5
What leaders do 11
Leadership style 14
Types of leaders 15
Leadership development 20
02 Management 27
Introduction 28
Management defined 28
The role of the management of an organization 28
The role of the manager 29
The characteristics that managers need 29
Strategic management 30
Leadership and management compared 33
Managing virtual teams 34
Effective managers 36
03 Developing people 41
Introduction 41
How people learn 42
The motivation to learn 42
Learning theory 43
vi Contents
Learning styles 43
Lessons from neuroscience 44
09 Motivation 187
Introduction 188
The meaning of motivation 188
Types of motivation 188
Motivation theory 189
Conclusions 198
10 Commitment 201
Introduction 202
The importance of commitment 202
Commitment and engagement 203
Critical evaluation of the concept of commitment 204
Factors affecting commitment 205
Developing a commitment strategy 206
viii Contents
11 Employee engagement 211
Introduction 212
The meaning of employee engagement 212
The components of employee engagement 213
Drivers of employee engagement 215
Outcomes of engagement 216
Enhancing employee engagement 216
Measuring engagement 222
Critical evaluation of the concept of employee
engagement 223
12 Change management 227
Introduction 228
Types of change 228
The change process 229
Change models 230
Resistance to change 234
Implementing change 236
Organizational transformation 238
The role of HR in managing change 240
13 Flexible working 251
Introduction 251
The flexible firm 252
Operational flexibility 254
Flexible working arrangements 254
15 Leadership skills 273
Introduction 273
The skills required by effective leaders 274
The qualities of a good leader 274
How to motivate people 276
16 Management skills 279
Introduction 279
Effective supervision: providing direction 280
Delegating 280
Influencing people 284
How to make an effective presentation 288
Chairing meetings 291
Facilitating and coordinating discussions 293
Project management 294
20 Managing oneself 349
Introduction 349
Individual differences 350
Dimensions of personality 352
Self-awareness 355
Time management 358
Personal organizing skills 361
Managing stress 363
Principles of continuous professional development 366
Professional and ethical approaches to self-management
at work 366
Critical thinking 389
Critical evaluation 389
Developing and justifying original arguments 391
Consulting skills 392
Index 441
List of figures and tables
Figures
Figure 1.1 John Adair’s model of leadership 12
Figure 3.1 The Kolb learning cycle 44
Figure 4.1 The HRM system 59
Figure 5.1 The CEMEX model of talent management 82
Figure 5.2 The process of talent management 83
Figure 5.3 The performance management cycle 90
Figure 5.4 A reward system 98
Figure 6.1 Components of learning and development 109
Figure 6.2 Formal and informal learning 112
Figure 6.3 Systematic training model 119
Figure 7.1 The black box phenomenon 140
Figure 7.2 Impact of HRM on organizational performance 142
Figure 9.1 The process of motivation according to content theory 190
Figure 11.1 IES model of employee engagement 213
Figure 11.2 How reward policies influence performance through
engagement 219
Figure 13.1 The core-periphery model 253
Figure 16.1 The sequence of delegation 283
Figure 20.1 Example of a daily organizer 361
Figure 20.2 How pressure becomes stress 364
Figure 23.1 Examples of charts 400
Figure 23.2 A scattergram with regression (trend) line 402
Tables
Table 7.1 Research on the link between HRM and firm
performance 137
Table 9.1 Summary of motivation theories 195
Table 11.1 Employee engagement management competency
framework 217
List of Figures and Tables xiii
The aim of this book is to explore the key concepts of leadership, manage-
ment and development as they affect the work of everyone involved in man-
agement but with special reference to those concerned with human resource
management. The book takes account of the learning objective stated by the
CIPD in its description of its Leadership, Management and Development
module. This is to help those studying the subject to ‘become effective man-
agers as well as effective HR specialists, managing others fairly and effect-
ively and increasing levels of engagement, commitment, motivation and
performance’.
A recurring theme in the book is that in order to make an effective con-
tribution HR specialists have to be good at management, leadership and
developing themselves and others, but, in addition, they need to be aware of
the management and business considerations that affect their work. They
function alongside line managers as part of the management of the organ-
ization and can only do that well if they understand what managers do, the
leadership and development activities managers carry out and how they, as
HR professionals, provide guidance, support and services to managers in the
performance of the latter’s roles. However, although the business dimension
of management, leadership and development is important, there is also an
ethical dimension. This too is emphasized throughout the book.
The final part of the book is concerned with enhancing HR skills for busi-
ness leadership. It concentrates on people management skills and the aim, in
the words of the CIPD module, is to:
develop and improve a range of definable skills that are pivotal to successful
management practice and to effective leadership. These include leadership,
management, and learning and development skills, thinking and
decision-making skills, the management of financial information, managing
budgets, a range of team working and interpersonal skills and others associated
with developing personal effectiveness and credibility at work.
The CIPD states that its module for Leadership, Management and
Development:
References to research are made frequently in the main parts of this book;
in addition, summaries of the findings from a number of recent research
studies are provided in the web-based supporting material.
This new edition of the book includes a completely revised and ex-
tended chapter on the practice of HRM and new chapters on the practice
of learning and development and the management of diversity and inclu-
sion. Other chapters have been revised to reflect the latest thinking, prac-
tice and research. A number of new case studies have also been included in
the text.
The alignments between the main provisions of the CIPD Leading,
Managing and Developing People and Developing Skills for Business
Leadership modules and the relevant sections of this book are contained in
the section following this preface.
Alignment of text with
CIPD modules
●● Self-awareness 355–58
●● Dimensions of personality and individual 350–54
differences
●● Time management 358–59
●● Personal organising skills 359–63
●● Stress management 363–65
●● Principles of continuous professional development 366
●● Professional and ethical approaches to self- 366–69
management at work
2 Manage interpersonal relationships at work more effectively
●● Negotiating 337–38
●● Organisational politics and the need to act in a 339–41
politically astute and ethical manner to secure HR objectives
●● Liaising with customers 342–45
3 Make sound and justifiable decisions and solve problems more
effectively
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Authentic leaders Path-goal model
Charismatic leaders Situational leadership
Contingent leadership Social exchange theory
Distributed leadership Trait
Emotional intelligence Transactional leaders
Leader–member exchange theory Transformational leaders
Leadership Visionary leaders
Leadership development
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also know about:
Introduction
To lead people is to inspire, influence and guide. The significance of leader-
ship in achieving results was established in research conducted by the con-
sulting firm Hay/McBer as reported by Goleman (2000). This study of 3,871
executives, selected from a database of more than 20,000 executives world-
wide, found that leadership had a direct impact on organizational climate,
and that climate in turn accounted for nearly one third of the financial re-
sults of organizations. The conclusion from research conducted by Higgs
(2006) was that leadership behaviour is responsible for almost 50 per cent
of the difference between change success and failure. Research by Northouse
(2006) into 167 US firms in 13 industries established that over a 20-year
period leadership was the cause of more variations in performance than any
other variable.
This chapter is concerned with the concept of leadership and starts with
definitions of leadership. However, even if the essence of leadership can be
defined quite simply it has to be recognized that in practice it is a complex
affair that takes place in all sorts of ways. To understand it fully it is neces-
sary to know more about:
Leadership defined
Leadership is the process of getting people to do their best to achieve a
desired result. It can be described as the ability to persuade others will-
ingly to behave differently. Leadership involves developing and communi-
cating a vision for the future, motivating people and securing their
engagement to the task they are expected to do. Other definitions (there
are many) include:
Leadership 5
Leadership theories
Leadership is a complicated notion and a number of theories have been pro-
duced to explain it. These theories have developed over the years and ex-
plore a number of different facets of leadership and leadership behaviour. In
many ways they complement one another and together they help to gain a
comprehensive understanding of what the process of leadership is about.
However, the evolution of thinking about leadership still had some way
to go. Researchers began to dig more deeply into what went on when people
exercised leadership. This led to the path-goal and leader–member exchange
theories. At the same time it was recognized that leaders could not exist or
succeed without followers and that the role of the latter therefore deserved
consideration. Next, trait theory was in effect revived by Goleman (2001) in
the notion of emotional intelligence as a necessary attribute of leaders. Most
recently Ulrich put his oar in alongside his colleague Smallwood (2007) with
the notion of the leadership brand as a comprehensive approach to leader-
ship by organizations.
Trait theory
Trait theory, which defines leadership in terms of the traits (enduring charac-
teristics of behaviour) all leaders are said to possess, was amongst the earliest
approaches to describing leaders and leadership. In its initial form it provided
an easy explanation for the complex set of individual characteristics that to-
gether form a leader. As a way of describing the qualities required of leaders it
still persists in some quarters. However, its limitations were exposed long ago
by Stogdill (1948: 64) whose research found that a person does not become a
leader by virtue of the possession of some combination of traits.
Trait theorists have generated dozens of lists. The research by Stogdill
(1948) revealed 79 unique traits but only four (extroversion, humour, intel-
ligence and initiative) appeared in five or more studies. Research conducted
by Perren and Burgoyne (2001) identified over 1,000 traits distilled to
83 more or less distinct attributes. The following list of qualities produced
by Adair (1973) is fairly typical:
Yet, as Levine (2008: 165) observed: ‘It is clear that traits alone are not suf-
ficient to explain or to give rise to successful leadership… More importantly,
there is no agreement about what mix of traits really distinguishes leaders
from others.’ Adair (1973: 13) argued that the study of leadership in terms
of the qualities that one person has to a greater degree than his or her fel-
lows is still relevant, but it is far from being the whole story. The later lead-
ership theories discussed below showed this to be the case.
Contingent leadership
The theory of contingent leadership developed by Fiedler (1967) states that
the type of leadership exercised depends to a large extent on the situation and
the ability of the leader to understand it and act accordingly. Fiedler wrote:
Situational leadership
The notion of situational leadership is an extension of contingency theory.
As described by Hersey and Blanchard (1974), leaders move between four
different styles – directing, coaching, supporting and delegating – in ways
that depend on the situation in terms of the development level of the subor-
dinate and their own competence and commitment. A later version of the
model (Hersey et al, 2001) identified the four main styles as telling, selling,
participating and delegating. This is an intuitively appealing approach that
has been popular with practitioners.
Leader/follower theory
Leader/follower theory states that, ultimately, leaders depend on the fol-
lowers they lead. The originator of leader/follower theory, Kelley (1988:
142), argued that:
Leadership 9
Leaders matter greatly. But in searching so zealously for better leaders we tend
to lose sight of the people these people will lead… Organizations stand or fall
partly on the basis of how well their leaders lead, but partly also on the basis of
how well their followers follow.
Leadership is not reducible simply to what leaders do, or in fact, who they are
or even the capabilities they possess. We should focus instead on whom leaders
do leadership with, and how they achieve together what they cannot achieve
alone.
1 Leaders must fit their followers’ expectations – they are more likely to
gain the respect and cooperation of their followers if they behave in ways
that people expect from their leaders. These expectations will vary
according to the group and the context but will often include being
straight, fair and firm – as a 19th century schoolboy once said of his
headmaster: ‘He’s a beast but a just beast.’ They also appreciate leaders
who are considerate, friendly and approachable but don’t want them to
get too close – leaders who take too much time courting popularity are
not liked.
2 Leaders must be perceived as the ‘best of us’ – they have to demonstrate
that they are experts in the overall task facing the group. They need not
10 Leading, Managing and Developing People Fundamentals
Leadership brand
Ulrich and Smallwood (2007) stressed that businesses are responsible for
establishing a leadership brand as an organizational capability by introdu-
cing and maintaining processes that help leaders to grow and develop.
Leadership brand is pervasive through all levels of leadership in the organ-
ization. Every leader must contribute to the creation of this leadership
brand, which defines their identity as leaders, translates customer expect-
ations into employee behaviours and outlasts them.
Leadership 11
Social intelligence
The theory of social intelligence was developed by Gardner (2011), who defined
it as the capacity to get along well with others, and to get them to cooperate
with you. It requires the use of a set of abilities and skills needed to understand
social situations and a knowledge of interaction styles and strategies that can
help a person achieve his or her objectives in dealing with others. Leaders are
constantly in social situations when they are involved with their teams, and so-
cial intelligence is therefore an important attribute for them to have.
What leaders do
The most convincing analysis of what leaders do was produced by Adair
(1973). He explained that the three essential roles of leaders are to:
1 Define the task – they make it quite clear what the group is expected to do.
2 Achieve the task – that is why the group exists. Leaders ensure that the
group’s purpose is fulfilled. If it is not, the result is frustration, disharmony,
criticism and, eventually perhaps, disintegration of the group.
12 Leading, Managing and Developing People Fundamentals
Task
needs
Group
Individual
maintenance
needs
needs
This model indicates that the task, individual and group needs are inter-
dependent. Satisfying task needs will also satisfy group and individual needs.
Task needs, however, cannot be met unless attention is paid to individual
and group needs, and looking after individual needs will also contribute to
satisfying group needs, and vice versa. There is a risk of becoming so
task-orientated that leaders ignore individual and group or team needs. It is
just as dangerous to be too people-orientated, focusing on meeting indi-
vidual or group needs at the expense of the task. The best leaders are those
who keep these three needs satisfied and in balance according to the de-
mands of the situation.
To illustrate what leaders do, here are three examples of successful
leaders: Herb Kelleber of Southwest Airlines, Bill George of Medtronic and
Jack Welch of General Electric.
Leadership 13
Herb Kelleber
Southwest Airlines is generally regarded as the world’s most successful air-
line. It grew at a nearly constant annual rate of 10–15 per cent over its first 32
years of existence under the leadership of Herb Kelleber. He was described
by Fortune Magazine as ‘perhaps the best CEO in America’. His theme was
that tasks are achieved through the goodwill and support of others. This
goodwill and support originates in the leader seeing people as people, not as
another resource for use in getting results. He elaborated on this as follows:
Take the organizational pyramid and turn it upside down. Turn it on its
point. Down here, at the bottom, you’ve got the people at headquarters. Up
there, at the top, you’ve got the people who are out there in the field, on
the front lines. They’re the ones that make things happen, not us. The
people out there are the experts. You can compare our roles in the front
offices to the military: We’re the supply corps, we’re not the heroes. We
supply the heroes, period. The heroes are out there.
The key ingredients of leadership effectiveness at Southwest were caring
and respect. As a leader, Herb Kelleber focused on relationships based on
shared goals, shared knowledge and mutual respect.
Bill George
Under the 12-year leadership of Bill George, chairman and CEO of Medtronic,
the biomedical engineering company, the company’s market capitalization in-
creased from $1.1 billion to $60 billion, averaging 35 per cent per year. He
defined his concept of the authentic leader as follows:
Authentic leaders genuinely desire to serve others through their leader-
ship. They are more interested in empowering the people they lead to
make a difference than they are in power, money or prestige for them-
selves. They lead with purpose, meaning and values. They build enduring
relationships with them. Others follow them because they know where
they stand. They are consistent and self-disciplined.
Jack Welch
Jack Welch, former chief executive of General Electric, wrote that for a leader:
Success is all about growing others. It’s about making the people who
work for you smarter, bigger and bolder. Nothing you do as an individual
matters, except how you nurture and support your team and increase
their self-confidence. Your success as a leader will come not from what
you do, but from the reflected glory of your team.
14 Leading, Managing and Developing People Fundamentals
Leadership style
Leadership style is the approach managers use in exercising leadership
when they are relating to their team members. It is sometimes called man-
agement style. There are many styles of leadership and no one style is
necessarily better than the other in any situation. To greater or lesser
degrees, leaders can be autocratic or democratic, controlling or enabling,
task-orientated or people-centred. The Hay/McBer research reported by
Goleman (2000) identified the following six styles and indicated when
they might be used:
Types of leaders
To understand the process of leadership (and, incidentally, provide a basis
for leadership development programmes) it is useful not only to analyse the
styles that leaders can adopt but also to classify the different types of leaders
that apply those styles. As described below, leaders can be charismatic, vi-
sionary, transformational, transactional or ‘authentic’. However, typical
leaders may exhibit any or even all of these characteristics either consist-
ently or in response to the situation in which they find themselves.
Leadership may be exercised by a few selected authoritative individuals
and many studies focus on top managers as ‘charismatic’ or ‘visionary’
leaders. But it may and indeed should take the form of distributed leader-
ship that is spread through the organization among people working together
by processes of influence and interdependencies. As Huczynski and Buchanan
(2007: 720) commented: ‘leadership is a widely distributed phenomenon.
Leadership functions are best carried out by those who have the interest,
knowledge, skills and motivation to perform them effectively’. The possi-
bility that people who become managers may not have these qualities to a
desirable extent creates a need for systematic leadership development
programmes, as considered later.
Charismatic leaders
Charismatic leaders rely on their personality, their inspirational qualities
and their ‘aura’ to get people to follow them. Burns (1978), who coined the
term, suggested that charismatic leaders were set apart from ordinary people
and treated as being endowed with exceptional powers or qualities that in-
spire followers.
Conger and Kanungo (1998) described charismatic leadership as a pro-
cess of formulating an inspiring vision of the future and then demonstrating
the importance of the articulated vision. This may involve unconventional
behaviour that conveys important goals that are part of the vision and dem-
onstrates means to achieve these goals. Charismatic leaders also take risks
and motivate followers by setting a personal example. In this sense, charismatic
16 Leading, Managing and Developing People Fundamentals
Visionary leaders
Visionary leaders are inspired by a clear vision of an exciting future and in-
spire their followers by successfully conveying that vision to them. Bennis
and Nanus (1985: 89) defined a vision as ‘a target that beckons’. Their no-
tion of visionary leadership was explained as follows:
Kouzes and Posner (2003: 112) claimed that: ‘One of the most important
practices of leadership is giving life and work a sense of meaning and pur-
pose by offering an exciting vision.’
Transformational leaders
Transformational leaders are able by their force of personality to make sig-
nificant changes in the behaviour of their followers in order to achieve the
leader’s vision or goals. As described by Burns (1978), what he called trans-
forming leadership involves motivating people to strive for higher level
goals. He believed that good leadership implies a moral responsibility to
respond to the values and needs of people in a way that is conducive to the
highest form of human relations. As he put it: ‘The ultimate test of moral
leadership is its capacity to transcend the claims of the multiplicity of
everyday needs, wants and expectations’ (ibid: 46).
Another researcher, Bass (1985), extended the work of Burns (1978) by
explaining the psychological mechanisms that underlie transforming
Leadership 17
leadership. He pointed out that the extent to which leaders are transform-
ational is measured by their influence on the leader’s followers in terms of
the degree to which they feel trust, admiration, loyalty and respect for the
leader and are willing to work harder than originally expected. As explained
by Bass, this occurs because the leader transforms and motivates through an
inspiring mission and vision and gives them an identity. Tichy and Devanna
(1986) concluded that the transformational leader has three main roles: rec-
ognizing the need for revitalization, creating a new vision and institutional-
izing change.
Yukl (1999) advised transformational leaders to:
Transactional leaders
Transactional leaders trade money, jobs and security for compliance. As
Burns (1978: 19) noted: ‘Such leadership occurs when a person takes the
initiative in making contact with others for the purpose of an exchange of
valued things.’ Tavanti (2008: 169) stated that:
Put like this, a transactional leader conforms to the stereotype of the man-
ager rather than the leader (the distinction between them is discussed in
Chapter 2). Bass (1985) argued that leaders can display both transform-
ational and transactional characteristics. Tavanti (2008) observed that
transactional leadership behaviour is used to one degree or another by most
leaders, but that:
preferences, that is, even when they are grounded in base motivations or an
undeveloped moral sense. (ibid: 171)
Authentic leaders
Authenticity was defined by Harter (2002: 382) as ‘owning one’s personal
experiences, be they thoughts, emotions, needs, preferences, or beliefs, pro-
cesses captured by the injunction to know oneself and behaving in accord-
ance with the true self’. A definition of what authentic leaders do was given
by George (2003), quoted earlier in this chapter.
Authentic leadership is based on a positive moral perspective character-
ized by high ethical standards that guide decision making and behaviour
(May et al, 2003). As Avolio et al (2004) explained, authentic leaders act in
accordance with deep personal values and convictions to build credibility
and win the respect and trust of followers. By encouraging diverse view-
points and building networks of collaborative relationships with followers,
they lead in a manner that followers perceive and describe as authentic.
George et al (2007: 129) described the basis of authentic leadership like this:
We all have the capacity to inspire and empower others. But we must first be
willing to devote ourselves to our personal growth and development as lead-
ers… No one can be authentic by trying to imitate someone else. You can learn
from others’ experiences, but there is no way you can be successful when you
are trying to be like them. People trust you when you are genuine and authentic,
not a replica of someone else.
Relational leadership
Relational leaders see leadership as a practice and process based on estab-
lishing good relationships with all stakeholders. They regard it as a service
to the business rather than as an exercise of individual power and under-
stand that people follow and trust leaders with whom they can relate.
As the CIPD (2014: 17) commented:
Research shows that relational leaders emphasize the need to physically ‘go and
meet’ their teams and employees rather than staying in their head office ivory
towers. Employees want to see their leaders in action, in order to judge their
benevolence and integrity. By meeting their employees, leaders are able to hear
Leadership 19
and learn from them directly – an essential ingredient for creating a more
collaborative and distributed style of leadership through which employees feel
their opinions and voice are both heard and valued.
The John Lewis Partnership approach to leadership emphasizes the need for their
leaders to learn from their staff: As one senior manager said: ‘I’m always very
curious about what’s on their minds so I think it’s fascinating to see the diversity of
thought patterns from our staff… I really enjoy the intellectual stimulus of that kind
of debate.’ Similarly, a John Lewis managing director described her job in the fol-
lowing terms: ‘You’re here on behalf of the people you lead… I feel really respon-
sible for them.’ This leadership style emphasizes humility as an aspect of leadership
and enables such leaders to position transformation as in the best interests of
people in the organization.
This is what John Lewis was able to do when announcing its first job redun-
dancy programme, ‘Branch of the Future’, in its 80-year history. Since the John
Lewis executives position their leadership role in terms of themselves as servants
for the business, despite the job cuts the workforce were convinced of their ben-
evolence and trust levels were actually increased.
20 Leading, Managing and Developing People Fundamentals
Leadership development
It is sometimes said that leaders are born not made. This is a rather discouraging
statement for those who are not leaders by birthright. It may be true to the extent
that some exceptional people seem to be visionaries, have built-in charisma and
a natural ability to impose their personality on others. However, even they prob-
ably have to develop and hone these qualities when confronted with a situation
demanding leadership. Ordinary mortals need not despair: they too can build on
their natural capacities and develop their leadership abilities.
This can be helped by leadership development programmes, which pre-
pare people for leadership roles and situations beyond their current experi-
ence. As defined by Burgoyne (2010: 43): ‘Leadership development in the
widest sense involves the acquisition, development and utilization of leader-
ship capability or the potential for it.’ He identified the following leadership
development activities:
●● Job/work placements with leadership capability development as one of
the purposes;
●● Education, training and development of individuals including the ‘context
sensitive’ methods of coaching, mentoring and action learning, and more
formal education – training and development programmes;
●● ‘Soft’ organization development processes including culture change, team-
building and ‘hearts and minds’ collective mission/values-creating initiatives.
(ibid: 44)
Yukl (2006) proposed the following conditions for successful leadership
development:
the working conditions they need to carry out their role properly. As Fiedler
(1967: 276) emphasized: ‘If we wish to increase organizational and group ef-
fectiveness we must learn not only to train leaders more effectively but also to
build an organizational environment in which the leaders can perform well.’
Interview
I learnt a lot through that role, which frankly I had to figure out a bit, because
it was quite new. My background is in economics and finance; yet of course,
in professional services, talent is key. And for many of our clients, whatever
the industry, they all are coming to me saying their number 1 challenge is get-
ting the right talent. So first, I figured out that leadership and talent is the
name of the game. Second, it’s all about how you motivate people, how you’re
making sure they’re going to stretch their own boundaries.
It’s about selecting, hiring the best people, but that’s not enough. Performance
management is extraordinarily important to get people to their very best. Do you
feel good in your role? If yes, that’s the perfect time for you to experiment with
something new, to get out of your comfort zone. This willingness to learn is prob-
ably the most important thing for leaders of today and tomorrow.
Source https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/on-leadership/wp/2015/07/23/accenture-ceo-
explains-the-reasons-why-hes-overhauling-performance-reviews/ [accessed 8 February 2016]
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Leadership defined
Leadership is the process of influencing the behaviour of others to achieve
results.
22 Leading, Managing and Developing People Fundamentals
Leadership theories
The main leadership theories are trait theory, leadership behaviour theory,
contingent and situational theories, path-goal theory, leader–member
exchange theory, emotional intelligence theory and the leadership brand.
What leaders do
Adair (1973) explained that the three essential roles of leaders are to define
the task, achieve the task and maintain effective relationships. They have to
satisfy interdependent task, individual and group needs.
Types of leaders
Leaders can be charismatic, visionary, transformational, transactional or
‘authentic’.
Leadership development
Leadership development programmes prepare people for leadership roles
and situations beyond their current experience. ‘Leadership development in
the widest sense involves the acquisition, development and utilization of
leadership capability or the potential for it’ (Burgoyne, 2010: 43).
References
Adair, J (1973) The Action-centred Leader, London, McGraw-Hill
Avolio, B J, Gardner, W L, Walumbwa, F O, Luthans, F and May, D R (2004)
Unlocking the mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders impact
follower attitudes and behaviours, Leadership Quarterly, 15, pp 801–23
Bass, B M (1985) Leadership and Performance, New York, Free Press
Bennis, W (2010) We need leaders, Leadership Excellence, 27 (12), p 4
Bennis, W and Nanus, B (1985) Leadership: The strategies for taking charge,
New York, Harper & Row
Buchanan, D and Huczynski, A (2007) Organizational Behaviour, Harlow, FT
Prentice-Hall
Leadership 23
Q u e s t i o n s
1 What is leadership?
11 What are the three needs that leaders must satisfy as defined by John Adair?
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Business model Resource-based view
Business model innovation Strategic capability
Competitive advantage Strategic fit
Core competencies Strategic management
Horizontal integration Strategy
Management Vertical integration
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also understand:
Introduction
Management has often been defined as ‘getting things done through people’
thus emphasizing its leadership component. But, as covered in this chapter,
managers are also responsible for generally controlling the business or their
part of it by managing their other resources – finance, work systems and
technology. Additionally, they have to manage time and themselves. Managers
may be in charge of virtual teams, as discussed in the last section of this
chapter.
The word ‘management’ is derived from the Italian verb maneggiare,
which means ‘to handle a horse’. This definition at least states that to manage
is to have charge of or responsibility for something, but there is clearly more
to it than that and this is what this chapter is about.
Management defined
Management is the process of making things happen. Managers define
goals, determine and obtain the resources required to achieve the goals, al-
locate those resources to opportunities and planned activities and ensure
that those activities take place as planned in order to achieve predeter-
mined objectives.
Strategic management
Strategic management is an approach to management that involves taking a
broad and longer-term view of where the business or part of the business is
going and managing activities in ways that ensure this strategic thrust is
maintained. Boxall and Purcell (2003: 44) explained that: ‘Strategic man-
agement is best defined as a process. It is a process of strategy making, of
forming and, if the firm survives, reforming its strategy over time.’ The pur-
pose of strategic management was expressed by Kanter (1984: 288) as being
to: ‘elicit the present actions for the future’ and become ‘action vehicles – in-
tegrating and institutionalizing mechanisms for change’ (ibid: 301). The key
strategic management activity at organizational level as identified by
Thompson and Strickland (1996: 3) is:
deciding what business the company will be in and forming a strategic vision of
where the organization needs to be headed – in effect, infusing the organization
with a sense of purpose, providing long-term direction, and establishing a clear
mission to be accomplished.
Strategy
Strategy is a declaration of intent. It sets out the approach selected to achieve
defined goals in the future. It was defined by Thompson and Strickland
(1996: 20) as: ‘The pattern of actions managers employ to achieve organiza-
tional objectives.’ Strategy may be formulated at corporate level for the or-
ganization as a whole, where it is the responsibility of top management.
Management 31
Strategy will also be formulated and implemented for specific activities such
as product development, marketing and human resource management
within the organization where it will be the concern of top management, but
may also involve senior managers in charge of major units or functions and
their staff.
Strategy is forward looking. It is about deciding where you want to go
and how you mean to get there. It is concerned with both ends and means.
It states: ‘This is what we want to do and this is how we intend to do it.’
Strategies define longer-term goals but they also cover how those goals will
be attained (strategic planning). They guide purposeful action to deliver the
required result.
Strategy formulation is, however, not such a deterministic, rational and
continuous process as is often supposed. Sparrow et al (2010: 4) asserted
succinctly that: ‘Strategy is not rational and never has been.’ It has been
said (Bower, 1982: 631) that ‘strategy is everything not well defined or
understood’. This may be going too far, but in reality, strategy formulation
can best be described as ‘problem solving in unstructured situations’
(Digman, 1990: 53) and strategies will always be formed under conditions
of partial ignorance. Quinn (1980: 9) pointed out that a strategy may
simply be ‘a widely held understanding resulting from a stream of deci-
sions’. He believed that strategy formulation takes place by means of
‘logical incrementalism’, ie it evolves in several steps rather than being
conceived as a whole.
Mintzberg (1987) argued that in theory strategy is a systematic process:
first we think, then we act; we formulate then we implement. But we also act
in order to think. He said that in practice, ‘a realized strategy can emerge in
response to an evolving situation’ and the strategic planner is often ‘a pat-
tern organizer, a learner if you like, who manages a process in which strat-
egies and visions can emerge as well as be deliberately conceived’ (ibid: 68).
This concept of ‘emergent strategy’ conveys the essence of how in practice
business and HR strategies are developed.
This will happen if their resources are valuable, rare, inimitable and
non-substitutable.
The resource-based view provides a practical justification for key aspects
of a firm’s HRM and L&D policies and practices such as human capital
management, talent management, knowledge management, and learning
and development. Kamoche (1996) stated that the RBV builds on and pro-
vides a unifying framework for the field of strategic HRM. Boxall (1996:
66) pointed out that: ‘The resource-based view of the firm provides a con-
ceptual basis, if we needed one, for asserting that key human resources are
sources of competitive advantage.’
Strategic fit
Strategic fit is a way of achieving competitive advantage, which means
attaining and sustaining better results than business rivals, thus placing
Management 33
the firm in a strong competitive position. The focus is upon the organ-
ization and the world around it. To maximize competitive advantage a
firm must match its capabilities and resources to the opportunities
available in the external environment. As Hofer and Schendel (1986: 4)
concluded:
Strategic capability
Strategic capability refers to the ability of an organization to develop and
implement strategies that will achieve sustained competitive advantage. It is
therefore about the capacity to select the most appropriate vision, to define
realistic intentions, to match resources to opportunities and to prepare and
implement strategic plans.
The strategic capability of an organization depends on the strategic cap-
abilities of its managers. People who display high levels of strategic cap-
ability know where they are going and know how they are going to get
there. They recognize that although they must be successful now to succeed
in the future, it is always necessary to create and sustain a sense of purpose
and direction. Managers who think strategically will be aware that they are
responsible, first, for planning how to allocate resources to opportunities
that contribute to the implementation of strategy, and secondly, for man-
aging these opportunities in ways that will add value to the results achieved
by the firm.
rules and promoting effectiveness. Kotter (1991) saw managers as being the
ones who plan, budget, organize and control, while leaders set direction,
manage change and motivate people. Hersey and Blanchard (1998) claimed
that management merely consists of leadership applied to business situ-
ations; or in other words, management forms a sub-set of the broader pro-
cess of leadership.
As Birkinshaw (2010: 23) commented: ‘By dichotomizing the work of
executives in this way, Kotter, Bennis and others squeezed out the essence of
what managers do and basically left them with the boring work that
“leaders” don’t want.’ His view on the leadership-versus management de-
bate was that:
Leadership is a process of social influence, concerned with the traits, styles and
behaviours of individuals that causes others to follow them. Management is the
act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals. To put it simply, we
all need to be both leaders and managers. (ibid: 23)
Mintzberg (2004: 22) summed it all up (as he often did) when he wrote:
‘Let’s stop the dysfunctional separation of leadership from management. We
all know that managers who don’t lead are boring, dispiriting. Well, leaders
who don’t manage are distant, disconnected.’
The answer to the question posed at the beginning of this section is
that management is different from leadership although they are closely
associated. Management is the process of making effective use of all
available resources in order to achieve goals while leadership focuses on
the key resource that enables goals to be achieved, ie people. Management
necessarily involves leadership and leadership necessarily involves
management.
Skype, and telephone or video conferencing will be used for team meetings.
Team members may be spread out overseas and may seldom if ever get to-
gether in one place.
Management and leadership in these circumstances are much more diffi-
cult. Frequent face-to-face contacts are important ways of building team
spirit and establishing rapport and trust. Without them it is hard for the
team to function as a coherent whole. In a sense, a team whose members do
not meet each other is a contradiction in terms. The best solution to this
problem is to get the team together as often as possible. It is not enough for
the manager to see members singly. Holding team meetings may be costly
but it can be money well spent.
Watkins (2013) produced the following 10 basic principles on making
virtual teams work:
Effective managers
Effective managers:
●● are clear about what the organization as a whole and their part of it exist
to do;
●● fully understand the objectives they have to achieve;
●● understand what good performance is and manage it accordingly;
●● adopt a strategic approach that involves integrating their functional or unit
strategies with corporate strategy, and planning ahead to achieve objectives,
exploit opportunities and avoid problems;
●● make things happen;
●● are authentic leaders who, as Avolio et al (2004) explained, act in accordance
with deep personal values and convictions to build credibility and win the
respect and trust of followers;
●● have high levels of social intelligence (getting on with people);
●● exercise good judgement when making decisions and solving problems;
●● are resilient in the face of pressure;
●● are good communicators;
●● are capable of ‘thinking outside the box’ – innovating and acting creatively.
k e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Management
Management is the process of making things happen. Managers define
goals, determine and obtain the resources required to achieve the goals,
allocate those resources to opportunities and planned activities and ensure
that those activities take place as planned in order to achieve pre-deter-
mined objectives.
The purpose of management is to satisfy a range of stakeholders. The top
10 characteristics that managers need are:
Clear sense of purpose. Commitment to developing others
Strong values and personal through coaching and mentoring.
integrity. Champion of diversity.
Management 37
Strategic management
Strategic management is an approach to management that involves taking
a broad and longer-term view of where the business or part of the business
is going and managing activities in ways that ensure this strategic thrust is
maintained.
Strategy
Strategies define longer-term goals; they also cover how those goals will be
attained (strategic planning). They guide purposeful action to deliver the re-
quired result. Strategy formulation is not necessarily a deterministic, rational
and continuous process.
Core competencies
Core competencies or distinctive capabilities describe what the organization
is specially or uniquely capable of doing.
Strategic fit
To maximize competitive advantage a firm must match its capabilities and
resources to the opportunities available in the external environment.
38 Leading, Managing and Developing People Fundamentals
Strategic capability
The ability of an organization to develop and implement strategies that will
achieve sustained competitive advantage.
References
Avolio, B J, Gardner, W L, Walumbwa, F O, Luthans, F and May, D R (2004)
Unlocking the mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders impact
follower attitudes and behaviours, Leadership Quarterly, 15, pp 801–23
Barney, J (1991) Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage, Journal of
Management Studies, 17 (1), pp 99–120
Bennis, W (1989) On Becoming a Leader, New York, Addison Wesley
Birkinshaw, J (2010) An experiment in reinvention, People Management, 15 July,
pp 22–24
Bower, J L (1982) Business policy in the 1980s, Academy of Management Review,
7 (4), pp 630–38
Boxall, P F (1996) The strategic HRM debate and the resource-based view of the
firm, Human Resource Management Journal, 6 (3), pp 59–75
Boxall, P F and Purcell, J (2003) Strategy and Human Resource Management,
Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan
The Commission on the Future of Management and Leadership (2014)
Management 2020: Leadership to unlock long-term growth, www.managers.
org.uk/management2020 [accessed 1 January 2016]
Digman, L A (1990) Strategic Management: Concepts, decisions, cases,
Georgetown, Ontario, Irwin
Drucker, P (1955) The Practice of Management, London, Heinemann
Hersey, P and Blanchard, K H (1998) Management of Organizational Behaviour,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall
Management 39
Q u e s t i o n s
4 What is strategy?
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Coaching Neuroscience
Expectancy theory Planned experience
Experiential learning Self-directed learning
Goal theory Social learning theory
Learning culture 70/20/10 model of learning
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also understand:
Introduction
Developing people is the process of providing them with learning opportunities
that will enable them to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to carry out
their current jobs effectively and prepare them to exercise wider or increased
42 Leading, Managing and Developing People Fundamentals
Learning theory
Learning theory describes how people learn. The main theories are:
Learning styles
Learning theories describe in general terms how people learn, but individual
learners will have different styles – a preference for a particular approach to
learning. The most familiar classification of learning styles is that produced
by Kolb et al (1974).
44 Leading, Managing and Developing People Fundamentals
Concrete
experience
Active Reflective
experimentation observation
Abstract
conceptualization
(theorizing)
The Kolb learning cycle consists of four stages, as shown in Figure 3.1; these
stages are:
Although our development arises from an interaction of our genes with the
environment, the brain’s plasticity demonstrates very clearly that our genes
only partly determine our progress. External environmental factors strongly
influence how our brains are constructed and an important external factor,
perhaps the most important for many of us, is our education. That includes
opportunities for training that present themselves throughout our working
lives.
The 2011 report by the Royal Society (2011: v) noted that: ‘Biological fac-
tors play an important role in accounting for differences in learning ability
between individuals.’ The Royal Society listed five things that neuroscience
has taught about what aids effective learning:
4 The aging brain needs attention but can maintain learning throughout life.
●● Engage the entire Kolb learning cycle. Make time for reflection, creating
and active testing as well as absorbing new information.
●● Make a connection with the learner’s prior knowledge and experience.
●● Create opportunities for social engagement and interaction as part of the
learning process.
●● Engage both feeling and thinking. Learning needs emotion as well as
intellect.
●● Actively attend to attention – gaining, holding and focusing the learner’s
attention.
●● Engage a maximum number of senses – especially visual – when designing
learning.
46 Leading, Managing and Developing People Fundamentals
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Motivation
People will learn more effectively if they are motivated to learn.
Learning theory
Learning theory describes how people learn. The main theories are re-
inforcement theory, cognitive learning theory, experiential learning theory
and social learning theory.
Learning styles
Learning theories describe in general terms how people learn, but individual
learners will have different styles – a preference for a particular approach to
learning. The most familiar classification of learning styles is that produced
by Kolb who identified four styles: concrete experience, reflective observa-
tion, abstract conceptualization (theorizing) and active experimentation.
Developing People 47
References
Bandura, A (1977) Social Learning Theory, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall
CIPD (2014) Fresh thinking in learning and development Part 1: Neuroscience and
learning, http://www.cipd.co.uk/binaries/fresh-thinking-in-learning-and-
development_2014-part-1-neuroscience-learning.pdf [accessed 3 November 2015]
Hendel-Giller, R (2010) The neuroscience of learning: New paradigms for
corporate education, http://www.themaritzinstitute.com/Perspectives/-media/
Files/MaritzInstitute/White-Papers/The-Neuroscience-of-learning-The-Maritz-
Institute.pdf [accessed 3 November 2015]
Kolb, D A, Rubin, I M and McIntyre, J M (1974) Organizational Psychology: An
experimental approach, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall
Lombardo, M M and Eichinger, R W (1996) The Course Architect Development
Planner, Minneapolis, MN, Lominger
Reynolds, J, Caley, L and Mason, R (2002) How Do People Learn? London, CIPD
Royal Society (2011) Brain waves 2: Neuroscience: implications for education and
lifelong learning, https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/brain-waves/
education-lifelong-learning/ [accessed 3 November 2015]
Skinner, B F (1974) About Behaviourism, London, Random House
Skinner, B F (1953) Science and Human Behavior, New York, The Free Press
Wenger, E (1998) Communities of Practice: Learning, meaning and identity,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
Questions
3 What is learning?
4 What is development?
5 What is training?
8 What is e-learning?
Part Two
Human resource
management
and learning and
development
The essence of 04
human resource
management
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Added value HR philosophy
Contextual model of human Matching model of HRM
resource management (HRM) Resource-based theory
European model of HRM Soft HRM
5-P model of HRM Strategic alignment
Hard HRM Strategic human resource
Harvard framework management
HRM architecture
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also know about:
Introduction
Human resource management (HRM) is concerned with all aspects of how
people are employed, managed and developed in organizations. Boxall
(2013: 13) noted that: ‘Human resources include the knowledge, skills, net-
works and energies of people and, underpinning them, their physical and
emotional health, intellectual capabilities, personalities and motivations.’
HRM is delivered through the HR architecture of systems and structures,
the HR function and, importantly, line management.
HRM emerged in the 1980s as a philosophy of how people should be
managed. As Hendry and Pettigrew (1990: 20) observed: ‘What HRM did
at this point was to wrap around some of the observable changes, while pro-
viding a focus for challenging deficiencies – in attitudes, scope, coherence
and direction – of existing personnel management.’ They also commented
(ibid: 25) that HRM can be perceived as a ‘perspective on personnel man-
agement and not personnel management itself’.
Some people criticize the notion of referring to people as resources as if
they were any other factor of production. Osterby and Coster (1992: 31)
argued that: ‘The term “human resources” reduces people to the same cat-
egory of value as materials, money and technology – all resources, and re-
sources are only valuable to the extent they can be exploited or leveraged
into economic value.’ ‘People management’ is sometimes preferred as an al-
ternative, but in spite of its connotations, HRM is the term that is most
commonly used.
This chapter deals with the concept of HRM and its characteristics: its
goals, philosophy and architecture within the context in which it operates.
It also describes the concept of strategic HRM. The next chapter deals with
the practice of HRM – how the concept is realized. The professional and
ethical dimensions of HRM are covered in Chapter 8.
i ncreasingly evident that the term ‘HRM’ had been adopted as a synonym
for what used to be called ‘personnel management’ without paying much
attention to the original philosophy. As noted by Storey (2007: 6): ‘In its
generic broad and popular sense it [HRM] simply refers to any system
of people management.’ HRM practice today is no longer governed by
the original philosophy, if it ever was. It is just what HR people and line
managers do.
HRM defined
Human resource management is defined as a strategic, integrated and co-
herent approach to the employment, development and wellbeing of the
people working in organizations. It was defined more pragmatically by
Boxall and Purcell (2003: 1) as ‘all those activities associated with the man-
agement of employment relationships in the firm’. A more comprehensive
definition was offered by Watson (2010: 919):
That human resource policies should be integrated with strategic business planning
and used to reinforce an appropriate (or change an inappropriate) organizational
culture, that human resources are valuable and a source of competitive advantage,
that they may be tapped most effectively by mutually consistent policies that
promote commitment and which, as a consequence, foster a willingness in employees
to act flexibly in the interests of the ‘adaptive organization's’ pursuit of excellence.
Storey (2001: 7) noted that the beliefs of HRM included the assumptions that
it is the human resource which gives competitive edge, that the aim should be to
enhance employee commitment, that HR decisions are of strategic importance
and that therefore HR policies should be integrated into the business strategy.
Models of HRM
Over the years a number of models, summarized below, have defined what
HRM is and how it operates. Of these, the matching model and the Harvard
framework have been the most influential.
Contextual model
The contextual model of HRM emphasizes the importance of environ-
mental factors by including variables such as the influence of social, insti-
tutional and political forces that have been underestimated in other models.
The model advocates integrating the HRM system in the environment in
which it is developed. According to Martin-Alcázar et al (2005: 638):
‘Context both conditions and is conditioned by the HRM strategy.’ A
broader set of stakeholders is involved in the formulation and implementa-
tion of human resource strategies. This is referred to by Schuler and Jackson
(2000: 229) as a ‘multiple stakeholder framework’. These stakeholders may
be external as well as internal and both influence and are influenced by
strategic decisions.
56 HRM and L&D
European model
Brewster (1993, 2004) described a European model of HRM as follows:
The main distinction between this model and what Brewster referred to as
‘the prescribed model’ was that the latter involves deregulation (no legal
framework), no trade unions and a focus on organizational objectives but
not on social concern.
The Essence of HRM 57
However, it was pointed out by Keenoy (1997: 838) that ‘hard and soft
HRM are complementary rather than mutually exclusive practices’.
Research in eight UK organizations by Truss et al (1997) indicated that the
distinction between hard and soft HRM was not as precise as some com-
mentators have implied.
Strategic HRM
The matching and Harvard models of HRM both emphasized its strategic
nature. This important aspect of HRM is known as strategic HRM (SHRM).
It is concerned with how integration or ‘fit’ between HR and business strat-
egies is achieved, the benefits of taking a longer-term view of where HR
should be going and how to get there, and how coherent and mutually sup-
porting HR strategies should be developed and implemented. Importantly, it
is also about how members of the HR function should adopt a strategic
approach on a day-to-day basis. This means that they operate as part of the
management team, ensure that HR activities support the achievement of
business strategies on a continuous basis, and add value.
The rationale for SHRM is the advantage of having an agreed and under-
stood basis for developing and implementing approaches to people manage-
ment that takes into account the firm’s business plans and priorities and the
changing context in which it operates. As Dyer and Holder (1988: 13) re-
marked, SHRM should provide ‘unifying frameworks which are at once
broad, contingency based and integrative’.
The HR architecture
HRM is delivered through the HR architecture of the HR system, the HR
function and, importantly, line management. As explained by Becker et al
58 HRM and L&D
(2001: 12): ‘We use the term HR architecture to broadly describe the con-
tinuum from the HR professionals within the HR function, to the system of
HR related policies and practices, through the competencies, motivation
and associated behaviours of the firm’s employees.’ It was noted by Hird
et al (2010: 25) that: ‘this architecture is seen as a unique combination of the
HR function’s structure and delivery model, the HR practices and system,
and the strategic employee behaviours that these create’.
The HR system
The HR system consists of the interrelated and jointly supportive HR prac-
tices, which together enable HRM goals to be achieved. Boselie et al (2005:
73) pointed out that in its traditional form HRM can be viewed as ‘a collec-
tion of multiple discrete practices with no explicit or discernible link be-
tween them. The more strategically minded system approach views HRM as
an integrated and coherent bundle of mutually reinforcing practices’.
As illustrated in Figure 4.1, the HRM system brings together HR philoso-
phies that describe the overarching values and guiding principles adopted in
managing people and, taking account of the internal and external contexts
in which the organization operates, develops HR strategies that define the
direction in which HRM intends to go; HR policies that provide guidelines
defining how these values, principles and strategies should be applied and
implemented in specific areas of HRM; HR processes that comprise the
formal procedures and methods used to put HR strategic plans and policies
into effect; linked HR practices that consist of the approaches used in man-
aging people; and HR programmes that enable HR strategies, policies and
practices to be implemented according to plan.
Human Resource
Management
HR philosophies
Employee Knowledge
wellbeing management
HR policies and
procedures
Employment
law compliance
e-HRM
problems’. One of the issues explored by Francis and Keegan (2006) in their
research was the tendency for a focus on business performance outcomes to
obscure the importance of employee wellbeing in its own right. They quoted
the view of Ulrich and Brockbank (2005: 201) that ‘caring, listening to, and
responding to employees remains a centrepiece of HR work’. The value of
the HR function can be measured by the effectiveness with which it delivers
HR services and the quality of advice and support it provides to manage-
ment. But its value should also be assessed in terms of its contribution to the
success of the business.
HR activities can be divided into two broad categories: 1) transform-
ational (strategic) activities that are concerned with developing organiza-
tional effectiveness and the alignment and implementation of HR and
60 HRM and L&D
1 Strategic business partners – these work with line managers to help them
reach their goals through strategy formulation and execution. They are
often ‘embedded’ in business units or departments.
2 Centres of expertise – these specialize in the provision of high-level advice
and services on key HR activities such as talent management, leadership
development and reward.
3 HR shared service centres – these handle all the routine ‘transactional’
services across the business, which include such activities as recruitment,
training, absence monitoring and advice on dealing with employee issues
like discipline and absenteeism.
There are difficulties with the model. Gratton (2003: 18) commented that:
‘this fragmentation of the HR function is causing all sorts of unintended
problems. Senior managers look at the fragments and are not clear how the
function as a whole adds value’. As Reilly (2007) observed, there are prob-
lems in introducing the new model. These included difficulties in defining
roles and accountabilities, especially those of business partners, who, ac-
cording to an HR director interviewed by Reilly, risk being ‘hung, drawn
and quartered by all sides’. At the same time, the segmented nature of the
structure gives rise to ‘boundary management’ difficulties, for example when
it comes to separating out transactional tasks from the work of centres of
The Essence of HRM 61
expertise. The model can also hamper communication between those en-
gaged in different HR activities. Other impediments are technological
failure, inadequate resources in HR and skills gaps.
●● I think the way you change their [the business clients’] behaviours in the
longer term is by getting to be a trusted advisor, and the way to become
a trusted advisor is to know your individual, to know your client and to
know how to hook the individual.
●● if you don’t know the little things, they’ll [the business leaders] never trust
you with the bigger things… you survive by doing the little things and doing
them right; and then building up that trust and that relationship with them.
62 HRM and L&D
C a s e s t u dy: H
R organization at the National Australia
Bank Group
Centres of expertise
Centres of expertise cover areas such as reward, employment policy, talent man-
agement, culture management, diversity and performance. The staff in the centres
are specialists in their respective fields, while the other parts of HR can be found
in the HR service centre, with the exception of recruitment, which is conducted by
line managers.
Business partners
Business partners attend business unit leadership team meetings and set the
company’s people strategies and deliver the HR requirements emerging from
various projects. They tend to work in the areas of talent, performance, leader-
ship, diversity and culture and their job is to facilitate the implementation of cor-
porate people initiatives with the relevant specialist HR partners. Unlike shared
services staff, they only get involved in HR’s daily operational matters if projects
escalate and extra help is required.
Solutions consultants
Solutions consultants deal with operational queries referred to them from the
people advisory helpline – mainly issues of case management and other more
complex enquiries. They are a key point of contact for people leaders on matters
of policy and procedure although they do participate in some transaction work
as well.
Project staff
Project staff work on projects which emerge from strategic discussions.
(Source IRS, 2010, Employment Trends, June, pp 15–16)
but the line disposes. Guest (1991: 159) observed that: ‘HRM is too im-
portant to be left to personnel managers.’
If line managers are not inclined favourably towards what HR wants
them to do they won’t do it or, if compelled to against their will, they will
be half-hearted about it. Following their research, Guest and King (2004:
421) commented that ‘better HR depended not so much on better proced-
ures but better implementation and ownership of implementation by line
managers’.
As noted by Purcell et al (2003), high levels of organizational perform-
ance are not achieved simply by having a range of well-conceived HR pol-
icies and practices in place. What makes the difference is how these policies
and practices are implemented. That is where the role of line managers in
people management is crucial:
Purcell and his colleagues emphasized that dealing with people is perhaps
the aspect of their work in which line managers can exercise the greatest
amount of discretion – and they can use that discretion by not putting HR’s
ideas into practice. As they pointed out, it is line managers who bring HR
policies to life.
A further factor affecting the role of line managers is their ability to do
the HR tasks assigned to them. People-centred activities such as defining
roles (job design), interviewing, reviewing performance, providing feedback,
coaching, identifying learning and development needs and deciding how
their staff should be rewarded all require special skills. Some managers have
them, many don’t. Performance management systems and performance-
related pay schemes can easily fail because of untrained line managers. The
implementation of policies to enhance engagement levels depends largely on
line managers.
The Royal Bolton Hospital became a foundation trust in October 2008, and
serves around 263,000 people in the Bolton area. In 2011 it employed around
3,600 staff.
The newly appointed Head of HR found that the function was traditional and
hierarchical and had a poor customer perspective. A significant cultural shift
was needed to move to a ‘can do’ attitude and realize the potential within the
function so that it added value to the business and to patients. HR services were
therefore restructured, adopting a business partner model linked to the divisions
within the trust.
Then the Strategic Health Authority (NHS North West) worked with the
Institute for Employment Studies to develop a model of world-class HR and or-
ganizational development for health trusts in the region. World-class HR was de-
fined in terms of six criteria: aligning and integrating with the business; proactively
leading the people agenda; achieving the desired results for the business; having
a compelling employee proposition; getting the basics right; and supporting
people management.
An exercise was conducted with the executive board and staff to identify what
HR should continue doing, what to improve, what to develop and what to stop
doing. A peer review by another health trust and an HR customer survey identified
the following issues: time to recruit, inconsistency in HR advice, and insufficient
communication.
It was clear that the credibility of HR was based on getting the basics right, so
that became a priority. The HR team was then set the challenge of changing cus-
tomer perceptions. The realigned team structure was further embedded to provide
more support for managers. The Employee Services Centre team streamlined its
processes and particularly increased communication within the recruitment
process.
The customer survey was repeated two years later and showed significant
improvements in HR customer perceptions on the six world-class factors.
Sixty per cent of management and clinician respondents rated their HR func-
tion as ‘better’ or ‘much better’ than before. People indicators across the trust,
including attendance statistics, also showed improvement during the same
period.
66 HRM and L&D
HRM today
As a description of people management activities in organizations, the term
‘HRM’ is here to stay even if it is applied diversely or only used as a label to
describe traditional personnel management practices. Emphasis is now placed
on the need for HR to be strategic and business-like and to add value, ie to
generate extra value (benefit to the business) by the expenditure of effort, time
and money on HRM activities. There have been plenty of new interests and
developments including human capital management, engagement, talent man-
agement, competency-based HRM, e-HRM, high performance work systems,
and performance and reward management, but these have not been intro-
duced under the banner of the HRM concept as originally defined.
HRM has largely become something that organizations do rather than an
aspiration or a philosophy and the term is generally in use as a way of de-
scribing the process of managing people. A convincing summary of what
HRM means today, which focuses on what HRM is rather than on its phil-
osophy, was provided by Peter Boxall, John Purcell and Patrick Wright.
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Human resource management (HRM) is concerned with all aspects of how
people are employed, managed and developed in organizations. HRM is de-
livered through the HR architecture of systems and structures, the HR func-
tion and, importantly, line management.
The Essence of HRM 67
References
Becker, B E and Huselid, M A (1998) High performance work systems and firm
performance: a synthesis of research and managerial implications, Research on
Personnel and Human Resource Management, 16, Stamford, CT, JAI Press,
pp 53–101
Becker, B E, Huselid, M A and Ulrich, D (2001) The HR Scorecard: Linking people,
strategy, and performance, Boston, MA, Harvard Business School Press
Beer, M, Spector, B, Lawrence, P, Quinn Mills, D and Walton, R (1984) Managing
Human Assets, New York, The Free Press
Boselie, P, Dietz, G and Boon, C (2005) Commonalities and contradictions in HRM
and performance research, Human Resource Management Journal, 15 (3),
pp 67–94
68 HRM and L&D
Q u e s t i o n s
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Demand forecasting Reward system
Employee voice Supply forecasting
Enterprise social network Talent pipeline
E-recruitment Talent management
Job characteristics model Work system design
Person specification
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also know about:
Work design
Work design is the creation of systems of work and a working environment
that enhance organizational effectiveness and productivity, ensure that the
organization becomes ‘a great place in which to work’ and are conducive to
the health, safety and wellbeing of employees. Work involves the exertion of
effort and the application of knowledge and skills to achieve a purpose.
Systems of work are the combined processes, methods and techniques used
to get work done. The work environment comprises the design of jobs,
working conditions and the ways in which people are treated at work by
their managers and co-workers as well as the work system.
Work system design deals with how the various processes required to
make a product or provide a service should operate. It covers the set of re-
lated activities that combine to give a result that customers want. The struc-
ture of the system describes the relations between different operations.
A work system may be centred on activities such as manufacturing, chem-
ical or raw material processing, information processing, supply, distribution,
transport, the provision of public services or customer service. There is usu-
ally a choice between different processes within the work system. As the
design of the work system affects costs, quality and productivity it is
The Practice of HRM 73
important to provide the best match between the product or service and the
process used to make or deliver it.
When designing a work system it is necessary to see that it will:
Organization design
Organization design is the process of deciding how organizations should be
structured in terms of the ways in which the responsibility for carrying out
the overall task is allocated to individuals and groups of people and how
the relationships between them function. The aim is to ensure that people
work effectively together to achieve the overall purpose of the organiza-
tion. The basic question of ‘Who does what?’ is answered by line managers
but HR specialists are also involved in their capacity of helping the business
to make the best use of its people. HR professionals can contribute to or-
ganization design or redesign activities by using their understanding of the
factors affecting organizational behaviour and their knowledge of the busi-
ness as a whole.
It is generally assumed that organization design is a logical and system-
atic affair, based on accepted principles and using analytical techniques that
produce an inevitable ‘best’ result, but there is always organizational choice.
There are certain guidelines to which consideration needs to be given, and
74 HRM and L&D
Job design
Job design specifies the contents of jobs in order to satisfy work require-
ments and meet the personal needs of the job holder, thus increasing levels
of employee engagement.
A distinction can be made between jobs and roles. A job is an organ-
izational unit consisting of a group of defined tasks or activities to be
carried out or duties to be performed. A role is the part played by individ-
uals and the patterns of behaviour expected of them in fulfilling their
work requirements. Jobs are about tasks, roles are about people. This
distinction means that while jobs may be designed to fit work require-
ments, roles are developed as people work flexibly, demonstrate that they
can do more and take on different responsibilities. Role development
happens informally, in contrast to the more formal approaches to job de-
sign (considered below).
The Practice of HRM 75
3 Task significance: the degree to which the job outcome has a substantial
impact on others.
Hackman and Oldham explained that if the design of a job satisfied the core
job characteristics the employee would perceive that the work was worth-
while, would feel responsible for the work and would know if the work had
been completed satisfactorily. The outcome of this would be high-quality
work performance and high job satisfaction as a result of intrinsic
motivation.
76 HRM and L&D
People resourcing
People resourcing, often called ‘employee resourcing’ or simply ‘resourcing’,
is the term used to describe the employment activities of workforce planning
and recruitment and selection that ensure the organization has the people it
needs. It is also concerned with employee retention and absenteeism, flexible
working and the management of diversity and inclusion (the last two activ-
ities are dealt with separately in Chapters 13 and 14). Resourcing is a vital
organizational activity that recognizes that the strategic capability of a firm
depends on its resource capability in the shape of people (the resource-based
view).
Employee resourcing is not just about recruitment and selection. It is
concerned with any means available to meet the firm’s need for certain
skills and behaviours. A strategy to ensure the organization has the tal-
ented people it needs (a talent management strategy) may start with re-
cruitment and selection but would extend into learning and development
to enhance abilities and skills and modify behaviours, and succession
planning. Performance management processes can be used to identify de-
velopment needs (skills and behaviours) and motivate people to make the
most effective use of their abilities. Competency frameworks and profiles
can be prepared to define the skills and behaviours required and can be
used in selection, employee development and employee reward processes.
The aim should be to develop a reinforcing bundle of strategies along
these lines.
Workforce planning
The purpose of workforce planning is to establish an organization’s people
requirements so that plans can be made to satisfy them. It involves the fol-
lowing activities:
1 Defining requirements.
2 Attracting candidates.
78 HRM and L&D
3 Interviewing.
4 Selection testing.
5 Making the decision.
1. Defining requirements
The number and categories of people required may be set out in formal
workforce plans from which are derived detailed recruitment plans. More
typically, requirements are defined as ad hoc demands for people because of
the creation of new posts, expansion into new activities or areas, or the need
for a replacement. These short-term demands may put HR under pressure to
deliver candidates quickly.
Requirements should be expressed in the form of role profiles and person
specifications indicating what the role holder has to be able to do and the
knowledge, skills and experience required. These provide the information
needed to post vacancies on the company’s website, the internet or a social
network site such as LinkedIn, draft advertisements, brief agencies or re-
cruitment consultants and assess candidates by means of interviews and se-
lection tests.
2. Attracting candidates
The sources of candidates are online recruiting, social media, advertising,
recruitment agencies, job centres, consultants, recruitment process outsour-
cing providers and direct approaches to educational establishments. There is
usually a choice between different methods or combinations of them. The
criteria to use when making the choice are: 1) the likelihood that it will pro-
duce good candidates; 2) the speed with which the choice enables recruit-
ment to be completed; and 3) the costs involved, bearing in mind that there
may be direct advertising costs or consultants’ fees.
Online or e-recruitment is becoming increasingly popular. It uses the
internet to advertise or ‘post’ vacancies, provides information about jobs
and the organization and enables e-mail communications to take place be-
tween employers and candidates. The main types of online recruitment sites
are corporate websites, commercial job boards and agency sites.
Social media are also used extensively. This means applying Web 2.0 tech-
nologies to search for recruits and find out more about them online. Social
media are defined as any online platform for networking or sharing infor-
mation or opinions, for example Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, or blogs, but
not e-mail.
The Practice of HRM 79
At CERN, the world’s largest particle physics laboratory, extensive use has been
made of social media for recruiting purposes. All job vacancies are advertised on
LinkedIn, Facebook and Twitter. These networks provide much more than simple
job boards in that they are used as communication tools to interact with the
audience, with candidates and with people who are not necessarily candidates
but may know people who may want to apply. Appropriate use is made of each
medium. For example, Facebook is used to host a weekly question and answer
session between one of CERN’s recruiters and anyone who wants to submit a
question, whereas the professional network LinkedIn provides a forum for more
specialized discussions.
3. Interviewing
The interview is the most familiar method of selection. The aim is to elicit
information about candidates that will enable a prediction to be made about
how well they will do the job and thus lead to a selection decision.
An interview involves face-to-face discussion. When it is an individual
rather than a panel interview, it provides the best opportunity for the estab-
lishment of close contact – rapport – between the interviewer and the candi-
date, thus easing the acquisition of information about the candidate’s
suitability and how well he or she would fit into the organization.
The advantages of interviews are that they:
●● give the candidate the same opportunity to assess the organization, the
interviewer and the job.
4. Selection testing
Selection tests are used to provide valid and reliable evidence of levels of abil-
ities, intelligence, personality characteristics, aptitudes and attainments.
Psychological tests are measuring instruments, which is why they are often
referred to as psychometric tests (‘psychometric’ means mental measure-
ment). Psychometric tests assess intelligence or personality. They use system-
atic and standardized procedures to measure differences in individual
characteristics, thus enabling selectors to gain a greater understanding of
candidates to help in predicting the extent to which they will be successful in
a job. Research by Schmidt and Hunter (1998) showed that the best results
were obtained by a combination of intelligence tests with structured inter-
views. The other types of tests described below are ability and aptitude tests.
A recent development in firms such as Deloitte is to use a recruitment app
in the form of a mobile phone game to test mental agility, persistence and
‘risk appetite’.
for the job (person-job fit). Account may also be taken of the extent to
which the candidates’ personality and values will fit into the organization
(person-organization fit).
The next step is to make a choice if there is more than one possible can-
didate. This choice should be evidence-based but judgement may still be
required, which can be difficult. The decision may have to be a balanced one – the
match may not be perfect but it may be felt that it will do. However, for the
sake of the organization and the individual concerned, what has to be
avoided at all cost is the selection in desperation of someone who is not
properly qualified to do the job.
Embarq is the largest independent local telecoms provider in the United States. It
suffered catastrophic rates of staff turnover in its call centres; then a new
assessment process designed by PreVisor reduced turnover from 33.5 per cent in
the first 90 days to 12.5 per cent.
The new process begins with an online screening tool that identifies charac-
teristics and motivations that define long-term success in the roles, such as ‘cus-
tomer focus’ and ‘persistence’. There follows a behaviour-based structured
interview and a sales-based role-play exercise. This exercise takes place over the
phone, which tests candidates in the most realistic way possible and is more con-
venient and cost-effective.
Sales have since increased by 24 per cent, and customer service has also
improved.
Talent management
Talent management is about ensuring that the organization has the talented
people it needs to attain its goals. Talent is what people must have to per-
form well in their roles. They make a difference to organizational perform-
ance through their immediate efforts, they have the ability to learn and
grow, and they have the potential to make an important contribution in the
future. Talent management is based on the proposition that ‘those with the
best people win’. It emerged in the late 1990s when McKinsey and Company
coined the phrase ‘the war for talent’. It involves the systematic attraction,
retention, identification and development of individuals who are of par-
ticular value to an organization.
82 HRM and L&D
BUSINESS STRATEGY
TALENT POOL
Talent
management
policy
Talent
management
strategy
84 HRM and L&D
Retention strategies
Retention strategies should be based on an understanding of the factors that
affect whether or not employees leave or stay. These include:
then indicate where action may need to be taken to retain key people or
groups of people.
Paul UK operates a chain of 22 patisserie and bakery shops employing 400 people.
Its staff turnover rate of 168 per cent was below the sector’s average but still too
high. The steps taken to overcome this problem were as follows:
●● a robust recruitment process was introduced using branded application forms
and centralized recruiting;
●● role descriptions and skills specifications were created for posts;
●● a competency-based approach to recruitment was introduced – the competencies
are closely linked to the company’s values and defined the behaviours and
attitudes required;
●● recruitment literature was professionally designed by an agency;
●● an employer brand was built – the promotional leaflet highlights the benefits of
working for the company;
●● an employee referral scheme was introduced (helped by the employer brand);
●● a resource centre for recruitment and training was established;
●● a rolling induction training programme was introduced;
●● a career progression framework was developed.
The outcome was that within two years staff turnover had dropped by 30 per cent
and retention rates had doubled.
Absence management
Absence or attendance management is the development and application of
policies and procedures designed to reduce levels of absenteeism. The CIPD
(2015) survey of absence management revealed that the average length of
employee absence was 6.9 days per employee per year.
88 HRM and L&D
Performance management
Performance management is the continuous process of improving perform-
ance by setting goals that are aligned to the strategic goals of the organiza-
tion, planning performance to achieve the goals, reviewing progress, and
developing the knowledge, skills and abilities of people. It is a means of
getting better results by providing scope for individuals to perform well
within an agreed framework of planned goals, standards and competency
requirements. It involves developing a shared understanding about what is
to be achieved and how. Its four elements are agreement, feedback, positive
reinforcement and dialogue.
Most employees want direction, freedom to get their work done, and
encouragement not control. The performance management system should be a
control system only by exception. The solution is to make it a collaborative
development system in two ways. First, the entire performance management
process – coaching, counselling, feedback, tracking, recognition, and so forth –
should encourage development. Ideally, team members grow and develop
through these interactions. Second, when managers and team members ask
what they need to be able to do to do bigger and better things, they move to
strategic development.
Corporate strategy
PLAN
MONITOR
Performance planning
Performance planning is carried out within the context of the corporate
strategy. It is based on performance agreements. These emerge from the ana-
lysis of role requirements and from performance reviews where assessments
of performance lead to the definition of future requirements. Agreement is
reached during the planning process on how performance will be measured.
Changes to the role profile and objectives can be made as required by chan-
ging circumstances.
Expectations are defined generally in role profiles that specify key
result areas; the knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) required and the
behavioural competencies needed to perform well. What has to be
accomplished in key result areas can be defined in the form of object-
ives or targets. The acronym ‘SMART’ is often used to define a good
objective, although it has its limitations, especially that of rigidity.
Traditionally, S stands for specific (sometimes ‘stretching’), M for meas-
urable, A for agreed, R for realistic and T for time-related or time-
bound. An important aspect of performance planning is the process of
aligning individual goals with the strategic goals of the organization.
The manager and the individual also agree on a development plan that
specifies what the latter needs to do to achieve objectives and develop per-
formance. The plan may incorporate a personal development plan that pro-
vides a learning action programme to be actioned by the individual with
the support of the manager. This may include formal training but, more
important, it will cover a wider set of learning and development activities
such as self-managed learning, coaching, mentoring, project work and
e-learning.
Performance reviews
Traditionally, formal performance reviews provided an annual (usually)
focal point for the consideration of key performance and development
issues. They led to the completion of the performance management process
by informing performance agreements and often involved some form of as-
sessment, as examined below.
The traditional formal appraisal review can be described as a dis-
honest annual ritual. Its primary purpose was often to inform perform-
ance pay decisions (or worse, in some systems, whether or not the
individual should be retained). Reviews were backward-looking and
judgmental rather than looking to the future to establish development
needs.
Traditional formal reviews can be stressful for both parties. Managers
often hate doing them and therefore do them badly, treating them as a
ritual to be observed at the behest of HR and dishonestly fudging their
judgements. Research by The Society for Human Resource Management
(2012) found that as much as 90 per cent of employees (including man-
agers) dislike formal reviews. Mueller-Hanson and Pulakos (2015) noted
that: ‘Study after study has shown that the performance review is dreaded – it
is not only perceived to be of little value but it is highly demotivating to
employees.’
The answer to this problem is to hold less formal conversations
throughout the year as part of the normal process of management.
These need not be stressful. They will provide an opportunity for feed-
back – people like to know how well they are doing – and can include
a measure of self-assessment. They will be essentially an updating pro-
cess and will be forward-looking, providing the means for participants
to revise role profiles, objectives and development plans to meet chan-
ging circumstances.
Performance assessment
Performance management schemes usually but not inevitably include an
assessment, which is done during or after a performance review meeting.
This can be carried out by an overall assessment based on a general analysis
of performance under the headings of the performance agreement. This
should be provided on a ‘what’ and ‘how’ basis. The ‘what’ is the achieve-
ment of previously agreed objectives related to the headings on a role
The Practice of HRM 93
The main areas of concern [about performance management] were the skills
and attitudes of reviewing managers, the consistency and quality of ap-
proach across large organizations, the complexity of the paperwork and the
value of outputs… Performance management, it appears, isn’t working.
(2011: 16)
One of the most dreaded tasks managers face is meeting with employees to
discuss their job performance. These meetings present a dilemma for managers.
On one hand, managers need to give constructive criticism so that employees
can improve their performance. On the other hand, managers do not like to give
negative feedback because of the bad feelings that often result. It is not surprising,
then, that managers avoid giving accurate evaluations, give overly generous
evaluations or avoid the process altogether.
They also noted that: ‘Too much attention has been placed on the design of
a [performance management] system and not enough on how it works when
implemented’ (ibid: 50).
The e-reward 2014 survey of performance management established that
the top three issues concerning respondents about their performance man-
agement processes were:
1 The lack of line managers with the skills required to carry out performance
management effectively.
2 Line managers who don’t discriminate sufficiently when assessing
performance.
3 Line managers who are reluctant to actually conduct performance manage
ment reviews.
C a s e s t u dy: R
einventing performance management
at Adobe
Background
●● 13,000 employees.
●● Adobe estimated that managers spend 80,000 hours on PM.
●● Had tried to realign and make incremental changes for five years and failed to
satisfactorily align to needs for collaboration, creativity and innovation.
●● ‘Genuine, Exceptional, Innovative and Involved’ – Adobe’s founding values.
●● Super-competitive industry.
The changes
Results
Reward management
Reward management deals with the strategies, policies and processes re-
quired to ensure that the value of people and the contribution they make to
achieving organizational, departmental and team goals is recognized and
rewarded. It is concerned with the design, implementation and maintenance
of reward systems (interrelated reward processes, practices and procedures
covering how jobs and people should be valued, the design and management
of grade and pay structures, rewarding and recognizing achievements and
performance, providing employee benefits and managing the system).
Reward systems aim to satisfy the needs of both the organization and its
stakeholders and to operate fairly, equitably and consistently.
It should be emphasized that reward management is not just about pay
and employee benefits. It is equally concerned with non-financial rewards
such as recognition, learning and development opportunities, and increased
job responsibility.
Business strategy
Reward strategy
Pay determination:
Performance
market pricing and job Recognition
management
evaluation
Base pay
management: grade Job design
and pay structures
Contingent pay:
pay for performance, Opportunity to develop
contribution or skill
Performance
1. Financial rewards
Financial rewards consist of job-based pay, which provides pay related to
the value of the job, and person-based pay, which provides rewards that rec-
ognize the individual’s contribution. They also include employee benefits
and pensions and financial recognition schemes. The management of job-
and person-based pay involves:
●● Contingent pay – planning and managing schemes that provide for pay
progression related to performance, contribution, competence, skill or
length of service.
Labour economists distinguish between the incentive effect of financial re-
wards (generating more engagement and effort) and the sorting effect (at-
tracting better quality employees). The fundamental issue is the extent to
which financial rewards provide an incentive effect. The sorting effect is
important but creates less controversy, perhaps because it is more difficult to
pin down.
2. Non-financial rewards
Non-financial rewards focus on the needs people have to varying degrees for
recognition, achievement, personal growth and acceptable working condi-
tions. They include the non-financial recognition of achievements, the de-
sign of fulfilling jobs, giving people the scope to develop their skills and
careers and offering a work environment that provides a high quality of
working life and an appropriate relationship between work and private life
(work–life balance). Non-financial rewards can be extrinsic, such as praise
or recognition, or intrinsic, associated with job challenge and interest and
feelings that the work is worthwhile.
3. Total rewards
Total rewards are the combination of financial and non-financial rewards
made available to employees. The various aspects of reward, namely base
pay, contingent pay, employee benefits and non-financial rewards, which in-
clude intrinsic rewards from the work itself, are linked together and treated
as an integrated and cohesive whole.
The concept of total rewards describes an approach to reward man-
agement that emphasizes the need to consider all aspects of the work
experience of value to employees, not just a few such as pay and em-
ployee benefits. A total rewards approach recognizes that it is necessary
to get financial rewards (pay and benefits) right but it also appreciates
the importance of providing people with rewarding experiences that
arise from their work environment (the job they do and how they are
managed) and the opportunity to develop their skills and careers. It con-
tributes to the production of an employee value proposition that pro-
vides a clear, compelling reason why talented people should work for a
company.
100 HRM and L&D
The CIPD (2012: 16) suggested that to build trust leaders need to tell the
truth and be willing to admit mistakes. They must share information openly,
support transparency, and seek information from multiple sources, not
merely relying on what they are told by their close advisers. Finally and im-
portantly, they should be candid in their dealings with followers.
From the employer’s point of view, the psychological contract covers such
aspects of the employment relationship as competence, effort, compliance,
commitment and loyalty.
Employee relations
Employee relations are concerned with managing and maintaining the
employment relationship, taking into account the implications of the
The Practice of HRM 101
Adversarial approaches are less common now than in the 1960s and 1970s.
The traditional approach is still the most typical but more interest is being
expressed in partnership. Power sharing is rare.
Employee voice
The term ‘employee voice’ refers to the say that employees have in matters
of concern to them in their organization. The purposes of employee voice
are to:
Arrangements for employee voice enable dialogues to take place that allow
employees to influence events at work. Opportunities are provided for
The Practice of HRM 103
●● joint consultation;
●● trade unions;
●● employee surveys;
●● social media, eg an enterprise social network (an internal social
network that functions in the same way as social networks such as
Facebook);
●● suggestion schemes;
●● quality circles.
Employee communications
Employee communication processes and systems provide for ‘two-way com-
munication’. In one direction they enable managements to inform employees
on matters that concern them. In the other, they provide for upward com-
munication by giving employees a voice.
Good communications are important for three reasons:
1 They are a vital part of any change management programme. If any change
is proposed – in terms and conditions of employment, HR processes such
as merit pay, working methods, technologies, products and services or
organization (including mergers and acquisitions) – employees need to
know what is proposed and how it will affect them. Resistance to change
often arises simply because people do not know what the change is or what
it implies for them.
2 Commitment to the organization will be enhanced if employees know
what the organization has achieved or is trying to achieve and how this
benefits them.
3 Effective communication generates trust as organizations take the trouble
to explain what they are doing and why.
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
People resourcing
People resourcing, often called ‘employee resourcing’ or simply ‘resour-
cing’, is the term used to cover employment activities that ensure the organ-
ization has the people it needs. It is concerned with workforce planning,
recruitment and selection, talent management, employment issues such as
employee retention and absenteeism, flexible working, and the manage-
ment of diversity and inclusion.
Performance management
Performance management is the continuous process of improving perform-
ance by setting goals that are aligned to the strategic goals of the organiza-
tion, planning performance to achieve the goals, reviewing progress, and
developing the knowledge, skills and abilities of people.
Reward management
Reward management deals with the strategies, policies and processes required
to ensure that the value of people and the contribution they make to achieving
organizational, departmental and team goals is recognized and rewarded.
It is concerned with the design, implementation and maintenance of re-
ward systems, the design and management of grade and pay structures,
rewarding and recognizing achievements and performance, providing em-
ployee benefits, and managing the system.
References
Brown, D (2011) Performance management – can it ever work? Manager, Summer,
p 16
Brown, D (2010) Practice what we preach? posted by Reward Blogger, 6 December,
London, CIPD
Cappelli, P (2000) A market-driven approach to retaining talent, Harvard Business
Review, January–February, pp 103–11
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The practice of 06
learning and
development
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Blended learning Learning analytics
Communities of practice Learning management system
Development Personal development planning
E-learning Self-directed learning
Education Self-managed learning
Enterprise social networks 70/20/10 learning model
Learning Social learning
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also know about:
Introduction
Learning and development (L&D) is defined as the process of ensuring that
the organization has the knowledgeable, skilled and engaged workforce it
needs and that individual employees have the opportunity to develop their
abilities and maximize their potential. It means enabling the acquisition by
individuals of knowledge and skills through experience, coaching provided
by line managers and others, guidance and self-directed or self-managed
learning activities carried out by individuals and learning events, pro-
grammes and facilities provided by the organization.
The components of L&D are:
The term human resource development retains its popularity among academics
but it has never been attractive to practitioners. They tend to dislike it because
they see its reference to people as a ‘resource’ to be demeaning. Putting people
The Practice of L&D 109
Self-directed
learning
E-learning
Coaching and
mentoring
Learner directed
Performance Learning
support through work
Formal Informal
Organization directed
learnt, what they have achieved, what their goals are, how they are going
to achieve those goals and what new learning they need to acquire. The
learning programme can be ‘self-paced’ in the sense that learners can, up
to a point, decide for themselves the rate at which they learn, and are
encouraged to measure their own progress and adjust the programme
accordingly.
Self-managed learning is based on the principle that people learn and
retain more if they find things out for themselves. But they still need to be
given guidance on what to look for and help in finding it. Learners have to
be encouraged to define, with whatever help they need, the knowledge and
skills required to do their work. They need information on where they can
get the material or information that will enable them to learn. This can be
done through personal development planning, as described below. They also
need support from their manager and the organization with the provision of
coaching, mentoring and learning facilities, including e-learning. The use of
social media, as described later, can help.
Blended learning
Blended learning is the use of a combination of learning methods to increase
the overall effectiveness of the learning process by providing for different
parts of the learning mix to complement and support one another. A blended
learning programme might be planned for an individual using a mix of
planned experience, self-managed learning activities defined in a personal de-
velopment plan, e-learning facilities, group action learning activities, coaching
or mentoring, and instruction provided in an in-company or external course.
sit within organizations. On the basis of its research the CIPD (2014: 4)
concluded that:
While there will always be a place for face-to-face learning interventions, social
media can transform many aspects of learning and development, being used to
curate knowledge, locate experts and facilitate peer-to-peer support, support
self-directed learning and help employees prepare for and embed learning from
training courses.
The CIPD also commented that: ‘Social media blurs the traditional bound-
aries of learning and development. Sharing information and pointing to re-
sources naturally leads to learner-led development, whereby people find out
what they need to know when they need to know it’ (ibid: 19).
Enterprise social networks are open communication tools that combine
various functions, including being able to post announcements, comments,
micro-blogs, questions and resources, join and set up special interest groups,
follow colleagues and take part in forum discussions. As the CIPD (2014)
pointed out, enterprise social networks can support learning and develop-
ment in a number of ways. They can generate discussion and engage em-
ployees with learning events before and after they take place, thus boosting
interest and focusing attention in the first instance and helping embed
learning in day-to-day work afterwards. Social media itself provides a source
for learning content. It helps to locate expertise within the organization and
to catalogue insight and information for future reference. It can provide em-
ployees with access to bite-sized learning material so that they can learn in
slots of five minutes or so. Forums can be created, as in Marks & Spencer,
where employees can discuss training materials with the experts who cre-
ated them, giving the employees greater clarity on how to use them.
online learning content and The Academy Online is used to deliver blended
learning and development. An intervention may start with a presentation or
workshop and go on to self-directed e-learning through an online platform. As a
social network, the platform facilitates conversations between colleagues.
Workplace learning
The 70/20/10 learning model suggests that 90 per cent of learning will take
place through learning activities other than formal training courses or train-
ing programmes. Most of that will be gained from experience and social
learning in the workplace. This recognizes that, in the words of Paine (2015:
46): ‘Instead of putting learning into work (which is what a course essen-
tially is) you extract learning from work and ensure it is accessible and
shared’ [italics in original].
Learning in the workplace is mainly informal although line managers
have an important part to play in facilitating it through coaching and by
arranging supporting activities, including formal training sessions. Much of
it is experiential learning – learning by doing and by reflecting on experi-
ence so that it can be understood and applied. Workplace learning involves
self-directed and self-managed learning and is enhanced by coaching, men-
toring, e-learning and planned experience. But some more formal training
activities can take place there. These include induction training – ensuring
that new starters have the necessary knowledge and skills. Additional
formal training may be provided later to develop new skills or enhance
existing ones.
Social learning
As defined by Hart (2014):
practice’ (groups of people with shared expertise who work together) and
that these are our primary sources of learning.
Some form of social learning happens continually in the workplace as
individuals and groups work together. Groups solve problems jointly and
learn in doing so. Project teams do the same. Individuals observe what their
colleagues do and learn from their observations. But it should not be left to
chance: social learning can be even more effective if supported by commu-
nities of practice, learning communities and online social learning, as de-
scribed below.
Communities of practice
Communities of practice are groups of people bound together by shared ex-
pertise who meet together to share knowledge. They may be set up by indi-
viduals or groups, but L&D may support them as an approach to learning
that offers more than traditional training.
Learning communities
Learning communities are groups of people who get together to learn from
one another. They are usually set up by L&D professionals to support a
training course or an online programme. Learning communities might be
established before a course to prepare participants and give them some pre-
liminary material to absorb. After the course community members can get
together to discuss what they have learnt and how they are applying it.
Problems can be raised and solutions considered. The emphasis is on inter-
action, sharing and conversations between the participants. In effect, learning
communities may become communities of practice in which further learning
possibilities can be explored and agreement reached on how they should be
pursued by the community itself or with help from L&D.
from one another. In using an ESN, individuals’ personal activity streams will
consist of all their activity streams – from all their learning initiatives as well
as from their work teams and communities. Learning is no longer seen as a
separate activity from working and it can become a continuous, social
experience.
E-learning
E-learning is learning that is delivered through electronic Web 2.0 tech-
nology. The content of e-learning can consist of a whole programme
covering, for example health and safety compliance, or it can usefully con-
tain small and easily assimilated segments or ‘bites’ of material dealing with
a specific topic such as handling difficult conversations. A Web 2.0 site al-
lows users to interact and collaborate with each other by reference to
user-generated content in a virtual community. It can be used to promote
organizational learning and knowledge management through intranets and
enterprise social networks within organizations. The aim is to enhance
learning. It extends and supplements face-to-face learning rather than re-
places it. E-learning can provide reinforcement through post-event reading,
help with self-assessment and lead to chatroom support. The emphasis is
on self-paced learning – learners control the rate at which they learn al-
though they may be given targets for completion and guidance from tutors
on how they should learn. However, the impact of e-learning is strongly
influenced by the quality of the support provided to learners. It is the effect-
iveness of this support rather than the sophistication of the technology that
counts.
E-learning material may be managed by means of a learning management
system (LMS), a software application for e-learning administration, curric-
ulum management, documentation, tracking the progress of learners, re-
porting and delivery. E-learning modules, especially those designed for
compliance training, often test participants on what they have learnt by
getting them to tick boxes in such formats as multiple-choice questions.
E-learning is most commonly used for compliance training (for example,
health and safety, hygiene and data protection). It is also often used for in-
duction training. E-learning can be used to support informal learning in the
workplace. It may be blended with other types of learning. For example, the
majority of learning content may be delivered through face-to-face lectures
or coaching or through textual material, but the dialogue with other learners,
the conduct of collaborative activities and the searching for supporting
material are all conducted online.
118 HRM and L&D
Training
Training is the use of systematic and planned instruction activities to pro-
mote learning. The approach can be summarized in the phrase ‘learner-based
training.’ It is one of several responses an organization can undertake to
promote learning.
As Reynolds (2004: 45) pointed out, training has a complementary role
to play in accelerating learning: ‘It should be reserved for situations that jus-
tify a more directed, expert-led approach rather than viewing it as a compre-
hensive and all-pervasive people development solution.’ He also commented
that the conventional training model has a tendency to ‘emphasize subject-
specific knowledge, rather than trying to build core learning abilities’.
Justification of training
Formal training is indeed only one of the ways of ensuring that learning
takes place, but it can be justified in the following circumstances:
Systematic training
Training should be systematic in that it is specifically designed, planned, im-
plemented and evaluated to meet defined needs. It is provided by people
who know how to train and the impact of training is carefully evaluated.
The concept was originally developed for the industrial training boards in
the 1960s and, as illustrated in Figure 6.3, consists of a four-stage model:
3. Implement training
4. Evaluate training
1 In the analysis phase the learning goals and objectives are established and
the learning environment and learners’ existing knowledge and skills are
identified.
2 The design phase deals with subject matter analysis and the methods to
be used. This should be a ‘blended learning’ approach making appropriate
use of presentations, discussions, case studies, role plays and simulations
and games. The maximum amount of learner involvement rather than
spoon-feeding through lectures should be planned.
3 In the development phase the detailed programme is constructed as
conceived in the design phase. This covers the session plan, the outline
content and learning outcomes of each session, nomination and briefing
120 HRM and L&D
A radical overhaul of training for the Scottish police has created more
opportunities for promotion and culminated in a prestigious National Training
Award. The improved training scheme uses facilitated learning delivery, where
trainees pre-read all information before attending sessions and then discuss
issues and learn from each other. Responsibility for learning is now firmly placed
on the shoulders of the individual – you have got to want to be a police officer and
you have got to want to learn. After 15 weeks of initial training, a two-week
‘reconvention’ period helps staff with the areas they particularly need to address.
This training is tailored to individual requirements: syndicates of recruits with
similar needs are put together to receive it. This ‘partnership approach’ had
helped the participants to focus on communication and problem-solving skills.
A Certificate of Higher Education in policing, accredited by the University of
Stirling, is awarded on completion of the programme. There are also opportunities
to take a diploma in management skills.
The customer support centre employs 300 people. Customer service agents work
in a group of five, known as a ‘pod’. One of the pod members will be a team coach
who provides support and advice to his or her agent colleagues.
A working knowledge of each customer support system is essential to do the
job and one of the central tasks of the training department is to bring new en-
trants up to competence as quickly as possible. The following pattern is adopted.
The Practice of L&D 121
New entrants join in cohorts of 8 to 10 and spend their first week in the training
room. As the week progresses they spend periods in a pod sitting next to a ‘buddy’,
listening to calls. At the end of that week they are allocated to a pod team and re-
ceive close ongoing support from the pod team coach.
Given the emphasis on learning in the workplace, the role of the team coach is
critical and there are a number of steps in place to support and enhance their role.
A set of skills and needs have been defined and these are delivered to the 30 centre
team coaches in 90-minute modules in the training room.
Leadership development
Management development
Management development is concerned with improving the performance of
managers in their present roles, preparing them to take on greater responsi-
bilities in the future and also developing their leadership skills. The aim is to
find ways in which the organization can produce, mainly from within, a
supply of managers better equipped for their jobs at all levels. The principal
method of doing this is to ensure that managers gain the right sequence and
variety of experience, in good time, that will equip them for whatever level
of responsibility they have the ability to reach in the course of their career.
This experience can be supplemented – but never replaced – by courses care-
fully timed and designed to meet particular needs.
Evaluation of learning
It is important to evaluate learning to assess its effectiveness in producing
the outcomes specified when the activity was planned. Evaluation can indi-
cate where improvements or changes are required to make the training even
more effective. As noted by Tamkin et al (2002), learning can be modelled
124 HRM and L&D
●● The Kirkpatrick (1994) system, which has four levels: 1) reaction to the
training event; 2) learning from the training event; 3) behaviour on return
to work; and 4) evaluate results in terms of impact on organizational
performance.
●● Return on expectations measures – the extent to which the objectives and
anticipated benefits of any learning investment have been realized.
●● Return on investment (RoI) calculated as:
5 The risks associated with evaluation may be too great, given that the
evaluation data might reveal that the training had little impact.
L&D specialists analyse learning needs and make proposals on how these
can best be satisfied. They advise line managers on the achievement of work-
place learning and coach them on the learning and development skills they
need. They promote social learning, develop e-learning and the use of social
media to aid learning, provide individual coaching, and plan, implement and
The Practice of L&D 127
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Workplace learning
The 70/20/10 learning model suggests that 90 per cent of learning will
take place through learning activities other than formal training courses or
training programmes. Most of that will be gained from experience and social
learning in the workplace.
Social learning
As defined by Hart (2014): ‘Social learning is about people connecting, con-
versing, collaborating and learning from, and with, one another on a daily
basis at work… It’s about helping teams learn as they work, rather than
taking them out and forcing them to endure a learning “experience”.’
E-learning
E-learning is learning that is delivered through electronic Web 2.0 tech-
nology. The content of e-learning can consist of a whole programme
covering, for example health and safety compliance, or it can contain small
and easily assimilated segments or ‘bites’ of material dealing with a specific
topic such as handling difficult conversations.
Training
Training is the use of systematic and planned instruction activities to pro-
mote learning. Formal training is indeed only one of the ways of ensuring
that learning takes place, but it can be justified when the knowledge or skills
cannot be acquired satisfactorily by experiential learning in the workplace
or by self-managed learning; different skills are required by a number of
people; the tasks to be carried out are so specialized or complex that people
are unlikely to master them on their own initiative at a reasonable speed; or
when a learning need common to a number of people has to be met that can
readily be dealt with in a training event or programme.
The Practice of L&D 129
Systematic training
Training should be systematic in that it is specifically designed, planned,
implemented and evaluated to meet defined needs.
Evaluation of learning
It is important to evaluate learning to assess its effectiveness in producing
the outcomes specified when the activity was planned. Evaluation can indi-
cate where improvements or changes are required in order to make the
training even more effective.
The methods used for evaluation are the Kirkpatrick (1994) system, which
has four levels, return on expectations measures, return on investment
(RoI), and learning analytics.
References
Bandura, A (1977) Social Learning Theory, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall
Bolden, R (2010) Leadership, management and organizational development, in (eds)
J Gold, R Thorpe and A Mumford, Gower Handbook of Leadership and
Management Development, Aldershot, Gower, pp 118–32
The Practice of L&D 131
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also understand:
●● The overall contribution the HRM and L&G functions can make
to organizational capability and effectiveness
●● How HR makes an impact on organizational performance
●● The contribution HR can make in the public and voluntary
sectors, in small to medium sized enterprises and international
organizations
134 HRM and L&D
Introduction
This chapter starts with a study of the overall contribution of the human
resources (HR) and learning and development (L&D) functions to organiza-
tional effectiveness and an analysis of how this contribution is made. The
rest of the chapter is devoted to the contribution of HR in organizations in
the public and voluntary sectors, in SMEs (small to medium-sized enter-
prises) and in international organizations.
The impact of HR
As Guest (1997: 269) argued: ‘The distinctive feature of HRM is its assump-
tion that improved performance is achieved through the people in the or-
ganization.’ If, therefore, appropriate HR policies and processes are
introduced, it can also be assumed that HRM will impact on firm perform-
ance. Much research has been carried out showing that good HRM practice
and firm performance are correlated; notable examples in the UK are
Patterson et al (1997), Guest et al (2000a), Thompson (2002), West et al
(2002) and Purcell et al (2003) as summarized in Table 7.1.
Patterson et al (1997) The research examined the link between HR practices explained significant variations in
business performance and organization culture profitability and productivity (19 per cent and 18 per
and the use of a number of HR practices. cent respectively). Two HR practices were particularly
significant: 1) the acquisition and development of
employee skills; and 2) job design including flexibility,
responsibility and variety.
Guest et al (2000a) An analysis of the 1998 WERS survey, which A strong association exists between HRM and both
sampled some 2,000 workplaces and obtained employee attitudes and workplace performance.
the views of about 28,000 employees.
Thompson (2002) A study of the impact of high performance work The number of HR practices and the proportion of the
practices such as teamworking, appraisal, job workforce covered appeared to be the key differentiating
rotation, broad-banded grade structures and factor between more and less successful firms.
sharing of business information in UK aerospace
establishments.
West et al (2002) Research conducted in 61 UK hospitals obtaining An association between certain HR practices and lower
information on HR strategy, policy and mortality rates was identified. As noted by Professor
procedures from chief executives and HR West: ‘If you have HR practices that focus on effort and
directors and on mortality rates. skill; develop people’s skills; encourage cooperation,
collaboration, innovation and synergy in teams for most,
if not all employees, the whole system functions and
performs better.’
(Continued )
Table 7.1 Continued
Purcell et al (2003) A University of Bath longitudinal study of 12 The most successful companies had ‘the big idea’.
companies to establish how people management They had a clear vision and a set of integrated values.
impacts on organizational performance. They were concerned with sustaining performance
and flexibility. Clear evidence existed between
positive attitudes towards HR policies and practices,
levels of satisfaction, motivation and commitment,
and operational performance. Policy and practice
implementation (not the number of HR practices
adopted) is the vital ingredient in linking people
management to business performance and this is
primarily the task of line managers.
Different Types of Organizations 139
HR practices seem to matter; logic says it is so; survey findings confirm it. Direct
relationships between performance and attention to HR practices are often fuzzy,
however, and vary according to the population sampled and the measures used.
There are two issues that affect the determination of a link between HRM
and firm performance: causal ambiguity and contingency factors. These
contribute to what is known as ‘the black box’ phenomenon.
Causal ambiguity
The term ‘causal ambiguity’ refers to the numerous, subtle and often hidden
interconnections between the factors influencing cause and effect. Boselie
et al (2005: 75) referred to the causal distance between an HRM input and
an output such as financial performance: ‘Put simply, so many variables and
events, both internal and external, affect organizations that this direct
linkage strains credibility.’
A basic reason for ambiguity is multiple causation; ie there is more than
one possible cause for an effect. HRM may have caused an improvement in
performance but there may be many other economic or business factors that
did so, and it could be difficult to unravel them. Another factor is the possi-
bility of reversed causality (a situation where A might have caused B but B
might well have caused A). As Purcell et al (2003: 2) expressed it: ‘Although
it is nice to believe that more HR practices leads to higher economic return,
it is just as possible that it is successful firms that can afford more extensive
(and expensive) HRM practices.’
Contingency factors
Causation will additionally be affected by the organization’s context, ie the
internal and external environmental factors that influence what happens
within the organization.
Observable ? Measurable
The expectancy theory of motivation provides one possible basis for developing a
more coherent rationale about the link between HRM practices and performance.
Although expectancy theory is concerned primarily with motivation, it is also a
theory about the link between motivation and performance. Specifically, it
proposes that high performance, at the individual level, depends on high motiv-
ation plus possession of the necessary skills and abilities and an appropriate role
and understanding of that role. It is a short step to specify the HRM practices that
encourage high skills and abilities, for example careful selection and high
investment in training; high motivation, for example employee involvement and
possibly performance-related pay; and an appropriate role structure and role
perception, for example job design and extensive communication and feedback.
Reversed causality
Contingency variables:
Internal context – size, sector, technology, employees, culture
External context – competition, economic, social, legal
been dealt with. Finally, there is the significant effect of international activities
on HRM, which is considered in the last section of the chapter.
those public institutions and those public works, which though they may be
in the highest degree advantageous to a great society, are, however, of such a
nature that the profit could never repay the expense to any individual, or small
number of individuals, and, therefore, it cannot be expected that any individual,
or small number of individuals, should erect or maintain.
●● Public scrutiny. As Bach and Kessler (2007: 470–71) noted: ‘The degree
of public scrutiny and the amount of direct and indirect intervention has
no direct equivalent in the private sector.’
●● Range of stakeholders. Truss (2008: 1073) commented that: ‘public
organizations have a much broader range of stakeholders than their
private sector counterparts. Compared with the more limited number of
stable goals that exist for private sector firms, these bring a multiplicity
of objectives and priorities. This creates a complex and qualitatively
different working environment for public managers’.
●● Governance. Top managers in the public sector are very much subject to
the will and sometimes the foibles of their masters – the politicians. As
Parry et al (2005: 590) noted: ‘Management of human resources in the
public sector is subject to direct and indirect political intervention brought
about by the tripartite nature of the relationship among employer,
employee and government. Historically, public sector employment has
been influenced by the desire of the government to be a “model employer”.’
●● Funding uncertainties. Funding uncertainties and funding constraints are
endemic to public services as exemplified by government imposed cuts.
much more concerned with industrial relations than in the majority of pri-
vate sector firms and it is particularly involved in ensuring that the organiza-
tion sets an example in people management in such areas as equal
opportunity, diversity and employee wellbeing. The CIPD (2010b: 7) high-
lighted particular areas of performance management in the public sector
that need to be improved to support more effective service delivery, namely:
managing absence, managing stress, managing conflict.
The very high levels of commitment mean that individuals are reluctant to
change or recognize any priorities other than their own. The organization is
perceived as an unnecessary distraction, and this can make the life of a personnel
director who is trying to establish a consistent approach to personnel manage-
ment practices very difficult. (Armstrong, 1992: 30)
Governance issues
As noted by Brewster and Lee (2006a: 135):
Governance problems in the NGOs vary considerably and depend on the type
of organization that is being considered. However, a crucial distinctive element
in the nature of governance in NGOs is that it remains the ultimate responsibil-
ity of part-time volunteers, usually meeting no more than four or six times a
year in the form of a trustee board or committee of management.
Different Types of Organizations 147
HR practitioners will operate across a spectrum of ‘high’ and ‘low’ road employ-
ment strategies in an effort to coordinate organizational responses to diverse and
contradictory external funding and regulatory constraints while at the same time
attempting to exercise degrees of strategic freedom from the funding bodies.
Stage 1 Start-up. In this initial stage business people matters tend to be dealt
with by the owner, with no formal HR role. Overall the business is char-
acterized by informality, with an emergent strategy, fluid structures and
flexible job roles. The owner takes responsibility for hiring, looking for
someone who ‘fits’ with what the company is all about. The people-
related requirements tend to be minimal, centred on pay and contracts,
with the rate for the job set by the owner.
Stage 2 Emerging enterprise. In a growing business the owner will have to
delegate more and people issues become more important. Someone may
Different Types of Organizations 149
International HRM
International human resource management is the process of managing people
across international boundaries by multinational companies. It involves the
worldwide management of people, not just the management of expatriates.
Michael Dickman of the Cranfield School of Management, as reported by
Welfare (2006), believes that the main contrast between national and global
HR practice is the need to see the bigger picture. Sensitivity is necessary in
dealing with different cultures and there are complex challenges involved
when operating in different business environments. Understanding the local
context is key and an international HR person needs to be asking questions
such as: What is the business environment here? What is the role of the trade
unions? What is the local labour law? Are these people different? Are their
motivation patterns different?
Globalization
Globalization is the process of international economic integration in world-
wide markets. It involves the development of single international markets
for goods or services accompanied by an accelerated growth in world trade.
As Ulrich (1998: 126) put it, globalization requires organizations to:
move people, ideas, products, and information around the world to meet local
needs. They must add new and important ingredients to the mix when making
strategy: volatile political situations, contentious global trade issues, fluctuating
exchange rates, and unfamiliar cultures. They must be more literate in the ways
of international customers, commerce, and competition than ever before. In
short, globalization requires that organizations increase their ability to learn
and collaborate and to manage diversity, complexity, and ambiguity.
Cultural differences
Cultural differences must also be taken into account. Hiltrop (1995) noted
the following HR areas that may be affected by national culture:
Managing expatriates
Expatriates are people working overseas on long- or short-term contracts
who can be nationals of the parent company or ‘third country nationals’
(TCNs) – nationals of countries other than the parent company who work
abroad in subsidiaries of that company.
The management of expatriates is a major factor determining success or
failure in an international business. Expatriates are expensive; they can cost
three or four times as much as the employment of the same individual at
home. They can be difficult to manage because of the problems associated
with adapting to and working in unfamiliar environments, concerns about
their development and careers, difficulties encountered when they re-enter
their parent company after an overseas assignment, and how they should be
remunerated. Policies to address all these issues are required.
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
HR contribution
The contribution that HR can make in carrying out these activities is to:
●● provide insight;
●● contribute to the formulation and implementation of business strategy;
●● improve organizational effectiveness;
Different Types of Organizations 153
●● facilitate change;
●● provide expertise;
●● promote social responsibility;
●● deliver HR services;
●● provide advice;
●● develop an employee value proposition;
●● promote the wellbeing of employees.
●● provide insight;
●● improve organizational effectiveness;
●● help to ensure that the organization has the skilled, knowledgeable and
engaged people it needs;
●● promote individual development;
●● provide expertise;
●● deliver L&D services;
●● provide advice;
●● facilitate change.
●● Public scrutiny.
●● Range of stakeholders.
●● Governance.
●● Funding uncertainties and constraints.
●● The bureaucratic role.
HR international issues
International human resource management is the process of managing
people across international boundaries by multinational companies. It in-
volves the worldwide management of people not just the management of
expatriates.
There are a number of issues that specifically affect the practice of inter-
national HRM: the impact of globalization, the influence of environmental
and cultural differences, the extent to which HRM policy and practice
should vary in different countries (convergence or divergence), and the ap-
proaches used to employ and manage expatriates.
The contribution HR can make to international management is to:
References
Alvesson, M (2009) Critical perspectives on strategic HRM, in (eds) J Storey, P M
Wright and D Ulrich, The Routledge Companion to Strategic Human Resource
Management, Abingdon, Routledge, pp 53–68
Anderson, V (2007) The Value of Learning: From return on investment to return
on expectation, London, CIPD
Armstrong, M (1992) A charitable approach to personnel, Personnel Management,
December, pp 28–32
Bach, S and Kessler, I (2007) HRM and the new public management, in (eds) P
Boxall, J Purcell and P Wright, Oxford Handbook of Human Resource
Management, Oxford, Oxford University Press, pp 469–88
Birdi, K S, Patterson, M G and Wood, S J (2007) Learning to perform? A
comparison of learning practices and organizational performance in profit- and
non-profit-making sectors in the UK, International Journal of Training and
Development, 11 (4), pp 265–81
Boselie, P, Dietz, G and Boon, C (2005) Commonalities and contradictions in HRM
and performance research, Human Resource Management Journal, 15 (3), pp
67–94
Brewster, C and Lee, S (2006a) HRM in not-for-profit international organizations:
different but also alike, in (eds) H H Larsen and W Mayrhofer, Managing
Human Resources in Europe, London, Routledge, pp 131–48
Brewster, C and Lee, S (2006b) The success of NGOs hinges on their people – but
HR is neglected in the sector, People Management, 23 March, p 44
Brewster, C, Harris, H and Sparrow, P (2002) Globalizing HR, London, CIPD
Brewster, C and Sparrow, P (2007) Advances in technology inspire a fresh
approach to international HRM, People Management, 8 February, p 48
Brewster, C, Sparrow, P and Harris, H (2005) Towards a new model of globalizing
HRM, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16 (6), pp
949–70
CIPD (2010a) Next Generation HR, London, CIPD
CIPD (2010b) Building Productive Public Sector Workplaces, London, CIPD
Cunningham, I (2008) A race to the bottom? Exploring variations in employment
conditions in the voluntary sector, Public Administration, 86 (4), pp 1033–53
Cunningham, I (2010) HRM in the not-for-profit sector, in (eds) I Roper, R
Prouska and U Ayudhya, Critical Issues in Human Resource Management,
London, CIPD, pp 341–55
Guest, D E (1997) Human resource management and performance; a review of the
research agenda, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8
(3), 263–76
Guest, D E, Michie, J, Sheehan, M and Conway, N (2000a) Employee Relations,
HRM and Business Performance: An Analysis of the 1998 Workplace Employee
Relations Survey, London, CIPD
156 HRM and L&D
Questions
1 What is the overall contribution the HRM function can make to organizational
effectiveness?
3 What is the overall contribution the L&D function can make to organizational
effectiveness?
5 What are the most significant outcomes of research into the impact of HRM
conducted within the last 10 years in the UK? Refer to at least two projects.
9 What are the characteristics of the public sector that might affect HRM?
12 What are the issues in the voluntary sector that are likely to affect HRM?
158 HRM and L&D
19 What are the key issues in international organizations that affect HRM?
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also understand:
Introduction
The theme of this chapter is that there is an ethical dimension to human re-
source management which requires HR specialists to act professionally. To do
this they need initially to appreciate what professionalism means in terms of
ethical standards, and the role of professional and organizational codes of
conduct. To grasp the ethical dimension in their work they need to understand
the nature and principles of ethics, the ethical role of HR and the ethical
guidelines they can use. They should also know about approaches to resolving
ethical dilemmas and the issues relating to managing within the law.
Professionalism in HR
Professionalism in HR as in other fields can be defined generally as the con-
duct exhibited by people who are providing advice and services that require
expertise and who meet defined or generally accepted standards of behav-
iour. Work done by a professional is usually distinguished by its reference to
a framework of fundamental concepts that reflect the skilful application of
specialized education, training and experience. It is accompanied by a sense
of responsibility and an acceptance of recognized standards. HR profes-
sionals who are members of the Chartered Institute of Personnel and
Development (the CIPD) are required to uphold the standards laid down by
that body. More loosely, people can be described as acting ‘professionally’
when they do their work well and act with integrity.
The CIPD (2015: 12) advocates the following approach to professionalism:
Rather than focusing on the activities it delivers, the (HR) profession should build
its credibility and trust by showing its capability and courage to challenge
accepted practice and offer business leaders a range of critical perspectives on
Professional and Ethical Approach 161
However, it was argued by Farndale and Brewster (2005: 35, 46) following
a worldwide study of professional HR associations including the CIPD, that
there was:
with respect and consideration. These principles can conflict with or-
ganizational objectives to maximize performance, increase shareholder
value and achieve more with less. They are also affected by issues such
as pressure for more flexibility, work intensification, the use of HR
techniques like performance-related pay and performance manage-
ment, and management practices such as expecting people to meet de-
manding performance targets and closely monitoring employee
performance.
HR specialists are part of management, but there will be occasions
when in their professional capacity they should speak out against plans
or actions that are not in accord with the ethical standards or values
professed by the organization in its code of conduct, if it has one. If
not, HR professionals should speak out in accordance with the stand-
ards and values they believe in. They should also do their best to de-
velop more exacting ethical standards and influence changes in core
values where they feel they are necessary. They must not tolerate in-
justice or inequality of opportunity. Speaking out is probably the most
demanding task that HR people have to do. It is never easy to challenge
a course of action proposed or taken by management, which may well
be supported by a compelling business case. It takes courage and deter-
mination and it is, of course, advisable to be sure that there are good
grounds for doing so.
HR professionals may often find themselves in a hard-nosed, entre-
preneurial environment, but this does not mean that they can remain
unconcerned about developing and helping to uphold organizational
core values in line with their own values on the ethical principles, which
govern how people should be managed. These may not always be recon-
cilable, and if this is strongly the case, the HR professional may have to
make a choice on whether he or she can remain with the organization.
Professionalism in human resource management means acting in accord-
ance with ethical standards. It means recognizing that there is an important
ethical dimension to the work of HR professionals.
companies with explicit ethics policies has risen over the last 10 years
from a third to more than a half. Having an ethics policy is now con-
sidered a hallmark of a well-managed company. The ethics policy is nor-
mally expressed in a code of business ethics, sometimes called a code of
business conduct or principles. As described by the Institute of Business
Ethics, an ethics policy:
Aims
The main aims of an ethics policy, code and programme can be set out under
the following headings:
●● Values – to embed a set of ethical values into the organization’s goals and
strategies and the way it seeks to do what it does.
●● Ethical behaviour – to provide guidance and support to staff for making
decisions and carrying out their work in a way that is compatible with
the organization’s ethical values and standards.
●● Corporate culture – to consolidate and strengthen a culture of integrity
and openness so as to facilitate a sustainable business.
●● Risk – to minimize operational and integrity risks.
●● Reputation – to enhance trust among stakeholders so as to facilitate
business success.
●● Sustainability – to minimize the organization’s negative impacts on and
maximize its positive contribution to the social, economic and
environmental wellbeing of wider society.
Here are some extracts from company codes to provide a flavour of what
they can contain.
Professional and Ethical Approach 165
It would be naive to think that devising a corporate ethics policy is easy or that
simply having a policy will solve the ethical dilemmas companies face. Directors,
managers, and employees need to exercise their own fundamental sense of right
and wrong when making decisions on behalf of the corporation and its
shareholders. There is a lesson in the story of the pension fund manager who
was asked whether she would invest in a company doing business in a country
that permits slavery. ‘Do you mean me, personally, or as a fund manager?’ she
responded. When people feel entitled or compelled to compromise their own
ethics to advance the interests of a business or its shareholders, it is an invitation
to mischief.
Reservations have also been expressed by Webley and Werner (2008: 405–06).
They observed that: ‘Though necessary, having an ethics policy based solely
on a code of ethics is not sufficient to affect employee attitudes and behav-
iour.’ This conclusion was similar to that reached by Schwartz (2004) whose
research established that the mere existence of a code is unlikely to influence
employee behaviour and that companies simply possessing a code could be
subject to allegations of window-dressing.
Webley and Werner (2008: 406) commented that many of the busi-
nesses being singled out by the media as less than ethical have had an
explicit ethics policy: ‘Enron is but one dramatic example… This is what
Kenneth Lay wrote in 2000: “We want to be proud of Enron and know
that it enjoys a reputation for fairness and honesty and that it is re-
spected.”’ They also reported on research by the UK Institute of Business
Ethics, conducted in 2005, covering 759 full-time employees. In the
survey, one in two respondents said that they had noticed unethical be-
haviour but had failed to report it. Further analysis revealed that two out
of three of the employees who had noticed unethical behaviour worked
for organizations that had a code of ethics. Webley and Werner argued
that formal ethics programmes can be deficient for any or all of the fol-
lowing reasons:
A moral issue is present where a person’s actions, when freely performed, may
harm or benefit others. In other words, the action or decision must have
consequences for others and must involve choice, or volition, on the part of the
actor or decision maker. (ibid: 367)
Ethics is not about taking statements of morality at face value; it is a critical and
challenging tool. There are no universally agreed ethical frameworks… Different
situations require ethical insight and flexibility to enable us to encapsulate the
grounds upon which competing claims can be made. Decisions are judgements
usually involving choices between alternatives, but rarely is the choice between
right and wrong… Moral disagreement and judgements are concerned with
attitudes and feelings, not facts.
Ethical theories
There are a number of theories explaining the nature of ethics. The main ones
are. deontology, utilitarianism, stakeholder theory and discourse theory,
described below.
Deontological theory
Deontological (from the Greek for ‘what is right’) theory maintains that
some actions are right or wrong irrespective of their consequences. It is
Professional and Ethical Approach 169
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is the belief that actions are justified when they result in the
greatest good to the greatest number. Actions should be judged in terms of
their consequences. This is sometimes interpreted as supporting the dubious
principle that the end justifies the means.
Stakeholder theory
In accordance with the ideas of Freeman (1984), stakeholder theory states
that the organization should be managed on behalf of its stakeholders: its
owners, employees, customers, suppliers and local communities. As Legge
(1998: 22) described it, management must act in the interests of the stake-
holders as their agent, and also act in the interests of the organization to
ensure the survival of the firm, safeguarding the long-term stakes of each
group.
Discourse ethics
Foucault (1972) defined discourse as the taken for granted ways that people
are collectively able to make sense of experience. Discourse ethics as ex-
plained by Winstanley and Woodall (2000b: 14) suggests that ‘the role of
ethicists is not to provide solutions to ethical problems, but rather to
provide a practical process and procedure which is both rational and con-
sensus enhancing, through which issues can be debated and discourse can
take place’.
Ethical concepts
The ethical concepts of equity, justice and fair-dealing complement the theories
described above by providing more specific guidance on ethical behaviour.
170 HRM and L&D
Equity
Equity theory, as formulated by Adams (1965), is concerned with the per-
ceptions people have about how they are being treated as compared with
others. To be dealt with equitably is to be treated fairly in comparison with
another group of people (a reference group) or a relevant other person.
Equity involves feelings and perceptions and is always a comparative pro-
cess. It is not synonymous with equality, which means treating everyone the
same, since this would be inequitable if they deserve to be treated
differently.
Justice
Justice is the process of treating people in a way that is inherently fair, right
and proper. An egalitarian theory of justice was proposed by Rawls (2005),
which contained two principles: 1) every person has the right to basic liberty
compatible with similar liberty for others; and 2) inequalities should be ar-
ranged so that they are expected to be to everyone’s advantage and attached
to positions open to all.
There are four types of justice: social justice, natural justice, procedural
justice and distributive justice, discussed below.
1. Social justice
Social justice means treating people in accordance with the principles of
human rights, human dignity and equality. In society, as argued by Rawls
(2005: 3): ‘Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that
even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override. For this reason justice
denies that the loss of freedom for some is made right by a greater good
shared by others.’ Rawls thus rejected the principle of utilitarianism and the
pernicious belief that the end justifies the means.
In organizations, it means relating to employees generally in ways that rec-
ognize their natural rights to be treated justly, equitably and with respect.
2. Natural justice
According to the principles of natural justice employees should know the
standards they are expected to achieve and the rules to which they are ex-
pected to conform. They should be given a clear indication of where they are
failing or what rules have been broken and, except in cases of gross miscon-
duct, they should be given a chance to improve before disciplinary action is
taken.
Professional and Ethical Approach 171
3. Procedural justice
Procedural justice (Adams, 1965; Leventhal, 1980) involves treating people
in ways that are fair, consistent, transparent and properly consider their
views and needs. It is concerned with fair process and the perceptions em-
ployees have about the fairness with which company procedures in such
areas as performance appraisal, promotion and discipline are being oper-
ated. The five factors that affect perceptions of procedural justice as identi-
fied by Tyler and Bies (1990) are:
4. Distributive justice
Distributive justice (Adams, 1965; Leventhal, 1980) means ensuring that
people are rewarded equitably in comparison with others in the organiza-
tion and in accordance with their contribution, and that they receive what
was promised to them.
Fair-dealing
Fair-dealing occurs when people are treated according to the principles of
social, natural, procedural and distributive justice, and when the decisions
or policies that affect them are transparent in the sense that they are known,
understood, clear and applied consistently.
General guidelines
●● Recognize that the strategic goals of the organization should embrace
the rights and needs of employees as well as those of the business. This
is in line with the comment made by Boxall et al (2007: 5) that: ‘While
HRM does need to support commercial outcomes (often called “the
business case”), it also exists to serve organizational needs for social
legitimacy.’
●● Recognize that employees are entitled to be treated as full human beings
with personal needs, hopes and anxieties.
●● Do not treat employees simply as means to an end or mere factors of
production. This accords with the comment made by Osterby and Coster
(1992: 31) that: ‘The term “human resources” reduces people to the same
category of value as materials, money and technology – all resources, and
resources are only valuable to the extent they can be exploited or
leveraged into economic value.’
●● Relate to employees generally in ways that recognize their natural rights
to be treated justly, equitably and with respect.
Organization development
●● Agree in advance with clients and individuals the goals, content and risks
of an OD programme.
●● Make explicit any values or assumptions used in the programme.
●● Obtain the maximum involvement of all concerned in the programme so
that they understand the processes involved and how they can benefit
from them.
●● Work with clients to plan and implement change to the benefit of all
stakeholders.
●● Enable individuals to continue with their development on completing the
programme.
●● Protect confidentiality.
174 HRM and L&D
●● Accept that while the organization has the right to conduct learning and
development activities that enhance performance, individuals also have
the right to be provided with opportunities to develop their own
knowledge, skills and employability.
●● Ensure that people taking part in learning events feel ‘psychologically
safe’ in accordance with the view expressed by Schein (1993: 91) that:
‘To make people feel safe in learning, they must have a motive, a sense
of direction, and the opportunity to try out new things without the fear
of punishment.’
●● Avoid manipulating people to accept imposed organizational values.
Performance management
Performance management ethical principles have been defined by Winstanley
and Stuart-Smith (1996) as follows:
Reward management
●● Generally apply the principles of procedural and distributive justice.
●● Ensure that reward policies and practices are fair, equitable and
transparent and that they are applied consistently.
●● Reward people according to their contribution.
●● Ensure that people know in general the basis upon which rewards are
provided and in particular how their own reward package is determined.
●● Maintain reasonable and defensible pay differentials.
●● Ensure that equal pay is provided for work of equal value.
176 HRM and L&D
Employee relations
●● Deliver the deal.
●● Be open to employees’ input and responsive to justifiable questions and
concerns about employment policies and practices.
●● Provide genuine opportunities and channels for employees to express
their views and influence decisions on matters that affect them.
●● Negotiate in good faith.
●● Recognize that the interests of management and employees do not
necessarily coincide and develop and implement employee relations
policies accordingly.
Employment practices
●● Create a healthy, safe and fulfilling work environment.
●● Promote the wellbeing of employees by improving the quality of working
life provided for them, exercising concern for work–life balance and
developing family-friendly policies.
●● Provide equal opportunities for all with regard to recruitment and selection,
learning and development, talent management, career progression and
promotion.
●● Manage diversity and inclusion by recognizing the differences between
people and ensuring that everyone feels valued and that the talents of all
employees will be properly utilized.
●● Handle disciplinary matters according to the principles of natural
justice.
●● Recognize that people may have legitimate grievances and respond to
them promptly, fully and sympathetically.
●● Preserve job security as far as possible and take alternative action to
avoid compulsory redundancies.
●● If compulsory redundancy is unavoidable do whatever is possible to
alleviate the distress by, for example, helping people to find work.
Professional and Ethical Approach 177
Ethical dilemmas
‘Ethics will be enacted in situations of ambiguity where dilemmas and prob-
lems will be dealt with without the comfort of consensus or certitude’ (Clegg
et al, 2007: 109). As Baumann, quoted in Bauman and Tester (2001: 44),
remarked: ‘Morality concerns choice first of all – it is the predicament
human beings encounter when they must make a selection amongst various
possibilities.’ Derrida (1992) commented that ethical responsibility can ex-
ceed rational calculation.
Typical ethical dilemmas, with examples and approaches to dealing with
them are examined below.
●● There is tension between the needs of the organization and the needs of
individuals, for example when an organization changes working
arrangements and prejudices the work–life balance of some but not all
employees.
●● There is conflicting evidence in a disciplinary case and it is difficult to
decide who to believe.
●● The pressure to achieve targets creates corner-cutting in achieving results
involving contraventions of company rules.
●● There are apparently mitigating circumstances in a disciplinary case and
the question is whether these justify not taking action.
●● An accusation of bullying has been made but it is difficult to ascertain
whether this is a clear case of bullying or overreaction on the part of the
complainant to the normal pressures of day-to-day work.
Woodall and Winstanley (2000: 285) pointed out that ‘being ethical is
not so much about finding one universal principle to govern all action, but
more about knowing how to recognize and mediate between often un-
acknowledged differences of view’. By definition, an ethical dilemma is
one that will be difficult to resolve. There may be all sorts of issues sur-
rounding the situation, some of which will be unclear or contentious. The
extent to which people react or behave rationally may by limited by their
capacity to understand the complexities of the situation they are in and
affected by their emotional reactions to it (the concept of bounded ration-
ality). Faced with factors such as these resolving an ethical dilemma can be
hard going.
There is no ‘one right way’ to deal with an ethical dilemma, but an ap-
proach based on systematic questioning, analysis and diagnosis to get at the
facts and establish the issues involved is more likely to produce a reasonably
satisfactory outcome than one relying purely on ‘gut feeling’. The following
checklist – used judiciously and selectively according to the circumstances –
can provide a basis for such questioning and analysis:
1 What are the known facts about the situation and is it possible that there
are facts or circumstances that have not come to light, and if so what can
be done to uncover them?
2 In disciplinary or conduct cases, to what extent does the conduct
contravene the organization’s code of ethical conduct (if one exists) or
any other relevant organizational policy guidelines and rules?
3 Have different versions or interpretations of the facts and circumstances
been offered and if so, what steps can be taken to obtain the true and full
picture?
4 Is the proposed action in line with both the letter and the spirit of the
law?
5 Is the proposed action and any investigations leading to it consistent
with the principles of natural, procedural or distributive justice?
6 Will the proposed action benefit the organization and if so how?
7 Is there any risk of the proposed action doing harm to the organization’s
reputation for fair-dealing?
8 Will the proposed action be harmful to the individual affected or to
employees generally in any way and if so how?
9 Do the facts as established and confirmed justify the proposed action?
10 Are there any mitigating circumstances (in disciplinary cases)?
Professional and Ethical Approach 179
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Professionalism
Professionalism can be defined as the conduct exhibited by people who are
providing advice and services that require expertise and that meet defined
or at least generally accepted standards of behaviour.
HR professionals
HR professionals are required to uphold the standards laid down by
their professional body but they must also adhere to their own ethical
values.
Ethical concepts
The ethical concepts of deontology, utilitarianism, stakeholder theory and
discourse theory provide frameworks that can be used to evaluate HRM
policies and practices.
Fair-dealing
Fair-dealing occurs when people are treated according to the principles of
natural, procedural and distributive justice, and when the decisions or pol-
icies that affect them are transparent in that they are known, understood,
clear and applied consistently.
The role of HR
HR professionals have a special responsibility for guarding and promoting
core values in the organization on how people should be managed and
treated generally. They are particularly concerned with values relating to
just and fair treatment.
An important role for HR professionals is to do whatever they can to
embed the consistent application of ethical values in the organization so
Professional and Ethical Approach 181
that they can become values in use rather than simply professed values in a
code of practice or values statement.
Ethical guidelines
Ethical guidelines set out how employees are treated in general and cover the
major HRM activities of organization development, recruitment and selection,
learning and development, performance management, reward management,
employee relations, and employment practices concerning the work environ-
ment, employee wellbeing, equal opportunities, managing diversity, handling
disciplinary matters and grievances, job security and redundancy.
References
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Cambridge, Polity Press
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New Jersey, Prentice Hall
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pp 1–18
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CIPD (2015) From best to good practice HR: developing principles for the
profession, http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/research/best-good-practice-hr-
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pp 33–48
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Professional and Ethical Approach 183
Questions
1 What is a profession?
2 What is professionalism?
3 What are the main elements of a professional ethos? Name at least three.
5 What are the key points made in the CIPD code of professional conduct?
20 How should ethical dilemmas be dealt with? List at least three approaches.
Part THree
People management
processes
Motivation 09
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Cognitive evaluation Goal theory
Content (needs) motivation Herzberg’s two-factor model of
theory motivation
Discretionary behaviour Instrumentality
Discretionary effort Intrinsic motivation
Equity theory Job characteristics model
Expectancy theory Job satisfaction
Extrinsic motivation Line of sight
Flow
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also understand:
Introduction
Motivation is the force that energizes, directs and sustains behaviour. High per-
formance is achieved by well-motivated people who are prepared to exercise dis-
cretionary effort, ie independently do more than is expected of them. The aims of
this chapter are to explore the meaning of motivation, define the two main types
of motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic), describe and critically evaluate the main
theories of motivation, discuss two related aspects of motivation – its relationship
to job satisfaction and money – and outline approaches to motivation strategy.
Types of motivation
There are two types of motivation and a number of theories explaining how
it works, as discussed below.
Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation takes place when individuals feel that their work is
important, interesting and challenging and that it provides them with a
reasonable degree of autonomy (freedom to act), opportunities to achieve
and advance, and scope to use and develop their skills and abilities. It can
Motivation 189
Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation occurs when things are done to or for people in order
to motivate them. These include rewards such as incentives, increased pay,
praise, or promotion; and punishments such as disciplinary action, with-
holding pay, or criticism.
Extrinsic motivators can have an immediate and powerful effect, but it
will not necessarily last long. The intrinsic motivators, which are concerned
with the ‘quality of working life’ (a phrase and movement that emerged
from this concept), are likely to have a deeper and longer-term effect be-
cause they are inherent in individuals and the work – and are not imposed
from outside in such forms as incentive pay.
Motivation theory, discussed next, explains the ways in which intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation take place.
Motivation theory
The three main areas of motivation theory – instrumentality, content and
process – are examined below.
190 People Management Processes
Instrumentality theory
Instrumentality theory states in effect that rewards and punishments are
the best instruments with which to shape behaviour. It assumes that
people will be motivated to work if rewards and penalties are tied dir-
ectly to their p
erformance; thus the awards are contingent upon effective
performance.
This theory provides a rationale for financial incentives such as perfor-
mance-related pay, albeit a dubious one. Motivation using this approach has
been and still is widely adopted.
Content theory
The aim of the content or needs theories produced by Maslow and Herzberg
was to identify the factors associated with motivation. The theory focuses
on the content of motivation in the shape of needs. Its basis is the belief that
an unsatisfied need creates tension and a state of disequilibrium. To restore
the balance a goal is identified that will satisfy the need, and a behaviour
pathway is selected that will lead to the achievement of the goal and the sat-
isfaction of the need. Behaviour is therefore motivated by unsatisfied needs.
A content theory model is shown in Figure 9.1. Content theory, as the term
implies, indicates the components of motivation but it does not explain how
motivation affects performance – a necessary requirement if the concept is
to provide guidance on HR policy and practice. This was the role of expectancy
theory, discussed later.
Establish
goal
Identify Take
need action
Attain
goal
Motivation 191
of the theory was an inevitable result of the questioning method used during
the research, that wide and unwarranted inferences have been drawn from
small and specialized samples, and that there is no evidence to suggest that
the satisfiers do improve productivity.
In spite of these objections the Herzberg two-factor theory continues to
thrive, partly because it is easy to understand and seems to be based on real-
life rather than academic abstractions, and partly because it convincingly
emphasizes the positive value of the intrinsic motivating factors and high-
lights the need to consider both financial and non-financial factors when
developing reward systems.
Process theory
In process theory, the emphasis is on the psychological or mental processes
and forces that affect motivation, as well as on basic needs. It is also known
as cognitive theory because it refers to people’s perceptions of their working
environment and the ways in which they interpret and understand it. The
main process theories are concerned with reinforcement, expectancy, goals,
equity, social learning and cognitive evaluation.
Reinforcement theory
This theory states that if people believe that something has worked well for
them previously, they will do it again. The assumption is that positive re-
inforcement of desired behaviour elicits more of the same; punishment of
undesired behaviour (negative reinforcement) elicits less of the same.
Reinforcement theory can be criticized for taking an unduly mechanistic
view of human nature. It implies that people can be motivated by treating them
as machines – by pulling levers. In assuming that the present choices of individ-
uals are based on an understanding of the outcomes of their past choices, re-
inforcement theory ignores the existing context in which choices are made.
Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory states that motivation is only likely when a clearly per-
ceived and usable relationship exists between performance and outcome,
and the outcome is seen as a means of satisfying needs. This explains why
extrinsic financial motivation – for example, an incentive or bonus scheme –
works only if the link (line of sight) between effort and reward is clear and
the value of the reward is worth the effort. It also explains why intrinsic
motivation arising from the work itself can be more powerful than extrinsic
motivation. Intrinsic motivation outcomes are more under the control of
individuals, who can place greater reliance on their past experiences to
Motivation 193
indicate the extent to which positive and advantageous results are likely to
be obtained by their behaviour.
Alongside goal theory (see below), expectancy theory has become the
most influential motivation theory, particularly as it affects performance
and reward management.
Goal theory
Goal theory as developed by Latham and Locke (1979) following their re-
search states that motivation and performance are higher when individuals
are set specific goals, when goals are demanding but accepted, and when
there is feedback on performance. Goals must be clearly defined. Participation
in goal setting is important as a means of getting agreement to demanding
goals. Feedback is vital in maintaining motivation, particularly towards the
achievement of even higher goals.
Equity theory
Equity theory, as defined by Adams (1965), is concerned with the percep-
tions people have about how they are being treated as compared with others.
He proposed that employees assess the fairness or otherwise of their re-
wards (outcomes) in relation to their effort or qualifications (inputs) and
that they do this by comparing their own input/output ratio against that of
other individuals. If the input/output ratio is perceived to be unfavourable,
they will feel that there is reward inequity.
However, as noted by Gerhart and Rynes (2003: 52): ‘The vast majority of
research on this theory has been performed in school rather than work
settings, often with elementary school-aged children.’ That did not stop
other commentators assuming that the results were equally significant for
working adults.
Flow
The concept of flow was originated by Csíkszentmihályi, who described it
as the mental state of someone who is fully focused and immersed in an ac-
tivity and enjoys doing it. It can be described as fully-focused motivation.
According to Csíkszentmihályi, the flow experience is characterized by im-
mediate feedback, feeling that you have the potential to succeed and feeling
so engrossed in the experience that other needs become negligible.
Schaffer (2013) proposed seven flow conditions:
Summary of
Category Theory theory Implications
(Continued )
196 People Management Processes
Table 9.1 Continued
Summary of
Category Theory theory Implications
Table 9.1 Continued
Summary of
Category Theory theory Implications
Conclusions
All the theories referred to above make some contribution to an under-
standing of the processes that affect motivation. Instrumentality theory pro-
vides only a simplistic explanation of how motivation works, while needs
and content theories are more sophisticated but have their limitations.
However, needs theory still offers an indication of the factors that mo-
tivate people and content theory provides useful explanations of how motiv-
ation takes place. And while instrumentality and reinforcement theories
may be simplistic they still explain some aspects of how rewards affect mo-
tivation and performance and they continue to exert influence on the beliefs
of some people about the power of incentives to motivate people. Herzberg’s
research may be flawed but he still contributed to the recognition of the im-
portance of job design.
Types of motivation
The two basic types are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Motivation theories
There are a number of motivation theories that, in the main, are complemen-
tary to one another. The most significant theories are those concerned with
expectancy, goal setting, equity and cognitive evaluation, which are classi-
fied as process or cognitive theories.
References
Adams, J S (1965) Injustice in social exchange, in (ed) L Berkowitz, Advances in
Experimental Psychology, New York, Academic Press
Bandura, A (1977) Social Learning Theory, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall
Csíkszentmihályi, M (1990) Flow: The psychology of optimal experience,
New York, Harper & Row
Motivation 199
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Commitment Pluralist
High-commitment model Psychological contract
Mutuality Unitarist
Organizational engagement
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also understand:
Introduction
Commitment represents the strength of an individual’s identification with,
and involvement in, an organization. It refers to attachment and loyalty and
is associated with the feelings of individuals about their organization. The
three characteristics of commitment identified by Mowday et al (1982) are:
to respond best – and most creatively – not when they are tightly controlled by
management, placed in narrowly defined jobs, and treated like an unwelcome
necessity, but, instead, when they are given broader responsibilities, encouraged
to contribute and helped to achieve satisfaction in their work. (ibid: 77)
Jobs are designed to be broader than before, to combine planning and imple-
mentation, and to include efforts to upgrade operations, not just to maintain
them. Individual responsibilities are expected to change as conditions change,
and teams, not individuals, often are the organizational units accountable for
Commitment 203
The new HRM model is composed of policies that promote mutuality – mutual
goals, mutual influence, mutual respect, mutual rewards, mutual responsibility.
The theory is that policies of mutuality will elicit commitment which in turn
will yield both better economic performance and greater human development.
The case for seeking high commitment among employees seems plausible but
the burgeoning research on the topic has identified a number of problems. One
of these concerns the definition of the concept. The first issue is – commitment
to what? Most writers are interested in commitment to the organization, but
others have examined career commitment and job commitment. Once the
general concept of commitment is utilized, then union commitment, workgroup
commitment and family commitment should also be considered. The possibility
of multiple and perhaps competing commitments creates a more complex set
of issues.
The research conducted by Purcell et al (2003) identified the following key
policy and practice factors that influence levels of commitment:
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
References
Beer, M, Spector, B, Lawrence, P, Quinn Mills, D and Walton, R (1984) Managing
Human Assets, New York, The Free Press
Coopey, J and Hartley, J (1991) Reconsidering the case for organizational
commitment, Human Resource Management Journal, 1 (3), pp 18–31
Guest, D E (1990) HRM and the American dream, Journal of Management Studies,
27 (4), pp 377–97
Guest, D E (1987) Human resource management and industrial relations, Journal
of Management Studies, 24 (5), pp 503–21
Kochan, T A and Dyer, L (1993) Managing transformational change: the role of
human resource professionals, International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 4 (3), pp 569–90
Commitment 209
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Commitment Leader–member exchange
Discretionary behaviour Motivation
Engagement Organizational citizenship
Extrinsic motivation behaviour
Intrinsic motivation Organizational engagement
Job engagement Social exchange theory
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also understand:
Introduction
Engagement takes place when people are committed to their work and the
organization and are motivated to achieve high levels of performance.
According to the CIPD (2012: 13):
Engagement has become for practitioners an umbrella concept for capturing the
various means by which employers can elicit additional or discretionary effort
from employees – a willingness on the part of staff to work beyond contract.
It has become a new management mantra.
The notion that individuals can be ‘personally’ engaged in their work was
first proposed by Kahn (1990) in his seminal article in the Academy of
Management Journal. He defined employee engagement as ‘the harnessing
of organization members’ selves to their work roles; in engagement, people
employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally
during role performances’.
Commitment Organizational
citizenship
Engagement
Motivation
Source Armstrong et al, 2010
214 People Management Processes
●● Job challenge – this takes place when the scope of jobs is broad, job
responsibility is high and there is a high workload. It enhances engagement
because it creates potential for accomplishment and personal growth.
●● Autonomy – the freedom, independence and discretion allowed to employees
in scheduling their work and determining the procedures for carrying it out.
It provides a sense of ownership and control over work outcomes.
●● Variety – jobs which allow individuals to perform many different activities
or use many different skills.
●● Feedback – providing employees with direct and clear information about
the effectiveness of their performance.
●● Fit – the existence of compatibility between an individual and a work
environment (eg job, organization, manager, co-workers) which allows
individuals to behave in a manner consistent with how they see or want
to see themselves.
●● Opportunities for development – these make work meaningful because
they provide pathways for employee growth and fulfilment.
●● Rewards and recognition – these represent both direct and indirect returns
on the personal investment of one’s time in acting out a work role.
Macey et al (2009: 11) emphasized the work environment and the jobs
people do. They noted that:
Engagement requires a work environment that does not just demand more but
promotes information sharing, provides learning opportunities and fosters a
balance in people’s lives, thereby creating the bases for sustained energy and
personal initiative.
Outcomes of engagement
Stairs and Galpin (2010) claimed that high levels of engagement result in the
following, although they did not produce convincing evidence to support
those claims:
Line managers
Research by Lewis et al (2012) for the Chartered Institute of Personnel and
Development resulted in the production of the competency framework for
employee engagement management set out in Table 11.1.
Competency Description
Job design
Job design is an important factor in enhancing engagement. Macey et al
(2009: 69) commented that: ‘People come to work for pay but get en-
gaged at work because the work they do is meaningful.’ Intrinsic motiv-
ation and therefore increased engagement can be generated by the work
itself if it provides interest and opportunities for achievement and
self-fulfilment. Robertson and Smith (1985) suggested that the aim should
be to influence skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and
feedback.
Culture/people management
• Supportive supervisors
• Regular open feedback
• Teamworking
• Involvement in decision
making Staff attitudes and commitment
• Career development • Satisfaction with pay and
• Work–life balance recognition
• Treated fairly Performance
Organizational engagement
It was suggested by Guest (2009) that engagement can be achieved through
effective leadership of a strong, positive culture that ensures the e nactment
of organizational values; through strong management that supports em-
ployees’ work and wellbeing; through careful design of systems and jobs to
enable employees to contribute through full use of their knowledge and
skills; through effective employee voice; and through provision of appro-
priate resources, tools and information to perform effectively.
Other approaches that can be used to enhance organizational engage-
ment consist of high-involvement management, providing more scope for
employee voice, developing ‘the big idea’ and tackling the work
environment.
1. High-involvement management
Organizational engagement can be developed through high-involvement
management – a term first used by Lawler (1986) to describe management
systems based on commitment and involvement, as opposed to the old
bureaucratic model based on control. The underlying hypothesis is that em-
ployees will increase their involvement with the company if they are given
the opportunity to manage and understand their work. Lawler claimed that
high-involvement practices worked well because they acted as a synergy and
had a multiplicative effect.
High-involvement management means treating employees as partners in
the enterprise, whose interests are respected. It also means providing employees
with a voice, as discussed below.
2. Employee voice
Employee voice policies enable employees to communicate their concerns to
management effectively. Rees et al (2013: 2781) suggested that there is a
direct relationship between the effectiveness of such policies and levels of
employee engagement. They invoked social exchange theory, which states
that employees engage in reciprocal relationships that can develop into
trusting, loyal and mutual commitments when certain ‘rules of exchange’
are observed. Employees will demonstrate positive attitudes and behaviours
when they perceive that their employer values them and their contribution.
They will demonstrate higher levels of performance if the work environment
is one in which employees have a voice in the sense that they can share their
concerns, opinions and ideas with their employers.
Employee Engagement 221
importantly’ attitudes. The framework bands nine competencies in five main per-
formance areas:
Measuring engagement
Engagement surveys provide the basis for the development and implemen-
tation of engagement strategies. A review by Vance (2006) of a number of
such surveys identified the following common themes:
●● pride in employer;
●● satisfaction with employer;
●● job satisfaction;
●● opportunity to perform well at challenging work;
●● recognition and positive feedback for one’s contributions;
●● personal support from one’s supervisor;
●● effort above and beyond the minimum;
●● understanding the link between one’s job and the organization’s
mission;
●● prospects for future growth with one’s employer;
●● intention to stay with one’s employer.
Employee Engagement 223
The most commonly used measure within the research community has been
the one associated with the definition of engagement as ‘a positive, fulfilling,
work-related state of mind’. This is known as the Utrecht Work Engagement
Scale (UWES), which captures feelings of vigour, eg ‘At my work, I feel that
I am bursting with energy’, dedication, eg ‘I am enthusiastic about my job’,
and absorption, eg ‘I am immersed in my work.’
The important thing with an engagement survey, as with any form of em-
ployee survey, is to ensure that proper use is made of it through the ‘triple-A’
approach: Analysis, Assessment and Action. It is also important to inform
employees of the results of the survey in full and involve them in assessing
those results and agreeing actions.
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Components of engagement
The components of engagement are commitment, organizational citizenship
behaviour, motivation and job satisfaction.
Theory of engagement
Engagement will have behavioural outcomes leading to what can be described
as an ‘engaged employee’. A strong theoretical rationale for engagement is
provided by social exchange theory.
Drivers of engagement
Macey et al (2009) emphasize the importance of the work environment and
the jobs people do. Alfes et al (2010) established that the main drivers of en-
gagement are meaningful work (the most important), senior management
vision and communication, positive perceptions of one’s line manager and
employee voice – employees having a say in matters that concern them.
Enhancing engagement
Line managers play a key role in enhancing job engagement with the support
of organizational initiatives in job design; learning programmes, including
leadership development for line managers; and performance and reward
management systems.
The approaches that can be used to enhance organizational engage-
ment include high-involvement management, developing ‘the big idea’ and
tackling the work environment.
Measuring engagement
Engagement surveys provide the basis for the development and implemen-
tation of engagement strategies.
Employee Engagement 225
References
Alfes, K, Truss, C, Soane, E C, Rees, C and Gatenby, M (2010) Creating an Engaged
Workforce, London, CIPD
Armstrong, M, Brown, D and Reilly, P (2010) Evidence-based Reward
Management, London, Kogan Page
Balain, S and Sparrow, P (2009) Engaged to Perform: A new perspective on
employee engagement, Lancaster, Lancaster University Management School
CIPD (2012) Where has all the trust gone? http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/
research/where-trust-gone.aspx [accessed 16 March 2016]
Conference Board (2006) Employee Engagement: A review of current research and
its implications, New York, Conference Board
Crawford, E R, Rich, B L, Buckman, B and Bergeron, J (2014) The antecedents and
drivers of employee engagement, in (eds) C Truss, R Delbridge, K Alfes, A
Shantz and E Soane, Employee Engagement in Theory and Practice, London,
Routledge, pp 57–81
Guest, D E (2014) Employee engagement: fashionable fad or long-term fixture? in
(eds) C Truss, R Delbridge, K Alfes, A Shantz and E Soane, Employee
Engagement in Theory and Practice, London, Routledge, pp 221–35
Guest, D E (2009) Review of Employee Engagement: Notes for a discussion
(unpublished), prepared specifically for the MacLeod and Clarke 2009 review of
employee engagement
Harter, J K, Schmidt, F L and Hayes, T L (2002) Business-unit level relationship
between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes:
a meta-analysis, Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, pp 268–79
Kahn, W A (1990) Psychological conditions of personal engagement and
disengagement at work, Academy of Management Journal, 33 (4), pp 692–724
Lawler, E E (1986) High Involvement Management, San Francisco, CA, Jossey-Bass
Lewis, R, Donaldson-Feilder, E and Tharani, T (2012) Management Competencies
for Enhancing Employee Engagement, London, CIPD
Little, B and Little, P (2006) Employee engagement: conceptual issues, Journal of
Organizational Culture, Communications and Conflict, 10 (1), pp 111–20
Locke, E A (1976) The nature and causes of job satisfaction, in (ed) M D Dunnette,
Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Chicago, IL, Rand
McNally, pp 1297–343
Macey, W H, Schneider, B, Barbera, K M and Young, S A (2009) Employee
Engagement, Malden, MA, Wiley-Blackwell
MacLeod, D and Clarke, N (2009) Engaging for Success: Enhancing performance
through employee engagement, London, Department for Business Innovation
and Skills
Organ, D W (1988) Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The good soldier
syndrome, Lexington, MA, Lexington Books
226 People Management Processes
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Change agent Operational change
Change management Organizational
Field force analysis transformation
Gamma change Second order change
Incremental change Strategic change
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also know about:
●● Types of change
●● The change process
●● Change models
●● Reasons for resistance to change
●● Overcoming resistance to change
●● Implementing change
●● Strategies for organizational transformation
●● The role of HR in managing change
228 People Management Processes
Introduction
Change management is defined as the process of achieving the smooth im-
plementation of change by planning and introducing it systematically, taking
into account the possibility of it being resisted or at least misunderstood.
However, Kotter (1996) emphasized the importance of leading change ra-
ther than simply managing it.
As described in this chapter, to manage change it is first necessary to
understand the types of change and how the process works. It is important
to bear in mind that while those wanting change need to be constant about
ends, they have to be flexible about means. This requires them to come to an
understanding of the various models of change that have been developed
and of the factors that create resistance to change and how to minimize such
resistance. In the light of an understanding of these models and the phenom-
enon of resistance to change they will be better equipped to make use of the
guidelines for change set out here. The role of HR in leading and managing
change is examined in the last section of the chapter.
Types of change
There are three types of change: transformational, strategic and operational.
Strategic change takes place within the context of the external competitive,
economic and social environment, and the organization’s internal resources,
capabilities, culture, structure and systems. Its successful implementation
requires thorough analysis and understanding of these factors in the formulation
and planning stages.
Strategic change should not be treated simplistically as a linear process of
getting from A to B that can be planned and executed as a logical sequence
of events. Pettigrew and Whipp (1991: 31) issued the following warning
based on their research into competitiveness and managing change in the
motor, financial services, insurance and publishing industries.
The processes by which strategic changes are made seldom move directly through
neat, successive stages of analysis, choice and implementation. Given the powerful
internal characteristics of the firm it would be unusual if they did not affect the
process: more often they transform it. Changes in the firm’s environment persist-
ently threaten the course and logic of strategic changes: dilemma abounds… We
conclude that one of the defining features of the process, in so far as management
action is concerned, is ambiguity; seldom is there an easily isolated logic to
strategic change. Instead, that process may derive its motive force from an
amalgam of economic, personal and political imperatives. Their interaction
through time requires that those responsible for managing that process make
continual assessments, repeated choices and multiple adjustments.
Change models
The best known change models are those developed by Lewin (1951) and
Beckhard (1969). Other important contributions to an understanding of the
mechanisms for change have been made by Thurley (1979), Bandura (1986)
and Beer et al (1990).
Lewin
The basic mechanisms for managing change as set out by Lewin (1951) are:
●● Analyse the restraining or driving forces that will affect the transition to
the future state – these restraining forces will include the reactions of
those who see change as unnecessary or as constituting a threat.
●● Assess which of the driving or restraining forces are critical.
●● Take steps both to increase the critical driving forces and to decrease the
critical restraining forces.
Change Management 231
Beckhard
Beckhard (1969) proposed that a change programme should incorporate the
following processes:
●● Set goals and define the future state or organizational conditions desired
after the change.
●● Diagnose the present condition in relation to these goals.
●● Define the transition state activities and commitments required to meet
the future state.
●● Develop strategies and action plans for managing this transition in the
light of an analysis of the factors likely to affect the introduction of change.
Thurley
Thurley (1979) described the following five approaches to managing change.
Bandura
The ways in which people change was described by Bandura (1986). He
suggested that people make conscious choices about their behaviours. The
information people use to make their choices comes from their environment
and their choices are based upon the things that are important to them, the
views they have about their own abilities to behave in certain ways and the
consequences they think will accrue to whatever behaviour they decide to
engage in.
For those concerned in change management, the implications of
Bandura’s concept of change (which is associated with expectancy theory)
are that:
They prescribe six steps to effective change that concentrate on what they
call ‘task alignment’ – reorganizing employee’s roles, responsibilities and
relationships to solve specific business problems in small units where goals
and tasks can be clearly defined. The aim of following the overlapping
steps is to build a self-reinforcing cycle of commitment, coordination and
competence:
3 Foster consensus for the new vision, competence to enact it, and cohesion
to move it along.
Resistance to change
People resist change because it is seen as a threat to familiar patterns of be-
haviour as well as to status and financial rewards. Woodward (1968: 80)
made this point clearly:
Hamlin and Davies (2001: 58) commented that ‘Any change creates stress
and anxiety; this is because as human beings we deal individually with un-
certainty in different ways.’ However, some people will welcome change as
an opportunity. These need to be identified and where feasible they can be
used to help in the introduction of change as change agents.
●● The shock of the new – people are suspicious of anything that they
perceive will upset their established routines, methods of working or
conditions of employment. They do not want to lose the security of what
is familiar to them. They may not believe statements by management that
the change is for their benefit as well as that of the organization; sometimes
with good reason. They may feel that management has ulterior motives
and, sometimes, the louder the protestations of management the less they
will be believed.
●● Economic fears – loss of money, threats to job security.
●● Inconvenience – the change will make life more difficult.
●● Uncertainty – change can be worrying because of uncertainty about its
likely impact.
●● Symbolic fears – a small change that may affect some treasured symbol,
such as a separate office or a reserved parking space, may symbolize big
ones, especially when employees are uncertain about how extensive the
programme of change will be.
Change Management 235
Implementing change
The problems of implementing change were summed up by Lawler and
Mohrman (2003: 24) as follows:
Most strategies, like most mergers, fail not because of poor thinking, but
because of poor implementation. Implementation failures usually involve
the failure to acknowledge and build the needed skills and organizational
capabilities, to gain support of the workforce, and to support the organizational
changes and learning required to behave in new ways. In short, execution
failures are often the result of poor human capital management. This opens
the door for HR to add important value if it can deliver change strategies,
plans, and thinking that aid in the development and execution of business
strategy.
possible in planning and implementing it. The aim should be to get them
to ‘own’ the change as something they want and will be glad to live with.
●● The reward system should encourage innovation and recognize success in
achieving change.
●● Change will always involve failure as well as success. The failures must be
expected and learnt from.
●● Hard evidence and data on the need for change are the most powerful
tools for its achievement, but establishing the need for change is easier
than deciding how to satisfy it.
●● It is easier to change behaviour by changing processes, structure and
systems than to change attitudes or the organizational culture.
●● There are always people in organizations who can act as champions of
change. They will welcome the challenges and opportunities that change
can provide. They are the ones to be chosen as change agents.
●● Resistance to change is inevitable if the individuals concerned feel that
they are going to be worse off – implicitly or explicitly. The inept management
of change will produce that reaction.
●● In an age of global competition, technological innovation, turbulence,
discontinuity, even chaos, change is inevitable and necessary. The
organization must do all it can to explain why change is essential and how
it will affect everyone. Moreover, every effort must be made to protect the
interests of those affected by change.
Organizational transformation
Organizational transformation was defined by Cummins and Worley (2009:
752) as ‘A process of radically altering the organization’s strategic direction,
including fundamental changes in structures, processes and behaviours.’
Transformation involves what is called ‘second order’ or ‘gamma’ change
involving discontinuous shifts in strategy, structure, processes or culture.
Transformation is required when:
Transformation strategies
Transformation strategies are usually driven by senior management and line
managers with the support of HR rather than OD specialists. The key roles
of management as defined by Tushman et al (1988) are envisioning, ener-
gizing and enabling.
Organizational transformation strategic plans may involve radical
changes to the structure, culture and processes of the organization – the
way it looks at the world. They may include planning and implementing
significant and far-reaching developments in corporate structures and
organization-wide processes. The change is neither incremental (bit by bit)
nor transactional (concerned solely with systems and procedures).
Transactional change, according to Pascale (1990) is merely concerned
with the alteration of ways in which the organization does business and
people interact with one another on a day-to-day basis, and is only ef-
fective when what you want is more of what you’ve already got. He advo-
cates a discontinuous improvement in capability and this he describes as
transformation.
3 Create a vision.
Leading change
Leading change involves initiating and managing culture change (the pro-
cess of changing the organization’s culture in the shape of its values, norms
and beliefs) and the introduction of new structures, systems, working prac-
tices and people management processes. The aim is to increase organiza-
tional capability (the ability of the organization to perform well) and
organizational effectiveness (how well the organization performs).
Ulrich (1997: 7) observed that HR professionals should be ‘as explicit
about culture change as they are today about the requirements for a suc-
cessful training program or hiring strategy’. He later emphasized that ‘HR
should become an agent of continuous transformation, shaping processes
and a culture that together improve an organization’s capacity for change’
Ulrich (1998: 125). Change leadership means:
Facilitating change
Facilitating change is the process of making change happen. As Hamlin
(2001: 13) commented, one of the major challenges facing HR ‘is how to
help people through the transitions of change, and how to survive in working
conditions that are in a constant state of flux’. Brown and Eisenhardt (1997:
21) noted that managers who were successful in the art of continuous
change ‘carefully managed the transition between the past and the future.
Much like the pit stop in a car race or the baton pass in track, this transition
appeared critical’.
The role of HR in facilitating change was described by Vere and Butler
(2007: 34) as follows:
●● The issue needs to be on the strategic business agenda and managers must
see how action will improve business results: that is, there needs to be a
sound business case for the initiative. HR managers need to be able to
demonstrate the return on the planned investment.
●● The change needs to have the active backing of those at the top of the
organization, so it is for the HR Director to gain the commitment of the
top team and engage them in a practical way in taking the work forward.
●● HR needs to engage managers in the design of change from the outset (or,
if this is a business-driven change, HR needs to be involved at the outset.
●● The programme needs to be framed in the language of the business to
have real meaning and achieve ‘buy in’ for all parties; if there is too much
HR jargon, this will be a turn off.
●● Project and people management skills are crucial to ensure the programme
is well planned and resourced and risks are assessed and managed.
●● As in all change programmes the importance of communication is
paramount to explain, engage and commit people to the programme.
●● In this respect the crucial role that HR can play is to ensure that employees
are fully engaged in the design and implementation of the change.
●● HR needs to draw on others’ experience and learning.
To do all this, Ulrich (1997: 8) pointed out that ‘HR professionals need a
model of change and the ability to apply the model to a specific situation’.
The models as described in this chapter need to be understood and applied
244 People Management Processes
Zurich UK Life has 7,000 employees in the UK. The insurance industry was experi-
encing significant change. Zurich UK Life had become risk-averse, bureaucratic
and slow-moving, struggling to adapt to changing market conditions and customer
behaviours. A new CEO was recruited to change the organization. He worked with
the HR director and communications director to agree a new set of behaviours
they felt were required to deliver the change and create the desired culture. This
produced ACE:
HR were a learning week in which people were encouraged to take some respon-
sibility for their own learning, and a ‘Changing the habits of a lifetime’ week.
Managers were provided with a Navigator Pack to work through the strategy
and translation of ACE to individual behaviours with their teams.
Outcomes
The following comments were made by staff about the changes:
‘[The biggest change] is red tape going… it’s about having a go, and it’s that support
that you then get when you’ve had a go.’
‘Gathering the information from the customer and actually taking it on board has
improved a great deal over the last two or three years.’
‘People are much more flexible in their working day… to meet with people and
make the decisions that need to me made.’
‘The results this year were great… So definitely, you can see that we’re doing
the right things and that we are getting the right financial results.’
(Source Balogun et al, 2015)
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Types of change
The main types are: strategic change, operational change and transformational
change.
Change models
The main change models are those produced by Lewin, Beckhard, Thurley,
Bandura and Beer et al.
Implementing change
Implementation failures usually involve the failure to acknowledge and build
the needed skills and organizational capabilities, to gain support of the
workforce, and to support the organizational changes and learning required
to behave in new ways (Lawler and Mohrman, 2003: 24).
Organizational transformation
Organizational transformation was defined by Cummins and Worley (2009:
752) as ‘A process of radically altering the organization’s strategic direction,
including fundamental changes in structures, processes and behaviours.’
Transformation involves ‘second order’ or ‘gamma’ change involving dis-
continuous shifts in strategy, structure, processes or culture.
Transformation is required when: significant changes occur in the ex-
ternal environment; major changes take place to the product lifecycle; there
are major changes in top management; a financial crisis or large downturn
occurs; or an acquisition or merger takes place.
References
Alfes, K, Truss, C and Gill, J (2010) The HR manager as change agent: evidence
from the public sector, Journal of Change Management, 10 (1), pp 109–27
Balogun, K and Hope-Hailey, V (2004) Exploring Strategic Change, 2nd edn,
London, Prentice Hall
Balogun, K, Hope Hailey, V and Cleaver, I (2015) Landing transformational change:
closing the gap between theory and practice, London, CIPD, http://www.cipd.co.
uk/binaries/landing-transformation-change_2015-gap-theory-practice.pdf
[accessed 28 January 2016]
Bandura, A (1986) Social Boundaries of Thought and Action, Englewood Cliffs,
NJ, Prentice Hall
Beckhard, R (1969) Organization Development: Strategy and models, Reading,
MA, Addison-Wesley
Beer, M, Eisenstat, R and Spector, B (1990) Why change programs don’t produce
change, Harvard Business Review, November–December, pp 158–66
Brown, S L and Eisenhardt, K M (1997) The art of continuous change: linking
complexity theory and time-paced evolution in relentlessly shifting
organizations, Administrative Science Quarterly, 42 (1), pp 1–24
Caldwell, R (2003) Models of change agency: a fourfold classification, British
Journal of Management, 14 (2), pp 131–42
Caldwell, R (2001) Champions, adapters, consultants and synergists: the new
change agents in HRM, Human Resource Management Journal, 11 (3), pp 39–52
Carnall, C (1991) Managing Change, London, Routledge
Cummins, T G and Worley, C G (2009) Organization Development and Change,
9th edn, Mason, OH, South Western
Hamlin, B (2001) A review and synthesis of context and practice, in (eds) B
Hamlin, J Keep and K Ash, Organizational Change and Development:
A reflective guide for managers, trainers and developers, Harlow, Pearson
Education, pp 13–38
Hamlin, B and Davies, G (2001) Managers, trainers and developers as change
agents, in (eds) B Hamlin, J Keep and K Ash, Organizational Change and
Development: A reflective guide for managers, trainers and developers, Harlow,
Pearson Education, pp 39–60
Hughes, M (2010) Managing Change, London, CIPD
Keep, J (2001) The change practitioner: perspectives on role, effectiveness,
dilemmas and challenges, in (eds) B Hamlin, J Keep and K Ash, Organizational
Change and Development: A reflective guide for managers, trainers and
developers, Harlow, Pearson Education, pp 13–38
Kotter, J J (1996) Leading Change, Boston, MA, Harvard University Press
Kotter, J J (1995) Leading change, Harvard Business Review, March–April,
pp 59–67
248 People Management Processes
Questions
12 What are the key guidelines for change management? List at least four.
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Core-periphery organization Numerical flexibility
Flexible firm Operational flexibility
Functional flexibility Structural flexibility
Multiskilling Zero-hours contracts
Multitasking
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also know about:
Introduction
Organizations have to be able to adjust quickly and smoothly to rapidly
changing circumstances. They have to be flexible. This was the case in 1984
252 People Management Processes
when John Atkinson wrote his seminal article ‘Manpower strategies for flex-
ible organizations’. He stated that firms:
have put a premium on achieving a workforce which can respond quickly, easily
and cheaply to workforce changes, which may need to contract as smoothly as
they expand, in which worked time precisely matches job requirements, in
which unit labour costs can be held down.
●● The core which consists of workers who have the security of permanent
(ie not fixed-term) contracts, and have skills which are very important to
the employer. These employees are to apply their skills across a wide range
of tasks. The firm will want to retain these employees even in hard times.
●● The first peripheral group comprises workers who are employed on
contracts which have some degree of permanence (some part-timers
could be included in this category), but due to their lower levels of skills
they will not have the same level of security as their colleagues in the core.
Typically, their work will be characterized by little responsibility and
lower pay. These employees can be laid off relatively easily since people
with similar skills can be hired quickly if necessary.
●● The second peripheral group consists of workers who are part-timers or
are on temporary contracts. They have little employment security and
can be taken on or discharged easily.
Flexible Working 253
●● The external workforce consists of people who work for another employer
or are self-employed. This includes workers in firms to which work has
been sub-contracted or outsourced and agency workers.
External workforce
Second peripheral
workforce
First peripheral
workforce
Core workers
Permanent contracts
Long-term careers
Permanent contracts
Insecure employment
Part-timers
Temporary contracts
Operational flexibility
Operational flexibility refers to flexibility in the ways in which work is
carried out. The term is sometimes extended to include financial flexibility.
The three main forms of operational flexibility are:
In addition, there is financial flexibility, which provides for pay levels to re-
flect the state of supply and demand in the external labour market and also
means the use of flexible pay systems that facilitate either functional or nu-
merical flexibility.
Multiskilling
Multiskilling takes place when workers acquire through experience and
training a range of different skills they can apply when carrying out different
tasks (multitasking). This means that they can be used flexibly, transferring
from one task to another as the occasion demands.
Flexible Working 255
●● Flexible daily hours – these may follow an agreed pattern day by day
according to typical or expected workloads.
●● Flexitime systems – these provide a core period when employees are
expected to be at work (for example, between 11 am and 3 pm), while the
rest of the working day is ‘flexible time’, in which employees can choose
when they work, subject to achieving total daily, weekly or monthly
hours in the region of what the employer expects, and subject to the
necessary work being done.
●● Flexible weekly hours – providing for longer weekly hours to be worked
at certain peak periods during the year.
●● Flexible daily and weekly hours – varying daily or weekly hours or a
combination of both to match the input of hours to the required output.
Such working times, unlike daily or weekly arrangements, may fluctuate
between a minimum and a maximum.
●● Compressed working weeks – employees work fewer than the five
standard days.
●● Annual hours – scheduling employee hours on the basis of the number of
hours to be worked, with provisions for the increase or reduction of
hours in any given period, according to the demand for goods or services.
●● Zero-hours contracts – these have recently become prominent and
controversial and are dealt with separately below.
256 People Management Processes
Zero-hours contracts
The CIPD (2015a) defines a zero-hours contract as:
an agreement between two parties that one may be asked to perform work for
another but there is no minimum set contracted hours. The contract will
provide what pay the individual will get if he or she does work and will deal
with circumstances in which work may be offered and possibly turned down.
jobs where the actions of employers can make them anything but secure. There
may be too much emphasis at times on the precise terms of the employment
contract with not enough attention given to the spirit in which the employment
relationship is conducted.
Other approaches
Job-sharing is an arrangement in which two employees share the work of
one full-time position, dividing pay and benefits between them according to
the time each works. Job-sharing can mean splitting days or weeks or, less
frequently, working alternate weeks. Because it may suit the needs of indi-
viduals, job-sharing can reduce employee turnover and absenteeism. There
can be greater operational continuity because if one half of the job-sharing
team is ill or leaves, the sharer will continue working for at least half the
time. Job-sharing also means that a wider employment pool can be tapped
for those who cannot work full time but want permanent employment. The
disadvantages are the administrative costs involved and the risk of responsi-
bility being divided.
Hot-desking means that individual desks are shared between several
people who use them at different times. Those involved do not therefore
have a permanent workstation. This is convenient for the organization but
not everyone likes it.
Homeworking involves home-based employees who carry out such roles
as consultants, analysts, designers or programmers, or they can undertake
administrative work. The advantages are flexibility to respond rapidly to
fluctuations in demand, reduced overheads and lower employment costs if
the homeworkers are self-employed (care, however, has to be taken to en-
sure that they are regarded as self-employed for Income Tax and National
Insurance purposes).
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Flexibility
Organizations have to be able to adjust quickly and smoothly to rapidly
changing circumstances. The aim of managing flexibility is to satisfy this
requirement and in so doing improve the use of employees’ skills and cap-
acities, increase productivity and reduce employment costs.
258 People Management Processes
Operational flexibility
Operational flexibility refers to flexibility in the ways in which work is carried
out. The three main forms of operational flexibility are: functional, structural
and numerical flexibility.
Multiskilling
Multiskilling takes place when workers acquire through experience and
training a range of different skills they can apply when carrying out different
tasks (multitasking).
Zero-hours contracts
The CIPD (2015) defines a zero-hours contract as ‘an agreement between
two parties that one may be asked to perform work for another but there is
no minimum set contracted hours.’ It believes that, used responsibly, zero-
hours contracts can provide flexibility that works for both employers and
individuals.
Hot-desking
Hot-desking means that individual desks are shared between several people
who use them at different times
Homeworking
Home-based employees can carry out such roles as consultants, analysts,
designers or programmers, or they can undertake administrative work.
References
Atkinson, J (1984) Manpower strategies for the flexible organization, Personnel
Management, August, pp 28–31
Flexible Working 259
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Diversity Inclusion
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also know about:
Introduction
The management of diversity and inclusion is based on the proposition that
everyone should be valued as an individual and treated fairly irrespective of
their race, gender, level of disability, religion, sexual orientation or age.
A number of personal characteristics are covered by discrimination law to
give people protection to ensure that this happens. These ‘protected charac-
teristics’ are race, disability, gender reassignment, sex, marriage and civil
partnership, pregnancy and maternity, religion and belief, sexual orientation
262 People Management Processes
and age. But it is not enough to rely on the law. More needs to be done to
create and maintain a culture that recognizes that although people are
different, they all need to be treated in ways that are fair and tailored to
their individual needs and that ensure they feel they belong and that they are
important to the organization.
This chapter examines the meaning and significance of managing diver-
sity and inclusion and the ways in which they can be managed.
The basic concept of managing diversity accepts that the workforce consists of
a diverse population of people. The diversity consists of visible and non-visible
differences which include factors such as sex, age, background, race, disability,
personality and workstyle. It is founded on the premise that harnessing these
differences will create a productive environment in which everybody feels
valued, where their talents are being fully utilized and in which organizational
goals are met.
There is a social justice argument for pursuing diversity and inclusion pol-
icies: everyone has the right to be treated fairly in a workplace that values
the differences between people and promotes an environment of fairness,
dignity and respect. They will have career development and promotion oppor-
tunities based on merit and will be given the opportunity for work–life
balance, for example through working flexible hours.
There is also a business case. The effective management of diversity and
inclusion can help to increase levels of engagement, promote cooperation
and reduce conflict. It can provide for the best candidates from the widest
possible pool of applicants to be selected for jobs.
issues becomes a way of life for all concerned. To manage diversity and in-
clusion by achieving culture change it is necessary to:
areas that will be covered. These are typically recruitment and selection, per-
formance management, rewards, opportunities for learning and develop-
ment, career development and talent management, and work–life balance.
Consideration should be given to what needs to be done to deal specific-
ally with diversity and with inclusion. Actions should be planned that will
support the management of diversity and other actions proposed that will
support the management of inclusion. There will be some planned actions
that support both. For example, Northern Rail introduced diversity ambas-
sadors, an inclusion charter, and e-learning on unconscious bias. It reached
out to local schools and colleges, and targeted advertising on Asian TV net-
works to encourage candidates from previously untapped audiences.
●● fairness;
●● equality;
●● inclusion;
●● respect for the individual;
●● care for the individual;
●● valuing individuals;
●● developing staff and their careers.
It is important to involve employees in discussing these values
Critical areas
The critical areas where there can be diversity and inclusion issues are re-
cruitment, appointments and promotions, learning and career development
opportunities, pay, bullying and harassment. In each case policies and defin-
itions of good practice need to be developed to avoid biased and prejudiced
decisions. These policies and practices should be communicated extensively
and form the base of training programmes.
Communicating
It is essential to let everyone know about the diversity and inclusion values
and policies of the organization and what is being done about them. This is
a continuous process, not a one-off campaign. All available media should
be used including newsletters, the intranet, enterprise social networks, con-
sultative committees, briefing groups, in-house magazines and notice
boards.
Training
The aims of diversity and inclusion training should be to alert people to the
importance of dealing with the issues involved, communicate the values and
policies of the organization and indicate the sort of behaviours required.
This should be part of the induction training programmes for new em-
ployees. It should be provided for all existing managers and those who are
about to be promoted and should emphasize the vital part they have to play
in creating an inclusive culture and how they should set about doing it.
Specifically the training for managers should cover how to create an inclu-
sive culture, leadership behaviours, interviewing and assessing people, per-
formance management and dealing with bullying and harassment. Briefing
programmes for other members of staff should also be held.
The methods used should be participative – the minimum amount of lec-
turing and the maximum amount of participation in discussions, the ana-
lysis of case studies and role plays illustrating situations where bias might
creep in and what can be done about it.
Diversity networks
Diversity networks can be set up that act as support groups for minority staff
to share problems and swap tips. They can additionally help organizations to
Managing Diversity and Inclusion 267
understand the people who work for them and help the business to perform
better. For example:
Evaluation
It is essential to monitor and evaluate progress. The key performance indica-
tors that can be used for evaluating progress are representation/demographic
data by group of employee, employee survey results, trend data on demo-
graphics by recruitment and by promotions. Actions should be tracked to see
if they have had the intended results so that changes can be made if necessary.
Stephen Frost made the following comments about the London 2012 Olympics
diversity and inclusion programme in the CIPD 2012 publication Game on! How to
keep diversity progress on track:
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
References
CIPD (2012a) Game On! How to keep diversity progress on track, http://www.cipd.
co.uk/binaries/game-on-how-to-keep-diversity-progress-on-track_2012.pdf
[accessed 30 October 2015]
CIPD (2012b) Diversity and inclusion – fringe or fundamental? http://www.cipd.
co.uk/binaries/diversity-and-inclusion_2012-fringe-or-fundamental.pdf [accessed
30 October 2015]
Kandola, R and Fullerton, J (1994) Managing the Mosaic: Diversity in action,
London, CIPD
Nishii, L H (2013) The benefits of climate for inclusion for gender-diverse groups
Academy of Management Journal, 56 (6), pp 1754–74
Part Four
Leadership,
management and
learning and
development skills
Leadership skills 15
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Leadership Motivation
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also know about:
Introduction
The concept of leadership as described in Chapter 1 indicates that to lead
people is to inspire, influence and guide. In doing so, leaders have to display
certain qualities and motivate people, as explained in this chapter.
274 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
●● understand the best way to motivate the team and its individual members;
●● communicate clearly and positively what it is they expect people to do;
●● use powers of persuasion to get people into action;
●● analyse and read situations and establish order and clarity in conditions
of ambiguity;
●● understand what sort of leadership style works best for them and flex it
to deal with different situations and people;
●● promote good teamwork;
●● handle people problems;
●● develop the skills of team members.
are trustworthy and earn the respect of their team. They are aware of their
own strengths and weaknesses and are skilled at understanding what will
motivate their team members. They appreciate the advantages of consulting
and involving people in decision making. They can switch flexibly from one
leadership style to another to meet the demands of different situations and
people.
Effective leaders ask the following questions about the individuals in
the team and the team itself. The answers provide a guide to action for the
leader and the basis for team-building.
The team
●● How well is the team organized?
●● Is the team clear about what is expected of it?
●● Do the members of the team work well together?
●● If there is any conflict between team members, how can I resolve it?
●● How can the commitment and motivation of the team be achieved?
276 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Leaders need the ability to analyse and read situations and to establish
order and clarity in situations of ambiguity.
Leadership demands a sense of purpose, and an ability to influence
others, interpret situations, negotiate and express their views, often in the
face of opposition.
There are 10 steps that can be taken to motivate people, set out in the
text.
References
Gold, J, Thorpe, R and Mumford, A (2010) Gower Handbook of Leadership and
Management Development, Aldershot, Gower
Tamkin, P, Pearson, G, Hirsh, W and Constable, S (2010) Exceeding Expectation:
The principles of outstanding leadership, London, The Work Foundation
Management 16
skills
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Delegation Teamworking
Project management
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also know about:
Introduction
HR and L&D specialists have to understand the qualities and skills that line
managers need so as to provide them with advice and to plan management
and leadership development programmes. In their capacity as line managers
280 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
they have to practise such skills as those involved in delegating work and
motivating. They also have to exercise a wide range of management skills
such as influencing people, chairing meetings, facilitating discussions and
project management.
This chapter complements the previous one on leadership by concen-
trating on the management skills required to get things done through people.
Managing interpersonal relationships at work, including handling teams, is
dealt with in Chapter 19.
Delegating
You can’t do everything yourself, so you have to delegate. It is one of the
most important things you do. At first sight delegation looks simple: just tell
people what you want them to do and then let them get on with it. But there
is more to it than that. It is not easy. It requires courage, patience and skill.
Management Skills 281
And it is an aspect of your work in which you have more freedom of choice
than in any other of your activities. What you choose to delegate, to whom
and how, is almost entirely at your discretion.
What is delegation?
Delegation is not the same as handing out work. There are some things that
your team members do that go with the territory. They are part of their
normal duties and all you have to do is to define what those duties are and
allocate work accordingly.
Delegation is different. It takes place when you deliberately give someone
the authority to carry out a piece of work that you could have decided to keep
and carry out yourself. Bear in mind that what you are doing is delegating
authority to carry out a task and make the decisions this involves. You are still
accountable for the results achieved. It is sometimes said that you cannot dele-
gate responsibility but this is misleading if responsibility is defined, as it usu-
ally is, as what people are expected to do – their work, their tasks and their
duties. What you cannot do is delegate accountability. In the last analysis you
as the manager or team leader always carry the can. What managers have to
do is to ensure that people have the authority to carry out their responsibil-
ities. A traffic warden without the power to issue tickets would have to be
exceedingly persuasive to have any chance of dealing with parking offences.
●● enables you to focus on the things that really matter in your job – those
aspects that require your personal experience, skill and knowledge;
●● relieves you of less critical and routine tasks;
●● frees you from being immersed in detail;
●● extends your capacity to manage;
●● reduces delay in decision making, as long as authority is delegated close
to the scene of action;
●● allows decisions to be taken at the level where the details are known;
●● empowers and motivates your staff by extending their responsibilities
and authority and providing them with greater autonomy;
●● develops the knowledge and skills of your staff and increases their capacity
to exercise judgement and make decisions.
282 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Approaches to delegation
To a degree, overcoming these difficulties is a matter of simply being aware
of them and appreciating that if there are any disadvantages, they are out-
weighed by the advantages. Approaches to delegation such as those dis-
cussed below help. You need to understand the process of delegation, when
to delegate, what to delegate, how to choose people to whom you want to
delegate, how to give out the work and how to monitor performance.
When to delegate
You should delegate when you:
What to delegate
The tasks you delegate are ones that you don’t need to do yourself. You are
not just ridding yourself of the difficult, tedious or unrewarding tasks, nor
are you trying simply to win for yourself an easier life. In some ways delega-
tion will make your life more difficult, but also more rewarding.
You delegate routine and repetitive tasks that you cannot reasonably be
expected to do yourself – as long as you use the time you have won product-
ively. You can delegate specialist tasks to those who have the skills and
know-how to do them. You cannot be expected to do it all yourself nor can
you be expected to know it all yourself.
You have to consider how much guidance will be required on how the work
should be done. You don’t want to give directions in such laborious detail
that you run the risk of stifling initiative nor do you want to infuriate people
by explaining everything needlessly. As long as you are reasonably certain
that they will do the job to your satisfaction without embarrassing you or
seriously upsetting people, exceeding the budget or breaking the law, let
them get on with it.
Influencing people
HR professionals are very much in the business of influencing thinking and
decision making on the part of others. They must know about persuading
people, making a business case and case presentation.
Persuading people
A manager’s job is 60 per cent getting it right and 40 per cent putting it
across. Managers spend a lot of time persuading other people to accept their
ideas and suggestions. Persuasion is just another word for selling. It may be
felt that good ideas should sell themselves, but life is not like that. People
resist change and anything new is usually treated with suspicion. Here are
10 rules for effective persuasion:
1 Define the objective and get the facts. When persuading someone to agree
to a proposal first decide what is to be achieved and why. Assemble all the
facts needed to support the case. Eliminate emotional arguments so that
the proposition is based on the facts alone.
2 Define the problem. If there is a problem to resolve, when trying to
persuade someone to accept a view on what should be done about it first
decide whether the problem is a misunderstanding (a failure to understand
each other accurately) or a true disagreement (a failure to agree even
when both parties understand one another). It is not necessarily possible
to resolve a true disagreement by understanding each other better. People
generally believe that an argument is a battle to understand who is
correct. More often, it is a battle to decide who is more stubborn.
Management Skills 285
3 F
ind out what the other party wants. The key to all persuasion is to see
the proposition from the other person’s point of view. Find out how they
look at things. Establish what they need and want.
4 A
ccentuate the benefits. Present the case in a way that highlights the
benefits to the other party or at least reduces any objections or fears.
5 P
redict the other person’s response. Everything we say should be focused
on that likely response. Anticipate objections by considering how the
other party might react negatively to their proposition and thinking up
ways of responding to them.
6 C
reate the person’s next move. It is not a question of deciding what we
want to do but what we want the other person to do.
7 C
onvince people by reference to their own perceptions. People decide
on what to do on the basis of their own perceptions, not anyone else’s.
8 P
repare a simple and attractive proposition. Make it as straightforward as
possible. Present the case ‘sunny side up’, emphasizing its benefits. Break
the problem into manageable pieces and deal with them one step at a time.
9 M
ake them a party to the ideas. Get them to contribute. Find some
common ground so that the discussion starts with agreement. Don’t try
to defeat them in an argument – this will only antagonize them.
10 C
linch and take action. Choose the right moment to clinch the proposal –
don’t prolong the discussion and risk losing it. Follow up promptly.
Case presentation
Persuasion frequently means presenting a case, which means persuading
people to believe in the proposition and accept the recommendation. To do
this, it is necessary to have a clear idea of what is wanted and to demon-
strate belief in it. Above all, the effectiveness of the presentation will depend
upon the care with which it has been prepared.
Thorough preparation is vital. You must think through not only what
should be done and why, but also how people will react. Only then can
you decide how to make your case: stressing the benefits without under-
estimating the costs, and anticipating objections. The steps you should
take are:
1 Show that your proposal is based on a thorough analysis of the facts and
that the alternatives were properly evaluated before the conclusion was
reached. If you have made assumptions, you must demonstrate that these
286 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
1 Get informed. Collect and assemble all the facts and arguments you can
get hold of.
2 Decide what to say. Define the main messages you want to get across.
Limit the number to three or four – few people can absorb more than this
number of new ideas at any one time. Select the facts, arguments and
examples that support your message.
3 Structure your talk into the classic beginning, middle and end.
– Start thinking about the middle first, with your main messages and the
supporting facts, arguments and illustrations.
– Arrange your points so that a cumulative impact and a logical flow of
ideas are achieved.
– Then turn to the opening of your talk. Your objectives should be to
create attention, arouse interest and inspire confidence. Give your
audience a trailer to what you are going to say. Underline the objective
of your presentation – what they will get out of it.
– Finally, think about how you are going to close your talk. First and last
impressions are very important. End on a high note.
Management Skills 289
4 T
hink carefully about length. Never talk for more than 40 minutes at a
time – 20 or 30 minutes is better.
5 K
eep the audience’s attention throughout. Give interim summaries that
reinforce what you are saying and, above all, hammer home your key
points at intervals throughout your talk.
6 E
nsure continuity. You should build your argument progressively until
you come to a positive and convincing conclusion. Provide signposts,
interim summaries and bridging sections that lead your audience
naturally from one point to the next.
7 P
repare your notes. In the first place write out your introductory and
concluding remarks in full and set out in some detail the main text of your
talk. It is not usually necessary to write everything down. You should then
boil down your text to the key headings to which you will refer in your
talk. Your aim should be to avoid reading your speech if you possibly can
as this can remove any life from what you have to say. So as not to be
pinned down behind a lectern it is better to write your summarized points
on lined index cards to which you can refer easily as you go along.
8 P
repare and use visual aids. As your audience will only absorb one-third
of what you say, if that, reinforce your message with visual aids. Appeal
to more than one sense at a time. PowerPoint slides provide good
back-up, but don’t overdo them and keep them simple. Too many visuals
can be distracting (use no more than 15 or so in a half-hour presentation)
and too many words, or an over-elaborate presentation, will divert, bore
and confuse your audience. As a rule of thumb, try not to put more than
five or six bullet points on a slide. Each point should contain fewer than
six or seven words. Audiences dislike having to read a lot of small print
on an over-busy slide. Use diagrams and charts wherever possible to
break up the flow of words and to illustrate points. If you want the
members of your audience to read something fairly elaborate, distribute
the material as a handout and take them through it.
9 R
ehearse. Rehearsal is vital. It instils confidence, helps you to get your
timing right, and enables you to polish your opening and closing remarks
and coordinate your talk and visual aids. Rehearse the talk to yourself
several times and note how long each section takes. Get used to expanding
on your notes without waffling. Practise giving your talk out loud –
standing up, if that is the way you are going to present it. Get someone
to hear you and provide constructive criticism. It may be hard to take but
290 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
it could do you a world of good. But remember the Zen saying: ‘Practice
the performance, then forget the practice when you perform.’
10. C
heck arrangements in the room. Ensure that your projector works and
you know how to operate it. Check also on focus and visibility. Before
you begin your talk, check that your notes and visual aids are in the
right order and to hand.
●● Talk audibly and check that you can be heard at the back. Your task is to
project your voice. It’s easier when there is a microphone, but even then
you have to think about getting your words across.
●● Vary the pace (not too fast, not too slow), pitch and emphasis of your
delivery. Use pauses to make a point.
●● Try to be conversational and as informal as the occasion requires (but not
too casual).
●● Convey that you truly believe in what you are saying: audiences respond
well to enthusiasm.
●● Avoid a stilted delivery. That is why you must not read your talk. If you
are your natural self, people are more likely to be on your side. They will
forgive the occasional pause to find the right word.
●● Light relief is a good thing but don’t drag in irrelevant jokes or, indeed,
make jokes at all if you are no good at telling them. You do not have to
tell jokes.
●● Use short words and sentences.
●● Keep your eyes on the audience, moving from person to person to
demonstrate that you are addressing them all, and also to gauge their
reactions to what you are saying. Worry a little if they look at their
watches. Worry even more if they shake their watches to find out if they
have stopped.
●● If you can manage without elaborate notes (your slides or a few cards
may be sufficient) come out from behind the desk or lectern and get close
to your audience. It is best to stand up so that you can project what you
say more effectively unless it is a smallish meeting round a table.
Management Skills 291
●● Use hands for gesture and emphasis in moderation (don’t put them in
your pocket – if you have one).
●● Don’t fidget.
●● Stand naturally and upright.
●● You can move around the platform a little to add variety – you don’t want
to look as if you are clutching the lectern for much needed support – but
avoid pacing up and down like a caged tiger.
●● Practise. Take every opportunity you can get to speak in public. The more
you do it, the more confident you will become. Solicit constructive
criticism and act on it.
●● Know your subject. Get the facts, examples and illustrations you need to
put across.
●● Know your audience. Who is going to be there? What are they expecting
to hear? What will they want to get out of listening to you?
●● Know your objective. Make sure that you know what you want to achieve.
Visualize, if you can, each member of your audience going away having
learnt something new that he or she is going to put into practical use.
●● Prepare. If you know that you have prepared carefully as suggested above
you will be much more confident on the day.
●● Rehearse. This is an essential method of overcoming nervousness.
Chairing meetings
Most managers, including those in HR, will find themselves required to
chair a meeting. The success or failure of a meeting largely depends on the
effectiveness with which it is chaired. If you are chairing a meeting, this is
what you must do.
292 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
12 If a further meeting is needed, agree the purpose of the meeting and
what has to be done by those present before it takes place.
Facilitating
Facilitating meetings is the process of helping a group reach conclusions
in the shape of ideas and solutions. Facilitators do not exist to ‘chair’ the
meeting in the sense of controlling the discussion and pressurizing the
group to agree to a course of action. The group is there to make up its
own mind and the facilitator helps it to do so. The help is provided by
asking questions that encourage the group members to think for them-
selves. These can be challenging and probing questions but the facilitator
does not provide the answers – that is the role of the group. Neither do
facilitators allow their own opinions to intrude – they are there to help
the group marshal its opinions, not to enforce their own ideas. However,
by using questioning techniques carefully, facilitators can ensure that the
group does thoroughly discuss and analyse the issues and reaches conclu-
sions by consensus rather than allowing anyone to dominate the
process.
Facilitators ensure that everyone has their say and that they are listened
to. They step in quickly to defuse unproductive arguments. They see that the
group defines and understands its objectives and any methodology they
might use. They summarize from time to time the progress made in achieving
the objectives without bringing their own views to bear. Facilitators are
there to ensure that the group makes progress and does not get stuck in
fruitless or disruptive argument, but they encourage the group rather than
drive it forward.
The aim of the facilitator is to guide the group’s thinking. He or she may,
therefore, be more concerned with shaping attitudes than convincing people
about what to do or imparting new knowledge. The facilitator has to unob-
trusively stimulate people to talk, guide the discussion along predetermined
lines (there must be a plan and an ultimate objective), and provide interim
summaries and a final summary.
294 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Coordinating discussions
Coordinating discussions is a matter of getting active participation and then
ensuring that the discussion informs people of the issues related to the sub-
ject and leads to a conclusion that satisfies the participants. The following
techniques can be used to get active participation and to coordinate the
process:
Project management
HR professionals are involved in project management when they lead or
take part in the introduction of a new HR system or process such as job
evaluation, performance management or performance-related pay or, on a
wider scale, when they are involved in an organization development pro-
gramme. Project management is the planning, supervision and control of
any activity or set of activities that leads to a defined outcome at a predeter-
mined time and in accordance with specified performance or quality standards
at a budgeted cost. Project management is concerned with deliverables –
getting things done as required or promised. While delivering results on time
is important, it is equally important to deliver them to meet the specification
and within the projected cost.
Project management involves action planning – deciding what work is to
be done, why the work needs to be done, who will do the work, how much
Management Skills 295
will it cost, when the work has to be completed (totally or stage by stage)
and where the work will be carried out. The three main project management
activities are project planning, setting up the project and project control.
Project planning
Project planning starts with a definition of the objectives of the project.
A business case has to be made. This means answering three basic questions:
why is this project needed; what benefits are expected from the project, and
how much will it cost? The answers to these questions should be quantified.
The requirement could be spelt out in such terms as new systems or facilities
to meet defined business needs, new plant required for new products or to
improve productivity or quality. The benefits are expressed as revenues gen-
erated, productivity, quality or performance improvements, added value,
costs saved and return on investment.
Projects involve investing resources – money and people. Investment ap-
praisal techniques are used to ensure that the company’s criteria on return
on investment are satisfied. Cost-benefit analysis may be used to assess the
degree to which the benefits justify the costs, time and number of people re-
quired by the project. This may mean identifying opportunity costs, which
establish if a greater benefit would be obtained by investing the money or
deploying the people on other projects or activities.
A performance specification is required that indicates the expected out-
come of the project – how it should perform – and describes how it will
operate. This leads to a project plan that sets out:
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Effective supervision
Effective supervision is the process of directing people to ensure that they
get the work done. Supervisors define the task and provide direction, making
it clear what the group and its individual members are expected to do and
what results are to be achieved, and ensure that the work is done as
required.
Management Skills 297
Effective leadership
Effective leaders are confident and know where they want to go and what
they want to do. They have the ability to take charge, convey their vision to
their team, get their team members into action and ensure that they achieve
their agreed goals.
Delegation
Delegation takes place when you deliberately give someone the authority to
carry out a piece of work that you could have decided to keep and carry out
yourself.
Influencing people
HR professionals are often involved in influencing thinking and decision
making on the part of others. They must know about persuading people and
case presentation.
Making a presentation
The three keys to delivering an effective presentation are thorough prepar-
ation, good delivery and overcoming nervousness.
Chairing meetings
Most managers, including those in HR, will find themselves required to chair
a meeting. The success or failure of a meeting largely depends on the ef-
fectiveness with which it is chaired.
Facilitating
Facilitating is the process of helping a group reach conclusions in the shape
of ideas and solutions.
Coordinating discussions
Coordinating discussions is a matter of getting active participation and then
ensuring that the discussion informs people of the issues related to the sub-
ject and leads to a conclusion that satisfies the participants.
Presentations
The three keys to delivering an effective presentation are thorough prepar-
ation, good delivery and overcoming nervousness.
Project management
Project management is the planning, supervision and control of any activity or set
of activities that leads to a defined outcome at a predetermined time and in
accordance with specified performance or quality standards at a budgeted cost.
298 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Reference
Kearns, P and Miller, T (1997) Measuring the impact of training and development
on the bottom line, FT Management Briefings, London, Pitman
Q u e s t i o n s
2 What are the main steps you should take to motivate people?
3 What is delegation?
8 What are the key steps required for effective case presentation?
11 What are the most important actions required to chair a meeting successfully?
12 What is facilitating?
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Competency Open-ended question
Competency-based interview Person specification
Feedback Structured interview
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also understand:
Introduction
This chapter covers a number of the key people management skills used by
managers and HR specialists.
300 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
1 Can the individual do the job? Is the person capable of doing the work to
the standard required?
2 Will the individual do the job? Is the person well motivated?
3 How is the individual likely to fit into the team? Will I and other team
members be able to work well with this person?
1 Beginning. At the start of the interview candidates are put at their ease.
They need to be encouraged to talk freely in response to questions.
2 Middle. This is where interviewers find out what they need to know about
candidates to establish the extent to which they meet the requirements of
the job as set out in a person or job specification. This indicates what
experience, qualifications and competencies (characteristics of a person
that results in effective job performance) are required. This part should
take at least 80 per cent of the time, leaving, say, 5 per cent at the beginning
and 15 per cent at the end.
3 End. At the end of the interview candidates are given the opportunity to
ask about the job and the company. More details about the job can be
given to promising candidates who are told what the next step will be.
People Management Skills 301
Avoid any questions that could be construed as being biased on the grounds
of sex, sexual orientation, race, disability or age.
Here are 10 useful questions:
The dos and don’ts of selection interviewing are shown in Table 17.1.
Do Don’t
●● Plan the interview. ●● Start the interview unprepared.
●● Give yourself sufficient time. ●● Plunge too quickly into demanding
●● Use a structured interview (probing) questions.
approach wherever possible. ●● Ask multiple or leading
●● Create the right atmosphere. questions.
Providing feedback
Providing feedback to people on how they are doing is an important per-
formance management activity. It should be given by managers informally
throughout the year on appropriate occasions but it will also be the key
People Management Skills 305
1 Build feedback into the job. To be effective feedback should be built into
the job or provided soon after the activity has taken place.
2 Provide feedback on actual events. Feedback should be given on actual
results or observed behaviour. It should be backed up by evidence. It should
not be based on supposition about the reason for the behaviour. You
should, for example, say: ‘We have received the following complaint from
a customer that you have been rude, would you like to comment on this,’
rather than: ‘You tend to be aggressive.’
3 Describe, don’t judge. The feedback should be presented as a description
of what has happened; it should not be accompanied by a judgement.
If you start by saying: ‘I have been informed that you have been rude to
one of our customers; we can’t tolerate that sort of behaviour,’ you will
instantly create resistance and prejudice an opportunity to encourage
improvement.
4 Refer to and define specific behaviours. Relate all your feedback to
specific items of behaviour. Don’t indulge in transmitting general feelings
or impressions. When commenting on someone’s work or behaviour
define what you believe to be good work or effective behaviour with
examples.
5 Emphasize the ‘how’ not the ‘what’. Focus attention more on how the
task was tackled rather than on the result.
6 Ask questions. Ask questions rather than make statements – ‘Why do you
think this happened?’; ‘On reflection is there any other way in which you
think you could have handled the situation?’; ‘How do you think you
should tackle this sort of situation in the future?’
7 Select key issues. There is a limit to how much criticism anyone can take.
If you overdo it, the shutters will go up and you will get nowhere. Select
key issues and restrict yourself to them.
8 Focus. It is a waste of time to concentrate on areas that the individual can
do little or nothing about. Focus on aspects of performance the individual
can improve.
306 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
1 Get all the facts in advance, including statements from people involved.
2 I nvite the employee to the meeting in writing, explaining why it is being
held and that he or she has the right to have someone present at the
meeting on his or her behalf.
3 nsure that the employee has reasonable notice (ideally at least two
E
days).
4 Plan how you will conduct the meeting.
5 ine up another member of management to attend the meeting with you
L
to take notes (this can be important if there is an appeal) and generally
provide support.
6 S tart the interview by stating the complaint to the employee and referring
to the evidence.
7 Give the employee plenty of time to respond and state his or her case.
8 ake a break as required to consider the points raised and to relieve any
T
pressure in the meeting.
9 onsider what action is appropriate, if any. Actions should be staged,
C
starting with a recorded written warning, followed, if the problem
continues, by a first written warning, then a final written warning and
lastly, if the earlier stages have been exhausted, disciplinary action,
which would be dismissal in serious cases.
10 D
eliver the decision, explaining why it has been taken and confirm it in
writing.
People Management Skills 307
2. Absenteeism
A frequent people problem you probably have to face is that of dealing with
absenteeism. The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development estab-
lished that absence levels in 2009 averaged 7.4 days a year per person. Your
own organization should have figures that indicate average absence levels. If
the levels in your department are below the average for the organization or
in the absence of that information, below the national average, you should
not be complacent – you should continue to monitor the absence of individ-
uals to find out whose absence levels are above the average and why. If your
department’s absence figures are significantly higher than the norm you may
have to take more direct action such as discussing with individuals whose
absence rates are high the reasons for their absences, especially when it has
been self-certificated. You may have to deal with recurrent short-term (one
or two days) absence or longer-term sickness absence.
The decision to dismiss should only be taken if these conditions are satisfied.
It is a tricky one and you should seek advice before taking it.
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Selection interviewing
The aim of a selection interview is to provide answers to three fundamental
questions: Can the individual do the job? Will the individual do the job? How
is the individual likely to fit into the team?
A selection interview should take the form of a conversation with a pur-
pose. It has three sections:
1 Beginning. At the start of the interview candidates are put at their ease.
2 Middle. Where interviewers find out about candidates to establish the
extent to which they meet the requirements of the job.
3 End. Candidates are given the opportunity to ask about the job and the
company. More details can be given to promising candidates, who are
told what the next step will be.
Your first step in preparing for an interview is to familiarize or re-familiarize your-
self with the person specification and candidate’s CV, application form or letter.
The best approach to structuring the interview is one that is criteria and target
based using competencies as the criteria. A biographical approach is probably
the most popular because it is simple to use and appears to be logical.
The interviewer’s job is to draw the candidate out at the same time ensur-
ing that the information required is obtained. To this end it is desirable to ask
a number of open-ended questions, but a good interviewer will have an ar-
moury of other types of questions to be asked when appropriate – probing,
hypothetical, behaviour event and continuity.
how they have arisen and what can be done about them; and ends the
meeting positively with any necessary agreed action plans (learning and
development and performance improvement).
Providing feedback
Providing feedback to people on how they are doing is an important per-
formance management activity. It should be given by managers informally
throughout the year on appropriate occasions but it will also be provided at
a formal performance review meeting.
Handling under-performers
There are the seven steps you can take to deal with under-performers:
Handling absenteeism
You should continue to monitor the absence of individuals to find out whose
absence levels are above the average and why. If your department’s ab-
sence figures are significantly higher than the norm you may have to take
more direct action. You may have to deal with recurrent short-term (one or
two days) absence or longer-term sickness absence.
Q u e s t i o n s
9 What are the key ‘dos’ in selection interviews? Name at least four.
10 What are the key ‘don’ts’ in selection interviews? Name at least four.
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Personal development planning Role profile
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also understand:
Introduction
A considerable amount of the responsibility for developing people rests with
line managers, bearing in mind that most learning happens in the workplace.
This chapter covers the many different ways in which managers can con-
tribute to learning and development taking into account the factors affecting
how people learn, as explained in Chapter 3. It starts by describing three
general approaches that can be adopted: defining role profiles, induction
316 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Induction training
Most new starters, other than those on formal training schemes, will learn
on-the-job, although this may be supplemented with special off-the-job courses
to develop particular skills or knowledge. As on-the-job learning can be hap-
hazard, inefficient and wasteful, a planned, systematic approach is desirable. This
can incorporate an assessment of what the new starter needs to learn, the use of
designated and trained colleagues to act as guides and mentors, and coaching by
team leaders or specially appointed and trained departmental trainers.
These on-the-job arrangements can be supplemented by self-managed
learning in which individuals take responsibility for meeting their own
learning needs, with help and guidance as necessary, offering access to flex-
ible learning packages or providing advice on learning opportunities.
●● coaching;
●● use of a role model (mentor);
●● observing and analysing what others do (good practice);
●● extending the role (job enrichment);
●● project work – special assignments;
●● involvement in other work areas;
●● involvement in communities of practice (learning from others carrying
out similar work);
●● action learning;
●● e-learning;
●● guided reading.
Coaching
First line managers, team leaders and supervisors are best placed to make a
significant impact on the performance of their staff through coaching.
Coaching is a personal (usually one-to-one) on-the-job approach to
helping people develop their skills and levels of competence. The need for
coaching may arise from formal or informal performance reviews but op-
portunities for coaching will emerge during normal day-to-day activities.
Managers as coaches:
Coaching will be most effective when the coach understands that his or her
role is to help people to learn and individuals are motivated to learn. The
individuals concerned should be aware that their present level of knowledge
or skill or their behaviour needs to be improved if they are going to perform
their work satisfactorily. They should be given guidance on what they should
be learning and feedback on how they are doing and, because learning is an
active not a passive process, they should be actively involved with their
coach, who should be constructive, building on strengths and experience.
Coaching should provide motivation, structure and effective feedback if man-
agers have the required skills and commitment. As coaches, managers believe
that people can succeed, that they can contribute to their success and that they
can identify what people need to be able to do to improve their performance.
The following requirements for effective coaching were listed by Gray
(2010: 379):
●● establish rapport;
●● create trust and respect;
●● demonstrate effective communication skills;
●● promote self-awareness and self-knowledge;
●● use active listening and questioning techniques;
●● assist goal development and setting;
●● motivate;
●● encourage alternative perspectives;
●● assist in making sense of a situation;
●● identify significant patterns of thinking and behaving;
●● provide an appropriate mix of challenge and support;
●● facilitate depth of understanding;
●● show compassion;
●● act ethically;
Learning and Development Skills 319
●● inspire curiosity;
●● act as a role model;
●● value diversity and difference;
●● promote action and reflection.
Mentoring
Mentoring is the process of using specially selected and trained individuals
to provide guidance, pragmatic advice and continuing support that will help
the person or persons allocated to them to learn and develop. Mentors pre-
pare individuals to perform better in the future and groom them for higher
and greater things, ie career advancement. Managers can act as mentors, or
they can appoint mentors from within their department or ask the learning
and development function to provide a mentor from elsewhere.
Mentoring is a method of helping people to learn and develop as distinct
from coaching, which is a relatively directive means of increasing people’s
competence. Mentoring promotes learning on the job, which is always the
best way of acquiring the particular skills and knowledge the job holder
needs. Mentoring also complements formal training by providing those who
benefit from it with individual guidance from experienced managers who
are ‘wise in the ways of the organization’.
Mentors provide people with:
Managers and anyone else involved in mentoring will benefit from advice on
the approaches they can use and the skills they need. This advice should be
available from the learning and development function, which should also
monitor the effectiveness of mentors.
Job instruction
When people learn specific tasks, especially those involving basic adminis-
trative or manual skills, the learning will be more effective if job instruction
techniques are used. Effective instruction follows the sequence of instruction
described below.
1. Preparation
Preparation for each instruction period means that the trainer must have a
plan for presenting the subject matter and using appropriate teaching
methods, visual aids and demonstration aids. It also means preparing
trainees for the instruction that is to follow. They should want to learn. They
must perceive that the learning will be relevant and useful to them person-
ally. They should be encouraged to take pride in their job and to appreciate
the satisfaction that comes from skilled performance.
2. Presentation
Presentation should consist of a combination of telling and showing –
explanation and demonstration. Explanation should be as simple and direct
as possible: the trainer explains briefly the ground to be covered and what
to look for. He or she makes the maximum use of charts, diagrams and other
visual aids. The aim should be to teach first things first and then proceed
from the known to the unknown, the simple to the complex, the concrete to
the abstract, the general to the particular, the observation to reasoning, and
the whole to the parts and back to the whole again.
3. Demonstration
Demonstration is an essential stage in instruction, especially when the skill
to be learnt is mainly a ‘doing’ skill. Demonstration can take place in three
stages:
Learning and Development Skills 321
The learner then practises by imitating the instructor and constantly re-
peating the operation under guidance. The aim is to reach the target level of
performance for each element of the total task, but the instructor must con-
stantly strive to develop coordinated and integrated performance – that is,
the smooth combination of the separate elements of the task into a whole
job pattern.
4. Follow up
Follow up continues during the training period for all the time required by
the learner to reach a level of performance equal to that of the normal ex-
perienced worker in terms of quality, speed and attention to safety. During
the follow-up stage, the learner will continue to need help with particularly
difficult tasks or to overcome temporary set-backs that result in a deterior-
ation of performance. The instructor may have to repeat the presentation
for the elements and supervise practice more closely until the trainee regains
confidence or masters the task.
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Induction training
Most new starters other than those on formal training schemes will learn
on-the-job, although this may be supplemented with special off-the-job
courses to develop particular skills or knowledge.
322 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Coaching
Coaching is a personal (usually one-to-one) approach to helping people de-
velop their skills and knowledge and improve their performance. The need
for coaching may arise from formal or informal performance reviews, but
opportunities for coaching will emerge during the course of day-to-day
work.
Mentoring
Mentoring is the process of using specially selected and trained individuals
to provide guidance, pragmatic advice and continuing support, which will
help the person or persons allocated to them to learn and develop.
Job instruction
When people learn specific tasks, especially those involving basic adminis-
trative or manual skills, the learning will be more effective if job instruction
techniques are used. Effective instruction uses the following sequence:
preparation, presentation, demonstration and follow up.
Reference
Gray, D A (2010) Building quality into executive coaching, in (eds) J Gold, R Thorpe
and A Mumford, Gower Handbook of Leadership and Management
Development, Aldershot, Gower, pp 367–85
Questions
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Assertiveness Networks
Dominant coalition Self-managed team
Interpersonal relationships
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also understand:
Introduction
Interpersonal relationships are those that take place between people when
they associate with one another at work. As covered in this chapter, they
take the form of working in teams or groups, networking, communicating,
being assertive, handling emotional behaviour and conflict, negotiating,
handling politics, acting in a politically astute and ethical manner to secure
HR objectives, and liaising with customers.
Effective teams
In an effective team its members work together to achieve expected results.
The purpose of the team is clear and its members feel the task is important,
both to them and to the organization. They may not always agree on the
best way to achieve the task but when they don’t agree, they discuss, even
argue, about their differences to resolve them.
The structure of the team is likely to be one in which the leadership and
methods of operation are relevant to its purpose. People will have been
grouped together in a way that ensures they are related to each other by way
of the requirements of task performance and task interdependence. Job spe-
cialization is minimized, team members operate flexibly within the group,
tasks are rotated among them and they are multiskilled.
The atmosphere in an effective team tends to be informal, comfortable
and relaxed. The leader of the team does not dominate it, nor does the team
defer unduly to him or her. The role of the team leader may be primarily to
act as a facilitator – more supportive and participative than directive. There
is little evidence of a struggle for power as the team operates. The issue is not
who controls, but how to get the job done.
Managing Interpersonal Relationships 325
Self-managed teams
High levels of engagement and commitment and better teamwork can be
achieved by a self-managed team. Such a team is highly autonomous, re-
sponsible to a considerable degree for planning and scheduling work and
monitoring team performance and quality standards.
Team-building
Ten things to do to achieve good teamwork:
Assertiveness
Assertiveness is about expressing your opinions, beliefs, needs, wants and
feelings firmly and in direct, honest and appropriate ways. It means standing
up for your own rights in such a way that you do not violate another per-
son’s rights. When you are being assertive you are not being aggressive,
which means violating or ignoring other people’s rights in order to get your
own way or dominate a situation.
Behaving assertively puts you in the position of being able to influence
people properly and react to them positively. Assertive statements:
Interpersonal communication
People recognize the need to communicate but find it difficult. Like
Schopenhauer’s hedgehogs, they want to get together; it’s only their prickles
that keep them apart. Words may sound or look precise, but they are not. All
Managing Interpersonal Relationships 327
sorts of barriers exist between the communicator and the receiver. Unless
these barriers are overcome the message will be distorted or will not get
through.
Barriers to communication
Hearing what we want to hear
What we hear or understand when someone speaks to us is largely based on
our own experience and background. Instead of hearing what people have
told us, we hear what our minds tell us they have said. We have preconcep-
tions about what people are going to say, and if what they say does not fit
into our frame of reference we adjust it until it does.
Non-verbal communication
When we try to understand the meaning of what people say we listen to the
words but we also use other clues that convey meaning. We attend not only to
what people say but to how they say it. We form impressions from what is called
body language – eyes, shape of the mouth, the muscles of the face, even posture.
We may feel that these tell us more about what someone is really saying than the
words he or she uses, but there is enormous scope for misinterpretation.
Emotions
Our emotions colour our ability to convey or to receive the true message.
When we are insecure or worried, what we hear seems more threatening
than when we are secure and at peace with the world. When we are angry
or depressed, we tend to reject what might otherwise seem like reasonable
requests or good ideas. During a heated argument, many things that are said
may not be understood or may be badly distorted.
Noise
Any interference to communication is ‘noise’. It can be literal noise that pre-
vents the message being heard, or figurative in the shape of distracting or
confused information that distorts or obscures the meaning.
Size
The larger and more complex the organization the greater the problem of commu-
nication. The more levels of management and supervision through which a mes-
sage has to pass, the greater the opportunity for distortion or misunderstanding.
Use feedback
Ensure that you get a message back from the receiver that tells you how
much has been understood.
Managing Interpersonal Relationships 329
Use reinforcement
You may have to present your message in a number of different ways to get
it across. Re-emphasize the important points and follow up.
Aggression
If you are faced by aggression, take a breath, count up to 10 and then:
●● Empathize with the aggressor by making it plain that you can see their
point of view, but at the same time explain in a matter-of-fact way how
you see the discrepancy between what they believe and what you feel is
actually happening.
●● Indicate, if the aggressive behaviour persists, your different beliefs or
feelings, but do not cut aggressors short – people often talk, or even
shout, themselves out of being aggressive when they realize that you are
not reacting aggressively and that their behaviour is not getting them
anywhere.
●● Suggest, if all else fails, that you leave it for the time being and talk about
it again after a cooling-off period.
Withdrawal
Withdrawal can take the form of lack of interest, uncooperative behaviour
or refusing to take part in the work of a team, an activity or a project. If any
of these happen and work is affected you have to deal with it, not by con-
frontation but by trying to reach agreement that something is wrong (not
easy; people in an emotional state are quite prepared to believe that everyone
is out of step but them) and attempting to establish the cause of the
behaviour.
Almost by definition, if someone is in an emotional state it is going to be
difficult to get through to them. But the attempt must be made and this is
best done by being unemotional yourself and only referring to facts about
the situation – what has happened or is happening. The aim is to get the
person to accept that these facts are correct although there may still be a real
problem that his or her view of the facts is distorted by emotions. Of course,
this could apply to you and a dispassionate pursuit of the truth may result
in you readjusting your views on the matter. If, and it can be a big if, you get
to the root of the problem you can try to get the individual to propose what
actions should be taken by him or her or by you. Try to get the person to
suggest solutions; don’t impose your own ideas.
suggested above for dealing with withdrawal. You have to question to get the
facts and listen to what is said. You have to establish the reasoning behind the
behaviour (assuming there is any – it could be no more than an immediate
emotional reaction) so that agreement can be reached as to what can be done
about it. However, if it is unreasonable and unacceptable this must be spelt
out so that the individual knows what is expected and is aware of the possible
consequences (eg disciplinary action) if the behaviour persists.
Handling conflict
Conflict is inevitable in organizations because they function by means of
adjustments and compromises among competitive elements in their struc-
ture and membership. Conflict also arises when there is change, because it
may be seen as a threat to be challenged or resisted, or when there is frustra-
tion – this may produce an aggressive reaction; fight rather than flight.
Conflict is not to be deplored. It is an inevitable result of progress and
change and it can and should be used constructively. Bland agreement on
everything would be unnatural and enervating. There should be clashes of
ideas about tasks and projects, and disagreements should not be suppressed.
They should come out into the open because that is the only way to ensure
that the issues are explored and conflicts are resolved.
There is such a thing as creative conflict – new or modified ideas, insights,
approaches and solutions can be generated by a joint re-examination of the
different points of view as long as this is based on an objective and rational
exchange of information and ideas. However, conflict becomes counter
productive when it is based on personality clashes, or when it is treated as
an unseemly mess to be hurriedly cleared away, rather than as a problem to
be worked through. Conflict resolution can be concerned with conflict be-
tween groups or conflict between individuals (interpersonal conflict).
1. Peaceful coexistence
The aim here is to smooth out differences and emphasize the common
ground. People are encouraged to learn to live together; there is a good deal
332 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
2. Compromise
The issue is resolved by negotiation or bargaining and neither party wins or
loses. This concept of splitting the difference is essentially pessimistic. The
hallmark of this approach is that there is no ‘right’ or ‘best’ answer.
Agreements only accommodate differences. Real issues are not likely to be
solved.
3. Problem solving
An attempt is made to find a genuine solution to the problem rather than
just accommodating different points of view. This is where the apparent
paradox of ‘creative conflict’ comes in. Conflict situations can be used to
advantage to create better solutions.
If solutions are to be developed by problem solving, they have to be gen-
erated by those who share the responsibility for seeing that the solutions
work. The sequence of actions is: first, those concerned work to define the
problem and agree on the objectives to be attained in reaching a solution;
second, the group develops alternative solutions and debates their merits;
and third, agreement is reached on the preferred course of action and how
it should be implemented.
Constructive confrontation
Constructive confrontation is a method of bringing the individuals in con-
flict together, ideally with a third party whose function is to help build an
exploratory and cooperative climate. Constructive confrontation aims to
get the parties involved to understand and explore the other’s perceptions
and feelings. It is a process of developing mutual understanding to produce
a win/win situation.
The issues will be confronted but on the basis of a joint analysis, with the
help of the third party, of facts relating to the situation and the actual behav-
iour of those involved. Feelings will be expressed but they will be analysed
by reference to specific events and behaviours rather than inferences or
speculations about motives.
Third parties have a key role in this process, and it is not an easy one.
They have to get agreement on the ground rules for discussions aimed at
334 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
bringing out the facts and minimizing hostile behaviour. They must monitor
the ways in which negative feelings are expressed and encourage the parties
to produce new definitions of the problem and its cause or causes and new
motives to reach a common solution. Third parties must avoid the tempta-
tion to support or appear to support either of those in contention. They
should adopt a counselling approach, as follows:
●● listen actively;
●● observe as well as listen;
●● help people to understand and define the problem by asking pertinent,
open-ended questions;
●● recognize feelings and allow them to be expressed;
●● help people to define problems for themselves;
●● encourage people to explore alternative solutions;
●● get people to develop their own implementation plans but provide advice
and help if asked.
5 Evaluate what you hear from both parties and other people against your
knowledge of what has been happening, any history of conflict and the
dispositions and previous behaviour of the people involved.
6 Reach preliminary conclusions on the facts, the reasons for the dispute
and the extent to which either of the parties or both are to blame (but keep
these to yourself at this stage).
7 Bring the parties together to discuss the situation. The initial aim of this
meeting would be to get the problem out into the open, get the facts and
defuse any emotions that may prejudice a solution to the problem. Both
parties should be allowed to have their say but as the facilitator of this
meeting, you should do your best to ensure that they stick to the facts and
explain their point of view dispassionately. You should not even remotely
give the impression that you are taking sides.
8 Try to defuse the situation so that a solution can be reached that on the
whole will be acceptable to all concerned. Ideally, this should be an integrated
solution reached by agreement on the basis of collaboration along the lines
of ‘Let’s get together to find the best solution on the basis of the facts.’ It may
be necessary to reach a compromise or accommodation – something
everyone can live with.
9 Only if all else fails or the parties are so recalcitrant in holding an untenable
position that no integrated, comprise or accommodating solution can be
reached should you resort to direct action – instructing one or both the
parties to bury their differences and get on with their work. If the worse
comes to the worst this may involve disciplinary action, beginning with a
formal warning.
1 Don’t wait until a formal review meeting. Have a quiet word at the first
sign that something is going wrong.
2 Get the facts in advance – what happened, when and why.
3 Plan the meeting on the basis of the facts and what is known about the
individual.
4 Define what is to be achieved.
5 Set the right tone from the start of the meeting – adopt a calm, measured,
deliberate but friendly approach.
6 Begin the conversation by explaining the purpose of the meeting,
indicating to the individual what the issue is and giving specific examples.
7 Focus on the issue and not the person.
8 Ask for an explanation. Ask unloaded questions to clarify the issues and
explore them together.
9 Allow people to have their say and listen to them.
10 Keep an open mind and don’t jump to conclusions.
11 Acknowledge the individual’s position and any mitigating circumstances.
12 Ask the employee for proposals to resolve the situation, discuss the
options and if possible agree on action by the individual, the manager
or jointly.
If agreement cannot be reached, managers may have to define the way for-
ward, with reasons – they are in charge!
Networking
Networks are loosely organized connections between people with shared
interests. Increasingly in today’s more fluid and flexible organizations people
get things done by networking. They exchange information, enlist support
and create alliances, getting agreement with other people on a course of ac-
tion and joining forces to make it happen.
To network effectively here are 10 steps you can take:
Negotiating
Negotiating takes place when two parties meet to reach an agreement
on the price of something, on the terms and conditions of a contract or
employment or a pay claim. Negotiation can be convergent when both
parties are equally keen to reach a win/win agreement (in commercial
terms a willing buyer – willing seller arrangement). It can be divergent
when one or both of the parties aim to win as much as they can from the
other while giving away as little as possible. This can become a zero-sum
game where the winner takes all and the loser gets nothing. Negotiations
in an industrial relations setting differ from commercial negotiations in
the respects set out in Table 19.1. Negotiations take place in an atmos-
phere of uncertainty. Neither side knows how strong the other side’s
bargaining position is or what it really wants and will be prepared to
accept.
338 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
●● Analytical ability – the capacity to assess the factors that affect the
negotiating stance and tactics of both parties.
●● Empathy – the ability to put oneself in the other party’s shoes.
●● Interactive skills – the ability to relate well to other people.
●● Communicating skills – the ability to convey information and arguments
clearly, positively and logically.
●● Keeping cards close to the chest – not stating what you really want or are
prepared to concede until you are ready to do so (in the marketplace it is
always easier for sellers to drive a hard bargain with buyers who have
revealed somehow that they covet the article).
●● Flexible realism – the capacity to make realistic moves during the
bargaining process to reduce the claim or increase the offer, which
will demonstrate that the bargainer is seeking a reasonable settlement
and is prepared to respond appropriately to movements from the
other side.
Managing Interpersonal Relationships 339
Organizational politics
To be politic, according to the Concise Oxford English Dictionary, you can be
sagacious, prudent, judicious, expedient, scheming or crafty. Organizational
politics involves various kinds of desirable and undesirable behaviour
designed to get outcomes that are sought by an individual or a group. The
behaviour may consist of overt or more probably covert pressures on indi-
viduals in positions of power or on interest groups to agree to or obstruct a
course of action. Influence may be exerted outside the usual channels to get
things done or to undo things; for example, the opinions of committee mem-
bers might be influenced by lobbying them outside the committee. This
could be justified by the politician as the best ways of achieving something,
but it could be undesirable if it consists of perverting the normal open and
transparent processes of decision making, especially when it is perpetrated
simply to pursue the organizational politician’s own ends.
Political behaviour is inevitable in organizations because they consist of indi-
viduals who, while they are ostensibly there to achieve a common purpose will,
at the same time, be driven by their own needs to achieve their own goals.
Effective management is the process of harmonizing individual endeavour and
ambition to the common good. Some individuals will genuinely believe that
using political means to achieve their goals will benefit the organization as well
as themselves. Others will rationalize this belief. Yet others will unashamedly
pursue their own ends. They may use all their powers of persuasion to legitimize
these ends to their colleagues, but self-interest remains the primary drive. These
are the corporate politicians the Oxford English Dictionary describes as ‘shrewd
schemers, crafty plotters or intriguers’. Politicians within organizations can be
like this. They manoeuvre behind people’s backs, blocking proposals they do not
like. They advance their own reputation and career at the expense of other
people. They can be envious and jealous and act accordingly. They are bad news.
However, it can also be argued that a political approach to management is inev-
itable and even desirable in any organization where the clarity of goals is not
absolute, where the decision-making process is not clear-cut and where the au-
thority to make decisions is not evenly or appropriately distributed – and there
can be few organizations where one or more of these conditions does not apply.
Political sensitivity
Organizational politicians exert hidden influence to get their way, and ‘pol-
iticking’ in some form takes place in most organizations. If you want to get
340 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Dangers
The dangers of politics, however, are that they can be carried to excess, and
they can then seriously harm the effectiveness of an organization. The signs
of excessive indulgence in political behaviour include:
●● backbiting;
●● buck-passing;
●● secret meetings and hidden decisions;
●● feuds between people and departments;
●● e-mail or paper wars between armed camps – arguing by e-mail or
memorandum is always a sign of distrust;
●● a multiplicity of snide comments and criticisms;
●● excessive and counterproductive lobbying;
●● the formation of cabals – cliques that spend their time intriguing.
course, deny that they are behaving politically (they wouldn’t be politicians
if they didn’t), but the fact that they have been identified may lead them to
modify their approach. It could, of course, only serve to drive them further
underground, in which case their behaviour will have to be observed even
more closely and corrective action taken as necessary.
A more positive approach to keeping politics operating at an acceptable level
is for the organization to manage its operations as openly as possible. The aims
should be to ensure that issues are debated fully, that differences of opinion are
dealt with frankly and that disagreements are depersonalized, so far as this is pos-
sible. Political processes can then be seen as a way of maintaining the momentum
of the organization as a complex decision-making and problem-solving entity.
Ethical considerations
Making deals as described above may not appear to be particularly desir-
able although it does happen, and HR practitioners can always rationalize
this type of behaviour by reference to the end result. This is in effect utilitar-
ianism, as described in Chapter 8 – the belief that the greatest good to the
342 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
For having lived long, I have experienced many instances of being obliged by
better Information, or fuller Consideration, to change Opinions even on
important Subjects, which I once thought right, but found to be otherwise.
That people believe themselves to be right is no proof that they are; the only
difference between the Church of Rome and the Church of England is that the
former is infallible while the latter is never wrong.
Defining requirements
The requirements for effectively liaising with customers can be defined in
terms of attitudes, skills, knowledge and behaviours.
Attitudes
Customer service excellence is achieved by people whose attitudes can be
summed up in the phrase ‘put the customer first’. They must believe that
they exist because customers exist and that being responsive to customer
needs and expectations is a vital part of their role.
Skills
The main skills required are:
Knowledge
Knowledge of the product or service offered will be required. For external
customers, this could be quite advanced knowledge enabling individuals to
identify and deal with faulty equipment or provide technical advice. It will
also be necessary to understand the customer service systems and procedures
used in the organization. For internal customers it is necessary to understand
what the departments or individuals need and how to satisfy those needs.
Behaviours
When liaising with customers the behaviours required are:
Internal customers
An internal customer is anyone who makes use of the outputs or services
provided by other departments or individuals in the organization. This
means everyone – all employees are customers of other employees and they
all provide services to other employees. Some departments such as HR, IT
and facilities management exist primarily to provide professional or tech-
nical services directly to other departments. Some departments exist to pro-
duce outputs upon which other departments rely to achieve their objectives.
Research and development has to deliver products that can be promoted
and sold by marketing and sales departments. Production or operating de-
partments exist to deliver the products or services that are required by sales
to meet customer demands. Marketing and sales departments produce the
information on forecast demand, which enables production and operating
departments to plan their activities.
It can be argued that: meeting the needs of internal customers is a pre-
requisite for meeting the needs of external customers. If, for example, mar-
keting gets its sales forecasts wrong or manufacturing fails to meet the
requirements specified by sales, then it is the level of service to external cus-
tomers that suffers and this has a negative impact on satisfaction and loyalty.
The basic approach to creating high standards of service for internal cus-
tomers is to define how the different parts of the organization interrelate
and spell out who serves whom and who receives service from whom. It is
then necessary to ensure that all the parties concerned know how important
service to internal customers is and what is expected of them from their in-
ternal customers. This can be defined formally as a service level agreement.
For example, an agreement for an HR service centre could set out standards
under the following headings:
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Interpersonal relationships
Interpersonal relationships are those that take place between people when
they associate with one another at work.
Teamwork
Teams are essential to the effective functioning of organizations. In an ef-
fective team its members work together to achieve expected results. The
purpose of the team is clear and its members feel the task is important, both
to them and to the organization. The structure of the team is likely to be one
in which the leadership and methods of operation are relevant to its pur-
pose. The atmosphere in an effective team tends to be informal, comfortable
and relaxed. The leader of the team does not dominate it, nor does the team
defer unduly to him or her.
Networks
Networks are loosely organized connections between people with shared
interests. Increasingly in today’s more fluid and flexible organizations people
get things done by networking. They exchange information, enlist support
and create alliances – getting agreement with other people on a course of
action and joining forces to make it happen.
Communicating
People recognize the need to communicate but find it difficult. Words may
sound or look precise, but they are not. All sorts of barriers exist between
the communicator and the receiver. Unless these barriers are overcome the
message will be distorted or will not get through.
346 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Assertiveness
Assertiveness is about expressing your opinions, beliefs, needs, wants and
feelings firmly and in direct, honest and appropriate ways.
Emotional behaviour
Emotional behaviour can include aggression, withdrawal and unreasonable
actions or reactions.
Conflict
Conflict is inevitable in organizations because they function by means of
adjustments and compromises among competitive elements in their struc-
ture and membership. There are three principal ways of resolving inter-
group conflict: peaceful coexistence, compromise and problem solving.
Interpersonal conflict can be handled by constructive confrontation.
Organizational politics
Political behaviour is inevitable in organizations because they consist of in-
dividuals who, while they are ostensibly there to achieve a common pur-
pose, will, at the same time, be driven by their own needs to achieve their
own goals.
Organizational politics involves various kinds of desirable and undesir-
able behaviour designed to get outcomes sought by an individual or a
group.
HR practitioners are inevitably involved in organizational politics and
they are more likely to survive and thrive if they handle these astutely. But
they also have to behave ethically, whether they are politicking or going
about their daily business.
Reference
Follett, M P (1924) Creative Experience, New York, Longmans Green
Q u e s t i o n s
9 What is assertiveness?
15 What are the most important negotiating and bargaining skills? Name at
least four.
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
The ‘Big five’ Personality traits
Interactionism Personality types
Personality Reference group
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also know about:
●● Self-awareness
●● Time management
●● Personal organizing skills
●● Managing stress
●● Professional and ethical approaches to self-management at work
Introduction
Successful managers are good at managing all the resources available to them:
people, money, equipment and other facilities. But they also have to be good
at managing a key resource – themselves. That is what this chapter is about.
The starting points in managing yourself are an understanding of individual
350 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
differences as they affect your own and other people’s behaviour, and an
appreciation of the meaning of personality and its dimensions in terms of in-
dividual traits and types. Against this background, this chapter reviews in
succession five key aspects of managing yourself: self-assessment, managing
your time, the skills you need to organize yourself and your work, managing
stress in yourself and others, the need for continuous personal development
and, finally, how to adopt a professional and ethical approach to your work.
Individual differences
The development of HR processes, the design of organizations and the ways
in which people manage others are often based on the belief that everyone
is the same and will behave rationally when faced with change or other de-
mands. But the behaviour of people differs because of their characteristics
and individual differences and it is not always rational. When managing
yourself it is equally important to know how you fit in with other people in
all their variety so that, as necessary, you can adapt your behaviour.
The management of people and working with them would be much easier
if everyone were the same, but they aren’t. As discussed below, they are dif-
ferent because of variations in personal characteristics – their personality,
abilities and intelligence, and the influence of their background. Gender, race
or disability are also considered factors by some people, although holding
this view readily leads to discrimination.
style in the organization; the social group within which they work; and the
‘reference groups’ individuals use for comparative purposes (eg comparing
conditions of work or pay between one category of employee and another).
Dimensions of personality
Differences in the dimensions of personality between people are significant
factors in explaining behaviour. That is why personality tests are often used
as part of selection procedures and various forms of personality indicators
or inventories such as Myers–Briggs, the ‘Big five’ test and the 16PF question-
naire as described later are used in leadership and management development
programmes, including executive coaching.
Personality has been defined by Huczynski and Buchanan (2007: 844) as:
‘The psychological qualities that influence an individual’s characteristic be-
haviour patterns in a stable and distinctive manner.’ As noted by Ivancevich
et al (2008), personality appears to be organized into patterns that are, to
some degree, observable and measurable and involves both common and
unique characteristics – every person is different from every other person in
some respects but similar to others in other respects. Personality is a product
of both nature (heredity) and nurture (the pattern of life experience). The
dimensions of personality can be described in terms of traits or types.
1 Warmth.
2 Reasoning.
3 Emotional stability.
4 Dominance.
5 Liveliness.
6 Rule-consciousness.
7 Social boldness.
8 Sensitivity.
9 Vigilance.
10 Abstractedness.
11 Privateness.
12 Apprehension.
13 Openness to change.
14 Self-reliance.
15 Perfectionism.
16 Tension.
However, the trait theory of personality has been attacked by people such as
Mischel (1968). The main criticisms are:
●● People do not necessarily express the same trait across different situations
or even the same trait in the same situation. Different people may exhibit
consistency in some traits and considerable variability in others.
●● Classical trait theory as formulated by Cattell (1946) assumes that trait
behaviour is independent of the situations and the persons with whom
the individual is interacting. This assumption is questionable, given that
trait behaviour usually manifests itself in response to specific situations.
●● Trait attributions are a product of language – they are devices for speaking
about people and are not generally described in terms of behaviour.
This theory of personality forms the basis of one of the most popular per-
sonality tests – the Myers–Briggs Types Indicator. This rates personal prefer-
ences on four scales:
introvert → extroverts
sensing → intuition
thinking → feeling
judging → perceiving
Managing Oneself 355
Self-awareness
Self-awareness is about knowing yourself, so far as that is possible, and ana-
lysing your achievements, skills, knowledge and managerial competences.
The aim is to identify strengths and weaknesses so as to make the most of
the former and do what you can to overcome the latter. Drucker (1999)
proposed that:
The only way to discover your strengths is through feedback analysis. When-
ever you make a key decision or take a key action, write down what you expect
will happen. Nine or 12 months later, compare the actual results with your
expectations.
Knowing yourself
The question you have to answer is: ‘What sort of person am I?’ This is the
most difficult question to answer truthfully. Try answering the self-analysis
questionnaire in Table 20.1. Consider each statement under the heading
‘I think I am someone who is…’ and indicate in the appropriate box the ex-
tent to which you agree or disagree with it. The outcome will be a profile
that you can study to identify any personality characteristics that you may
need to do something about.
This analysis will help you to think about how you behave. You can’t
really change your personality but, given what you know about the sort of
person you are, you may be able to adjust your behaviour to make it more
productive and acceptable to people. However, remember what Shakespeare
advised: ‘To your own self be true.’ Also bear in mind what Browning wrote:
‘Best be yourself, imperial plain and true.’ Your behaviour must be genuine
not assumed, otherwise people will see through you and the relationships
will simply get worse.
1 Ensure that you are clear about what your job entails in terms of its key
result areas – the most important things you are expected to do. If in
doubt, ask your manager for clarification.
356 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Neither
I think I am Strongly agree nor Strongly
someone who is: agree Agree disagree Disagree disagree
Emotionally stable ® ® ® ® ®
Easily upset ® ® ® ® ®
Forceful, domineering ® ® ® ® ®
Cooperative, ® ® ® ® ®
accommodating
Lively, enthusiastic ® ® ® ® ®
Serious, introspective ® ® ® ® ®
Imaginative, creative ® ® ® ® ®
Prosaic, conventional ® ® ® ® ®
Astute, diplomatic ® ® ® ® ®
Self-assured, confident ® ® ® ® ®
Open to change ® ® ® ® ®
Traditional ® ® ® ® ®
Group-orientated, ® ® ® ® ®
a joiner
Driven ® ® ® ® ®
Relaxed ® ® ® ® ®
2 Find out what you are expected to achieve for each of the key result
areas. Expectations should be definable as objectives in the form of
quantified targets or standards of performance (qualitative statements of
what constitutes effective performance). Ideally they should have been
discussed and agreed as part of the performance appraisal/management
process but if this has not happened, ask your manager to spell out what
he or she expects you to achieve.
Managing Oneself 357
dispassionately where you went wrong and assess what you might have
been able to do to put it right.
3 What am I good or not so good at doing? What are your distinctive
competences? Consider these in terms of professional, technical or
managerial know-how as well as the exercise of such skills as communicating,
decision making, problem solving, teamworking, exercising leadership,
delegating, coordinating, meeting deadlines, managing time, planning,
organizing and controlling work, dealing with crises.
4 What have been my significant learning experiences? Recall events when
you have learnt something worthwhile and how you made use of it.
5 How well do I know my chosen area of expertise? Have you got or are you
getting the right qualifications? Have you acquired or are you acquiring the
right know-how through study, training and relevant experience?
Time management
Time management is the process of making the most of a key but limited re-
source – the time available to carry out your work. Shakespeare’s Richard II
lamented: ‘I wasted time, now doth time waste me.’ It’s a problem many people
come up against. Even if we haven’t been wasting our time most of us recog-
nize that there is scope for managing our time more productively. To do this
you need to think systematically about how you use your time. You can then
take steps to organize yourself better and to get other people to help or at least
not to hinder you. The first thing you need to do is to analyse your job and how
you spend your time to find out where there is scope for improvement.
Analyse also the V, D, U ratings of the worth of each activity under each
heading and then consider how you can organize yourself more effectively.
Organize yourself
Such an analysis will usually throw up weaknesses in the way you plan your
work and establish your priorities. You have to fit the tasks you must com-
plete into the time available to complete them, and get them done in order
of importance.
Some people find it difficult, if not impossible, to plan their work ahead.
They find that they work best if they have to achieve almost impossible
deadlines. Working under pressure concentrates the mind wonderfully,
they say. But ordinary mortals, who work under a variety of conflicting
pressures, cannot rely upon crisis action to get them out of logjams of
work. For most of us it is better to try to minimize the need for working
under exceptional pressure by a little attention to the organization of our
week or day. At the very least you should use your diary for long-range
planning, organizing your weekly activities in broad outline and planning
360 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
each day in as much detail as possible. You can then use a daily organizer
to good purpose.
Daily organizer
At the beginning of each day, consult your diary to check on your plans and
commitments. Refer to the previous day’s organizer to find out what is out-
standing. Inspect your pending tray, in-tray and incoming e-mails to check
on what remains and what has just arrived. Then enter or write down the
things to do:
●● Meetings or interviews.
●● Respond to e-mails.
●● Telephone calls.
●● Tasks in order of priority:
A – must be done today.
B – ideally should be done today but could be left till tomorrow.
C – can be dealt with later.
Plan broadly when you are going to fit your A and B priority tasks into the
day. Tick off your tasks as they have been completed. Retain the list to con-
sult next day. You can use your electronic organizer to do this, but many
successful time managers are happy with a blank sheet of paper. You could
use a simple form such as the one shown in Figure 20.1.
Managing Oneself 361
Planning
To plan you need to decide on a course of action, ensure that the resources
required to implement the action will be available, and schedule and priori-
tize the work required to achieve an end result. The aim is to enable you to
complete tasks on time by making the best use of the resources available.
You need to avoid crises and the high costs that they cause; to have fewer
‘drop everything and rush this’ problems. Contingency or fall-back plans
need to be prepared if there is any reason to believe that the initial plan may
fail for reasons beyond your control.
When managers plan, they may choose certain courses of action and rule
out others; that is to say, they may lose flexibility. This will be a disadvan-
tage if the future turns out differently from what was expected – which is
362 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
only too likely. You should try to make plans that can be changed without
undue difficulty. It is a bad plan that admits no change.
Most of the planning managers carry out is simply a matter of thinking sys-
tematically and using common sense. Every plan contains five key ingredients:
Prioritizing
Planning involves prioritizing work, which means deciding on the relative
importance of a range of demands or tasks so that the order in which they
are undertaken can be determined. The fragmented nature of managerial
work and the sudden and often conflicting demands made on your time
mean that you will constantly be faced with decisions on when to do things,
however carefully you have planned in advance. There may often be situ-
ations when you have to cope with conflicting priorities. This can be stressful
unless you adopt a systematic approach to prioritization. This can be carried
out in the following stages.
1 List all the things you have to do. These can be classified into three groups:
a Regular duties such as submitting a report, calling on customers,
carrying out a performance review.
b Special requests from managers, colleagues, customers, clients,
suppliers and so on, delivered orally, by e-mail, telephone or letter.
c Self-generated work such as preparing proposals on a new procedure.
2 Classify each item on the list according to:
– the significance of the task to be done in terms of its impact on your
work (and reputation) and on the results achieved by the organization,
your team or anyone else involved;
Managing Oneself 363
Managing stress
People become stressed when they experience more pressure, frustration, or
a higher level of emotional or physical demands than they can handle.
Pressures include achieving performance expectations, meeting deadlines,
coping with an excessive workload, dealing with difficult bosses, colleagues,
clients, customers or subordinates, being bullied, achieving a satisfactory
work–life balance (reconciling the demands of work with family responsibil-
ities or outside interests), and role ambiguity (lack of understanding of what
is expected). Pressure is fine as long as it does not build up to too high a level.
Up to a point it will motivate and improve performance but it then turns into
stress and results in a decline in performance, as illustrated in Figure 20.2.
The important thing to remember is that the ability to withstand pressure
varies: one person’s stimulating amount of pressure is another person’s
364 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Performance
Pressure Stress
Symptoms of stress
The symptoms of stress that you can observe in others or yourself include an
inability to cope with the demands of the job (which creates more stress),
tiredness, lethargy, lack of enthusiasm and bad temper.
●● clarifying roles to reduce role ambiguity and give people more autonomy;
●● setting reasonable and achievable performance standards;
●● establishing performance management processes that encourage a
dialogue between managers and their staff about work and its pressures;
●● giving individuals the opportunity to obtain professional counselling;
●● developing anti-bullying policies and ensuring they are implemented (not
easy);
●● developing work–life balance policies that take account of the pressures
on employees as parents, partners or carers, and which can include
provisions such as special leave or flexible working hours.
1 T
ry to establish why you are stressed – are there any specific causes or is
it a general feeling that the work is getting on top of you?
2 T
alk to someone about it – your boss (if likely to be sympathetic),
colleagues, HR, friends, your partner.
3 I f the stress is serious, ask if the organization can provide advice from a
professional counsellor.
4 D
iscuss your workloads and deadlines with your boss to see if they can
be alleviated in any way.
5 Consider whether there is scope to delegate more work to your staff.
6 D
ecide what is beyond your control and put it firmly to one side. Focus
on what is within your sphere of influence and get on with it.
7 T
ake the occasional brief break in the day, if you can – relax (switch off)
for a few minutes over a cup of coffee with your colleagues.
8 D
on’t work excessive hours unless you really have to – don’t work late
just to impress your manager (who wants results, not just to have you
around the office) or your colleagues. Don’t take work home unless this
is absolutely unavoidable.
9 C
onsider ‘mindfulness’, a technique used for managing stress that involves
meditation and focuses the attention of people on their current experiences.
10 Take regular exercise.
366 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Self-management strategies
Self-management strategies should be based on self-assessment, which
means assessing your own performance and identifying how you can im-
prove. To assess your own performance you need to:
1 Ensure that you are clear about what your job entails in terms of the main
tasks or key result areas. If in doubt, ask your manager for clarification.
2 Find out what you are expected to achieve for each of the key result areas.
Expectations should be definable as objectives in the form of quantified
targets or standards of performance (qualitative statements of what
constitutes effective performance). Ideally they should have been discussed
and agreed as part of the performance appraisal/management process but
if this has not happened, ask your manager to spell out what he or she
expects you to achieve.
3 Refer to the organization’s competency framework. Discuss with your
manager how he or she interprets these as far as you are concerned.
4 At fairly regular intervals, say once a month, review your progress by
reference to the objectives, standards and competency headings. Take
note of your achievements and, if they exist, your failures. Ask yourself
why you were successful or unsuccessful and what you can do to build on
success or overcome failure. You may identify actions you can take or
specific changes in behaviour you can try to achieve, or you may identify
a need for further coaching, training or experience.
5 At the end of the review period and prior to the appraisal discussion with
your manager, look back at each of your interim reviews and the actions
you decided to take. Consider what more needs to be done in any specific
area or generally. You will then be in a position to answer the following
questions that might be posed by your manager before or during the
appraisal discussion:
–– How do you feel you have done?
–– What are you best at doing?
–– Are there any parts of your job you find difficult?
–– Are there any aspects of your work in which you would benefit from
better guidance or further training?
368 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
●● Compete fairly – manage your career in a way that does not unfairly
prejudice the rights of others. Do not take advantage of the weaknesses
of others, especially those with disabilities or older people.
●● Do not subject people who work with you or under you to unreasonable
pressure. Set fair targets to your staff – they can be demanding but they
must be achievable.
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Managing yourself
The starting points in managing yourself are an understanding of individual
differences as they affect your own and other people’s behaviour, and an
appreciation of the meaning of personality and its dimensions in terms of
individual traits and types.
Personality
Personality has been defined by Huczynski and Buchanan (2007: 844) as:
‘The psychological qualities that influence an individual’s characteristic
behaviour patterns in a stable and distinctive manner.’
Self-awareness
Self-awareness is about knowing yourself, so far as that is possible, and
analysing your achievements, skills, knowledge and managerial competences.
Time management
Time management is the process of making the most of a key but limited
resource – the time available to carry out your work.
Planning
Planning involves deciding on a course of action, ensuring that the re-
sources required to implement the action will be available and scheduling
and prioritizing the work required to achieve a defined end result.
Prioritizing
Prioritizing work means deciding on the relative importance of a range of
demands or tasks so that the order in which they are undertaken can be
determined.
Managing stress
People become stressed when they experience more pressure, frustration,
or a higher level of emotional or physical demands than they can handle.
The symptoms of stress include an inability to cope with the demands of the
job (which creates more stress), tiredness, lethargy, lack of enthusiasm and
bad temper. Stress can be managed at organizational level, for individuals,
and for yourself.
References
Arnold, J, Robertson, I T and Cooper, C L (1991) Work Psychology, London, Pitman
Cattell, R B (1946) Description and Measurement of Personality, New York, World Books
Chell, E (1987) The Psychology of Behaviour in Organisations, London, Macmillan
Costa, P and McRae, R R (1992) NEO PI-R: Professional manual, Odessa, FL,
Psychological Assessment Resources
Managing Oneself 371
Q u e s t i o n s
1 What are the headings under which personal characteristics can vary?
3 What is personality?
7 What is self-awareness?
14 What can be done to manage the stress of others? List at least four actions.
15 What can be done to manage your own stress? List at least four actions.
18 What steps can you take to develop yourself? Name at least four.
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Creative thinking Proactive decision making
Decision making Problem solving
Occam’s razor
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also understand:
Introduction
Problem solving and decision making are closely associated processes that
are a constant feature of life in organizations and elsewhere. A logical ap-
proach should be adopted, but this is not always easy – the situations
where problems have to be solved and decisions made are often messy,
with conflicting evidence, lack of data and political and emotional issues
affecting those involved. And beware of the obvious – as H L Mencken
observed, for every complex problem there is a solution that is simple, neat
and wrong. But even if it is not possible to apply neat, logical and sequen-
tial methods, the principles of getting and analysing what information is
available, considering alternatives and making the best choice on the evi-
dence available (evidence-based decision making) having taken account of
the likely consequences, remain the same.
Problem solving
Problem solving is the process of analysing and understanding a problem,
diagnosing its cause and deciding on a solution that solves the problem and
prevents it being repeated. You will often have to react to problems as they
arise but as far as possible a proactive approach is desirable, which involves
anticipating potential problems and dealing with them in advance by taking
preventative action using the normal approaches to problem solving set out
below. Proactive problem solving may require creative thinking, as con-
sidered later in this chapter.
Being creative
A strictly logical answer to the problem may not be the best one. Use creative
thinking to get off your tramlines and dream up an entirely new approach.
Keep it simple
One of the basic principles of problem solving is known as Occam’s razor. It
states that ‘entities are not to be multiplied without necessity’. That is, al-
ways believe the simplest of several explanations.
Focus on implementation
A problem has not been solved until the solution has been implemented.
Think carefully not only about how a thing is to be done (by whom, with
what resources and by when) but also about its likely consequences – its
impact on the organization and the people concerned and the extent to
which they will cooperate. You will get less cooperation if you impose a so-
lution. The best method is to arrange things so that everyone arrives jointly
at a solution freely agreed to be the one best suited to the situation; the law
of the situation again. (Further consideration to the processes of evaluating
evidence and options and to the consulting skills used in problem solving is
given in the next chapter.)
376 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Decision making
Decision making is about analysing and defining a situation or problem,
identifying possible courses of action, weighing them up and defining a
course of action. It should be a systematic and evidence-based process.
Drucker (1955) produced the following words of wisdom on the subject,
which have not been bettered since:
In 1967 he added:
Creative thinking
Creative thinking is imaginative thinking. It produces new ways of looking
at things and innovative decisions. It relates things or ideas that were pre-
viously unrelated. It is discontinuous and divergent. De Bono (1971) in-
vented the phrase ‘lateral thinking’ for it and this term has stuck; it implies
378 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Breaking away
To break away from the constraints on your ability to generate new ideas
you should:
People who have to carry out the decision should always participate in the work
of developing alternatives… This is also likely to improve the quality of the final
decision by revealing points the manager may have missed, spotting hidden
difficulties and uncovering available but unused resources.
The advantages of involving teams in decision making are that more minds
will be brought to bear on the problem to generate more ideas for its solu-
tion, and those taking part are likely to ‘own’ the solution and should there-
fore be more likely to welcome it and willingly take part in its implementation.
Work teams can be involved in collectively dealing with problems or special
problem-solving groups can be formed that can resemble the once-fashion-
able quality circles. Handy (1985: 160) pointed out that:
Groups produce [fewer] ideas, in total, than the individuals of those groups
working separately. So much for the stereotyping of brainstorming! But groups,
though producing less ideas in total, produce better ideas in the sense that they are
better evaluated, more thought through… We tend to behave more adventurously
in groups than in private, where we do not have to live up to any public standard.
You should not expect or even welcome a bland consensus view. The best
decisions emerge from conflicting viewpoints. You can benefit from a clash
of opinion to prevent people falling into the trap of starting with the conclu-
sion and then looking for the facts that support it.
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Problem solving and decision making are closely associated processes that
are a constant feature of life in organizations and elsewhere.
Problem solving
Problem solving is the process of analysing and understanding a problem,
diagnosing its cause and deciding on a solution that solves the problem and
prevents it being repeated.
Decision making
Decision making is about analysing the situation or problem, identifying pos-
sible courses of action, weighing them up and defining a course of action.
Creative thinking is imaginative thinking. It produces new ideas, new
ways of looking at things and innovative decisions. The advantages of
involving teams in decision making are that more minds will be brought to
bear on the problem to generate more ideas for its solution, and those taking
part are likely to ‘own’ the solution and should therefore be more likely to
welcome it and willingly take part in its implementation.
Decisions affecting people should take account of ethical principles and
be communicated to all concerned.
References
de Bono, E (1971) Lateral Thinking for Managers, London, McGraw-Hill
Drucker, P (1967) The Effective Executive, London, Heinemann
Drucker, P (1955) The Practice of Management, London, Heinemann
Follett, M P (1924) Creative Experience, New York, Longmans Green
Handy, C (1985) Understanding Organizations, 3rd edn, Harmondsworth,
Penguin Books
Q u e s t i o n s
3 What are the key steps that should be taken in problem solving?
Problem Solving and Decision Making 383
9 What are the key questions you should answer when deciding on the degree
to which a decision is ethical?
10 What are the key approaches to decision making? Name at least four.
Analytical, 22
critical and
consultancy skills
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Analysis Evidence-based management
Critical evaluation Fallacy
Critical thinking Logical reasoning
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also understand:
Introduction
The processes of problem solving and decision making depend largely on
effective analysis, critical thinking and evaluation, and the use of consultancy
386 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
skills, as covered in this chapter. The basis of all these is provided by evi-
dence-based management, as discussed below.
Evidence-based management
Evidence-based management is a method of informing decision making by
making use of appropriate information derived from the analysis of policy
and practices and surveys of employee opinion within the organization, sys-
tematic benchmarking and the messages delivered by relevant research. The
following comments on evidence-based management were made by Pfeffer
and Sutton (2006: 70):
All this means that it is necessary to recognize that there are no simple
solutions, no universal prescriptions, no sequences of actions that will
inevitably lead to the one and only right conclusion. Short-term fixes
may become long-term problems. Logical determinism – the belief that
human actions can be governed by external forces in the shape of pre-
scribed formulae – won’t work. There is always choice. We may favour
the idea of going from A to D via B and C but sometimes we have to start
in the middle because our circumstances compel us to do so. We have to
make the best of the situation in which we find ourselves and proceed
from that point.
We need to know what that situation is – what’s right and what’s wrong
about it. We need then to understand what can be done to address the issues
emerging from the situation. We need evidence that tells us what is hap-
pening within the organization, what has worked well elsewhere that may
fit our requirements and what research has revealed about policies and prac-
tices that will guide us in making our decisions. We need to use that evidence
as the basis for our choice of the actions we intend to take. In other words,
we need to practise evidence-based management using the analytical, critical
thinking and consultancy skills described in the rest of this chapter.
Analytical skills
Analysis is the process of gaining a better understanding of a complex situation
or problem by breaking it down into its constituent parts and establishing the
relationships between them. In the Aristotelian sense it involves discerning the
particular features of a situation. It requires the ability to visualize, articulate
and solve complex problems and concepts and make decisions based on avail-
able information. Analytical skills include the capacity to evaluate that infor-
mation to assess its significance, and the ability to apply logical and critical
thinking to the situation. They provide the basis for a diagnosis of the cause or
causes of a problem and therefore for its solution.
Logical reasoning
If you say people are logical, you mean that they draw reasonable inferences –
their conclusions can be proved by reference to the facts used to support them –
and they avoid ill-founded and tendentious arguments, generalizations and
388 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Critical thinking
Critical thinking clarifies goals, examines assumptions, discerns hidden
values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions. ‘Critical’ in this context
does not mean disapproval or being negative. There are many positive uses
of critical thinking, for example testing a hypothesis, proving a proposition
or evaluating a concept, theory or argument. Critical thinking can occur
whenever people weigh up evidence and make a judgement, solve a problem
or reach a decision. The aim is to come to well-reasoned conclusions and
solutions and test them against relevant criteria and standards. Critical
thinking calls for the ability to:
Critical evaluation
Critical evaluation means not taking anything for granted and, where neces-
sary, challenging propositions. It involves making informed judgements
about the value of ideas and arguments. It uses critical thinking by analysing
and evaluating the quality of theories and concepts to establish the degree to
390 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
which they are valid and supported by the evidence (evidence-based) and the
extent to which they are biased. It means reflecting on and interpreting data,
drawing warranted conclusions and identifying faulty reasoning, assump-
tions and biases. The arguments for and against are weighed and the strength
of the evidence on both sides is assessed. On the basis of this assessment a
conclusion is reached as to which argument is preferred. Critical evaluation
is required when testing propositions and evaluating the outcomes of
research.
Testing propositions
Propositions based on research investigations and evidence can be tested by
using the following checklist:
Developing an argument
An argument is based (predicated) on a premise (the proposition) that sets
out the underpinning assumption. There may be more than one propos-
ition or assumption. It could be phrased something like this: ‘The argu-
ment is that A is the case. It is predicated on the assumption that B and C
apply.’ In a sense this suggests the conclusion the argument is intended to
reach but it also indicates that this conclusion depends on the validity of
the assumptions, which will have to be proved (there are such things as
false premises).
392 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Justifying an argument
The argument continues by supplying reasons to accept the proposition or
point of view. These reasons have to be supported by evidence that should
be based on valid research, rigorous observation, or relevant and verifiable
experience, not on hearsay. It involves logical reasoning, which avoids the
fallacies referred to earlier and requires critical thinking, which means
coming to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions and testing them
against relevant criteria and standards. It also demands critical evaluation
which, as mentioned earlier, means reflecting on and interpreting data,
drawing warranted conclusions and identifying faulty reasoning, assump-
tions and biases. Assumptions have to be tested rigorously and research
evidence has to be evaluated. The checklists set out above can be used for
this purpose.
Consulting skills
External management consultants providing advice and help in introducing
new structures and systems and solving problems, and internal consultants
who carry out a similar role within the organization, need certain skills to
carry out their often demanding jobs effectively. The main skills are those
concerned with:
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
The processes of problem solving and decision making depend largely on ef-
fective analysis, critical thinking and evaluation and the use of consultancy skills.
Evidence-based management
Evidence-based management is a method of informing decision making by
using appropriate information derived from the analysis of HR policy and
practices and surveys of employee opinion within the organization, system-
atic benchmarking and the messages delivered by relevant research.
Analytical skills
Analysis is the process of gaining a better understanding of a complex situation
or problem by breaking it down into its constituent parts and establishing the
relationships between them.
Logical reasoning
This involves clear thinking to establish the validity of a proposition, concept
or idea.
Critical thinking
Critical thinking clarifies goals, examines assumptions, discerns hidden values,
evaluates evidence, accomplishes actions and assesses conclusions.
Critical evaluation
Critical evaluation involves making informed judgements about the value of
ideas and arguments.
Consultancy skills
External management consultants providing advice and help in introducing
new structures and systems and solving problems and internal consultants
who carry out a similar role within the organization need certain skills to
carry out their often demanding jobs effectively.
References
Briner, R B, Denyer, D and Rousseau, D M (2009) Evidence-based management:
concept clean-up time? Academy of Management Perspectives, September, pp 19–32
394 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Q u e s t i o n s
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Average Lower quartile
Causality Mean
Chi-squared test Median
Cloud computing Mode
Correlation Multi-regression analysis
Dispersion Multi-variant analysis
e-HRM Regression
Enterprise resource planning Reverse causation
(ERP) system Scattergram
Frequency distribution Self-service
Frequency polygon Standard deviation
HR information system Statistics
Human capital management Trend line
Intranet Upper quartile
Internal social networks Vanilla system
Line of best fit Variance
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also know about:
Introduction
Information, as Drucker (1988: 46) observed, is ‘data endowed with meaning
and purpose’. The significance of evidence-based management, as discussed
in the last chapter, is that it is based on information. Human capital manage-
ment as a major HR activity is the process of informing HRM decisions by
obtaining, analysing and reporting on data and information relating to em-
ployees. Evaluation of the effectiveness of learning and development and
other HR activities is only possible by reference to relevant data.
HR specialists must therefore possess the knowledge required to commis-
sion and manage computerized systems to provide them and line managers
with information covering such matters as employee records, absenteeism,
employee turnover, rates of pay and employee benefits. Such systems also
help with the administration of HR activities such as recruitment, perform-
ance management and reward. In addition, HR people need skills in using
statistics to record and present information.
This chapter starts with a review of information handling skills in gen-
eral, continues with an examination of the use of HR analytics and HR in-
formation systems (e-HRM) and is completed with an outline of the main
statistical methods that can be used in HRM.
Handling information
To handle information it is first necessary to:
●● identify where any data at present unavailable can be obtained and decide
whether the value of the data justifies the effort and cost of getting it;
●● take steps to convert the raw data that has been made available into
information that has ‘meaning and purpose’ in accordance with specified
requirements;
●● establish how best to record, analyse and present the information in ways
that ensure it serves a useful purpose.
These actions inform the development of a computerized system for pro-
viding information as well as carrying out various administrative tasks, as
described below. They also provide guidance on the statistical methods that
can be used to analyse and present the information.
HR analytics
HR analytics use metrics (measurements) to provide the basis for assessing
the impact of HRM practices and the contribution made by people to or-
ganizational performance. It is about ‘data mining’ – getting as much out of
HR data as possible and then going on to find links, correlations and, ideally,
causation, between different sets of the data, using statistical techniques.
The analytical process may involve the handling of ‘big data’ – very large
data sets that may be analysed computationally to reveal patterns, trends
and associations. The term was originated by McAfee and Brynjolfsson
(2012: 63), who described it as data characterized by sheer volume, velocity
(speed with which it can be collected) and variety (number of different
sources, for example social media). They claimed that: ‘Data-driven deci-
sions are better decisions – it’s as simple as that. Using big data enables man-
agers to decide on the basis of evidence rather than intuition. For that reason
it has the potential to revolutionize management.’
Purposes of HR analytics
As expressed by the CIPD (2015: 1):
In each area the analysis would investigate trends and, whenever possible,
the interrelationships between different types of data and between the data
and performance. This evidence could be used to reach conclusions about
any action required or to evaluate the effectiveness of action already taken.
There are three levels of HR analytics:
Standard Chartered Bank uses a human capital scorecard to analyse its data. This
is produced on a quarterly and annual basis with various cuts of the same data
produced for different business segments and countries, in addition to a global
report. This comprises a series of slides with commentary to enable managers to
understand the data.
Information Handling Skills 399
The data is also included in twice-yearly board reviews on people strategy and
forms part of the annual strategy planning process. The scorecard data is re-
viewed within each global business by a top team ‘People Forum’. At country level,
each local chief executive and his or her management committee reviews key
trends in order to specify areas they need to focus on.
In addition, the Bank uses qualitative analysis to examine trends and this has
led it to identify the role of the manager as mediating the relationship between
engagement and performance. In turn, this has led to a focus on qualitative re-
search to identify what raises the bank’s best managers above the rest. A fur-
ther example is a qualitative analysis of high performance in selected
customer-facing roles to determine the key behaviours that continue to drive
customer loyalty.
Using statistics
Statistics are used extensively in HR analytics to analyse and present quan-
titative information that can be used to guide decisions and monitor out-
comes. Statistics describe and summarize data relating to a ‘population’, ie
a homogeneous set of items with variable individual values. Statistics play
a major part in the analysis of surveys and research evidence. This involves
measuring frequencies, central tendencies and dispersion. Statistics also
measure the relationships between variables (correlation and regression),
establish the relation between cause and effect (causality), assess the degree
of confidence that can be attached to conclusions (tests of significance) and
test hypotheses (the chi-squared test and null-hypothesis testing). A wide
variety of software is available to conduct the more sophisticated
analyses.
HR professionals seldom have to use advanced statistics unless they
are conducting or taking part in detailed research projects. The main stat-
istics they will use regularly are concerned with the analysis of the inci-
dence of events or activities (frequencies), the use of averages (measures
of central tendency), how items in a population are distributed (disper-
sion) and the relationship between two variables (regression). But they
should also be familiar with the concepts of correlation, causation and at
least understand the meaning of more advanced statistical techniques
used by researchers such as tests of significance, the chi-squared test and
null-hypothesis testing.
400 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Frequency
The number of times individual items in a population or set occur is repre-
sented in frequency distributions expressed in tabular form or graphically.
Commonly used graphs are shown in Figure 23.1.
Number Number
of cases of cases
Number of Number of
items items
Measures of dispersion
This is often useful to measure the extent to which the items in a set
are dispersed or spread over a range of data. This can be done in four
ways:
quartiles are treated as ranges rather than points in a scale and represent
the top and the bottom 25 per cent of the distribution, respectively.
2 By presenting the total range of values from top to bottom. This may be
misleading if there are exceptional items at either end.
3 By calculating the inter-quartile range, which is the range between the
value of the upper quartile and that of the lower quartile. This can present
more revealing information of the distribution than the total range.
4 By calculating the standard deviation, which is used to indicate the extent
to which the items or values in a distribution are grouped together or
dispersed in a normal distribution, ie one that is reasonably symmetrical
around its average. As a rule of thumb, two-thirds of the distribution will
be less than one standard deviation from the mean, 95 per cent of the
distribution will be less than two standard deviations from the mean and
less than 1 per cent of the distribution is more than three standard
deviations from the mean. Another measure of dispersion is variance,
which is the square of a standard deviation.
Correlation
Correlation represents the relationship between two variables. If they are
highly correlated they are strongly connected to one another. In statistics,
correlation is measured by the coefficient of correlation, which varies be-
tween –1 and +1 to indicate totally negative and totally positive correl-
ations, respectively. A correlation of 0 means that there is no relationship
between the variables. Establishing the extent to which variables are cor-
related is an important feature of HRM research, for example in assessing
the degree to which a performance management system improves organ-
izational performance. But correlations do not indicate causal relation-
ships: they can only show that X is associated with Y but not that X
causes Y. Multiple correlation looks at the relationship between more
than two variables.
Regression
Regression is another way of looking at the relationship between variables.
It expresses how changes in levels of one item relate to changes in levels of
another. A regression line (a trend line or line of best fit) can be traced on a
scattergram expressing values of one variable on one axis and values of the
other variable on another axis, as shown in Figure 23.2.
402 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
…
….
Number of cases
…..
…. Trend line
…
..
Number of items
A trend line like this can be drawn by hand as a line of best fit but it can be
calculated mathematically with greater accuracy. The distances of points
from the trend line (the residuals) can be calculated as a check on the reli-
ability of the line.
Multiple regression analysis can be conducted with the aid of a computer,
which enables the values of additional variables to be predicted under
various combinations of conditions.
Causality
Causality – determining the link between independent and dependent
variables (cause and effect) – is a major issue in research, especially in the
HRM field. It may be relatively easy to establish correlations in the shape
of a demonstration that X is associated with Y; it is much more difficult
and sometimes impossible to prove that X causes Y. There are a number
of reasons for this; the two set out below are the most important.
First, complications arise because of the phenomenon of multiple caus-
ation. There may be a number of factors contributing to a result. Researchers
pursuing the holy grail of trying to establish what HRM contributes to or-
ganization performance are usually confronted with a number of reasons
why it has done well in addition to adopting ‘best practice’ HRM, whatever
that is. Statistical methods can be used to ‘control’ some variables, ie elim-
inate them from the analysis, but it is difficult if not impossible to ensure
that HRM practices have been completely isolated and that their direct im-
pact on an organization’s performance has been measured. Multivariate
Information Handling Skills 403
analysis is used where there is more than one dependent variable and where
the dependent variables cannot be combined.
Secondly, there is the phenomenon of reverse causation when a cause is
pre-dated by an effect – A might have caused B but B may have come first
and be responsible for A. For example, it is possible to demonstrate that
firms with effective performance management schemes do better than
those without. But it might be the case that it is high performing firms
that introduce effective performance management. It can be hard to be
certain.
Tests of significance
Significance as a statistical concept refers to the degree to which an event
could have occurred by chance. At the heart of statistical science lies a simple
idea, which is that the chance or probability of various patterns of events
can be predicted. When a particular pattern is observed it is possible to work
out what the chances of its occurrence may be, given our existing state of
knowledge or by making certain assumptions. If something has been ob-
served that is unlikely to have occurred by chance this occurrence can be
accepted as significant. The problem is that any attempt to reach general
conclusions may have to rely on fragmentary data. It is usually necessary to
rely on samples of the population being studied and all sampling is subject
to experimental error – the result can only be expressed in terms of prob-
ability and confidence limits will have to be placed on it. These can be cal-
culated in terms of the standard error that might be expected from a sample.
A standard error is the estimated standard deviation of a sample mean from
a true mean. This implies that on approximately 95 per cent of occasions the
estimate of the mean provided by the sample will be within two standard
errors of the true mean.
Testing hypotheses
The chi-squared test uses a statistical formula to assess the degree of agree-
ment between the data actually obtained and that expected under a par-
ticular hypothesis. A null hypothesis is a method of testing a hypothesis
frequently used by researchers in which it is assumed that there is no rela-
tionship between two or more variables. It asks the question: ‘Could the
hypothetical relationship have been caused by chance?’ If the answer is no,
404 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
then the hypothesis is worth pursuing. However, it does not prove that the
hypothesis is correct; it only indicates that something is worth further inves-
tigation. It can be associated with the chi-squared test.
HR information systems
An HR information system (HRIS) is a computer-based information system
for managing the administration of HR processes and procedures; ‘e-HRM’
is an alternative term for the use of computer technology within the HR
function. Parry and Tyson (2011: 335) defined an HRIS as: ‘A way of imple-
menting HR strategies, policies and practices in organizations through a
conscious and directed support of and/or with the full use of web technology-
based channels.’ They listed five goals for e-HRM: efficiency, service de-
livery, strategic orientation, manager empowerment and standardization
(ibid: 335).
Uses of an HRIS
The 2007 CIPD survey found that the 10 most popular uses to which re-
spondents put their HRIS were, in descending order:
Information Handling Skills 405
1 Absence management.
2 Training and development.
3 Rewards.
4 Managing diversity.
5 Recruitment and selection.
6 Other (usually payroll).
7 Appraisal/performance management.
8 HR planning.
9 Knowledge management.
10 Expenses.
Features of an HRIS
The features of particular interest in an HRIS system are the use of trad-
itional software packages, cloud computing, enterprise resource planning
systems (ERPs), the intranet, internal social networks, integration and pro-
visions for self-service.
Cloud computing
Cloud computing involves providing on-demand shared computing re-
sources and information. Data is stored and processed in separate data
centres. Services such as servers, storage and applications are delivered to an
organization’s computers and devices through the internet. It can replace
local arrangements using bought-in software packages.
Cloud computing can be provided by an SaaS (software-as-a-service)
system – an on-demand software delivery model in which users are charged
for accessing and managing HR IT provision via a network. The system
stores and processes data in a standardized form that can then be configured
for use in the organization.
The advantages of cloud computing are high computing power – the
ability to store and process masses of data – accessibility and, potentially,
lower costs. A further benefit is that it is highly adaptive and changes can be
made very quickly, although it may be costly to do so.
Integration
In a traditional in-house arrangement, ERPs can be used to integrate all the
data processing of an organization into a unified system with the same data-
base. HR systems are not frequently integrated to this extent although they
often link payroll administration with other HR functions. Integration of
the HR system with IT systems in the wider organization so that they can
‘talk to one another’ will enable the more effective management of HR data.
However, many HR functions retain stand-alone systems because they be-
lieve integration would compromise their own system, and are concerned
about the p otential lack of confidentiality and the cost and possible risks
involved.
Intranet
An intranet system is one where computer terminals are linked so that
they can share information within an organization or within part of an
organization. The scope of the information that can be shared across ter-
minals can be limited to preserve confidentiality and this security can be
enhanced by using passwords. HR intranet systems can be used for pur-
poses such as updating personal details, online applications for internal
jobs, requests for training, access to e-learning, administration of queries
and communications.
Information Handling Skills 407
Self-service
An HR self-service system (HRSS) allows managers and employees access
to information and the facility to interact with the system to input informa-
tion or make choices of their own. This can operate through an HR portal
(a site that functions as a point of access to information on the intranet),
which may be specially designed to produce a brand image of the HR func-
tion. This is sometimes referred to as a ‘business-to-employees’ (B2E)
portal.
For managers, self-service means that they can access information im-
mediately. This might be HR metrics in such areas as absenteeism, per-
sonal details, performance management data, learning and development
progress, and pay (as a basis for pay reviews). They can also input data
on their staff. This facilitates the devolution of responsibility to line man-
agers and reduces the administrative burden on HR. Employees can also
access information, input data about themselves, request training and
apply for jobs online.
e-HRM achievements
Research conducted by Parry and Tyson (2011) in 10 case study organiza-
tions established that efficiency goals were met by most of them. Service
delivery improvements were generally achieved, supporting improved ef-
fectiveness of the HR function. The findings showed that a potential goal
for e-HRM is to standardize operational procedures across an organiza-
tion, but they noted that: ‘The realization of improved efficiency and ef-
fectiveness is dependent on the design and implementation of the system,
and increased effectiveness and involvement in delivering the business
strategy may depend on appropriate redeployment and up-skilling of HR
staff’ (ibid: 352).
Overleaf are some case studies, as reported by Parry and Tyson (2011: 341).
408 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
C a s e s t u dy: AVISA
C a s e s t u dy: BOC
BOC has used a SAP HR system since 1999 to hold HR data and allow managers to
access this data via their desktop to record absence and enter bonus ratings and
salary review details. The system drove the payroll process. An e-recruitment
system was introduced in 2003 with a recruitment database that sat centrally and
was connected to a number of different career centres. The HR intranet has also
recently been relaunched.
The range of technological HRM tools include main HRIS plus payroll and per-
sonnel data, pensions and absence management systems and an HR portal for
information on policies and practices.
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
The need
HR specialists must possess the knowledge required to set up and manage
computerized systems to provide them and line managers with informa-
tion covering such matters as employee records, absenteeism, employee
Information Handling Skills 409
turnover, rates of pay and employee benefits. Such systems also help with
the administration of HR activities. In addition, HR people need skills in
using statistics to record and present information.
Handling information
To handle information it is necessary to: decide what is required; identify the
relevant data that is available or can be made available; convert the raw
data into information that has ‘meaning and purpose’; and establish how
best to record, analyse and present the information.
HR analytics
HR analytics use metrics to provide the basis for assessing the impact of
HRM practices and the contribution made by people to organizational
performance.
Statistics
Statistics are used to describe and summarize data relating to a ‘population’, ie
a homogeneous set of items with variable individual values. This involves meas-
uring frequencies, central tendencies and dispersion. They are also used to
measure the relationships between variables (correlation and regression), to
establish the relation between cause and effect (causality), to assess the de-
gree of confidence that can be attached to conclusions (tests of significance)
and to test hypotheses (the chi-squared test and null-hypothesis testing).
Statistics are used extensively in HRM to analyse and present quantita-
tive information that can be used to guide decisions and monitor outcomes.
Measures of dispersion
It is useful to measure the extent to which the items in a set are dispersed or
spread over a range of data.
Correlation
Correlation represents the relationship between two variables. If they are
highly correlated they are strongly connected to one another.
Regression
Regression is another way of looking at the relationship between variables.
It expresses how changes in levels of one item relate to changes in levels of
another.
410 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Causality
Determining the link between independent and dependent variables (cause
and effect) – is a major issue in research, especially in the HRM field. It may
be relatively easy to establish that X is associated with Y; it is much more
difficult and sometimes impossible to prove that X causes Y.
Tests of significance
Significance as a statistical concept refers to the degree to which an event
could have occurred by chance.
HRIS defined
An HRIS is a computer-based information system for managing the adminis-
tration of HR processes and procedures and for providing HRM data, some-
times called ‘e-HRM’.
Features of an HRIS
The features of particular interest in an HRIS system are: integration with
other IT systems in the organization; provisions for self-service; and the use
of traditional software packages, cloud computing, the intranet and internal
social networks.
Use of statistics
The features of particular interest in an HRIS system are integration with
other IT systems in the organization, use of the intranet and provisions for
self-service.
References
CIPD (2015) Fact sheet: HR analytics, http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/
factsheets/hr-analytics.aspx [accessed 12 November 2015]
CIPD (2007) HR and Technology: Impact and advantages, London, CIPD
Drucker, P (1988) The coming of the new organization, Harvard Business Review,
January–February, pp 45–53
McAfee, A and Brynjolfsson, E (2012) Big data: the management revolution,
Harvard Business Review, October, pp 60–68
Parry, E and Tyson, S (2011) Desired goals and actual outcomes of e-HRM,
Human Resource Management Journal, 21 (3), pp 335–54
Information Handling Skills 411
Q u e s t i o n s
6 What is an intranet?
13 What is correlation?
14 What is causality?
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Absorption costing Key performance indicator
The acid test Liquidity analysis
Activity-based costing Marginal costing
Balance sheet Net profit
Business model Operating or trading profit
Cash flow Over-trading
Cash flow statement Price/earnings ratio
Core competency Profit before taxation
Direct costs Profit and loss account
Earnings per share Profitability
Economic value The resource-based view
added (EVA) Return on capital employed
Gearing Return on equity
Gross margin Standard costing
Gross profit Trading statement or account
Indirect costs The working capital ratio
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also understand:
Introduction
To make an effective contribution HR professionals must possess busi-
ness and financial skills. They need to understand what their business
model is – how their organization delivers value to its customers and how
the business achieves competitive advantage and makes money. They need
to understand and be able to use the language of the business and, be-
cause this will generally be expressed in monetary terms, they need to
appreciate how the financial systems of the business work. Equipped with
this knowledge HR professionals can develop the skills needed to inter-
pret the organization’s business or corporate strategies, to contribute to
the formulation of those strategies and to develop integrated HR
strategies.
This requirement was spelt out by Ulrich (1997: 7) when he wrote that:
‘HR professionals must know the business which includes a mastery of finance,
strategy, marketing, and operations.’ Research by the CIPD (2010: 5) led to
the following conclusion:
Business skills
Business skills are required to adopt a business-like approach to management –
one that focuses on allocating resources to business opportunities and
making the best use of them to achieve the required results. Managers who
are business-like understand and act upon:
●● the business imperatives of the organization: its mission and its strategic
goals;
●● the organization’s business model: the basis upon which its business is
done (how its mission and strategic goals will be achieved);
●● the organization’s business drivers: the characteristics of the business that
move it forward;
●● the organization’s core competences: what the business is good at
doing;
●● the factors that will ensure the effectiveness of its activities including specific
issues concerning profitability, productivity, financial budgeting and control,
costs and benefits, customer service and operational performance;
●● the key performance indicators (KPIs) of the business (the results or
outcomes identified as being crucial to the achievement of high performance)
that can be used to measure progress towards attaining goals;
●● the factors that will ensure that the firm’s resources, especially its human
resources, create sustained competitive advantage because they are valuable,
imperfectly imitable and non-substitutable (the resource-based view).
Financial skills
A business-like approach means using financial skills to analyse and inter-
pret balance sheets, cash flow and trading statements and profit and loss
accounts, and to understand and make use of the financial techniques of
budgeting and budgetary control, cash budgeting and costing.
strengths and weaknesses of the company, primarily from the point of view
of the shareholders and potential investors, but also as part of management’s
task to exercise proper stewardship over the funds invested in the company
and the assets in its care. The analysis focuses on the balance sheet equa-
tion, considers the make-up of the balance sheet in terms of assets and li-
abilities, and examines the liquidity position (how much cash or easily
realizable assets are available) and capital structure with the help of bal-
ance sheet ratios.
Liquidity analysis
Liquidity analysis is concerned with the extent to which the organization
has an acceptable quantity of cash and easily realizable assets to meet its
needs. The analysis may be based on the ratio of current assets (cash,
working capital, etc) to current liabilities – the working capital ratio. Too
low a ratio may mean that the liquid resources are insufficient to cover
short-term payments. Too high a ratio might indicate that there is too much
cash or working capital and that they are therefore being badly managed.
Business and Financial Skills 417
Classification of profits
It is necessary to understand the different ways in which profits can be clas-
sified as recorded in trading statements and profit and loss accounts. There
are four headings:
1 Gross profit – the difference between sales revenue and the cost of goods
sold. This is also referred to as gross margin, especially in the retail
industry.
2 Operating or trading profit – the gross profit less sales, marketing and
distribution costs, administrative costs and research and development
expenditure.
3 Profit before taxation – operating profit plus invested income minus
interest payable.
4 Net profit – profit after corporation taxation.
Trading statements
Trading statements or accounts show the cost of goods manufactured, the
cost of sales, sales revenue and the gross profit, which is transferred to the
profit and loss account.
418 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Financial budgeting
Budgets translate policy into financial terms. They are statements of the
planned allocation and use of the company’s resources. They are needed to:
1) show the financial implications of plans, 2) define the resources required
to achieve the plans, and 3) provide the means of measuring, monitoring
and controlling results against the plans.
The procedure for preparing financial budgets consists of the following
steps:
1 Budget guidelines are prepared, derived from the corporate plan and
forecasts. They will include the activity levels for which budgets have to
be created and the ratios to be achieved. The assumptions to be used in
budgeting are also given. These could include rates of inflation and
increases in costs and prices.
2 Initial budgets for a budget or cost centre are prepared by departmental
managers with the help of budget accountants.
3 Departmental budgets are collated and analysed to produce the master
budget, which is reviewed by top management, who may require changes
at departmental level to bring it into line with corporate financial
objectives and plans.
4 The master budget is finally approved by top management and issued to each
departmental (budget centre) manager for planning and control purposes.
Budgetary control
Budgetary control ensures that financial budgets are met and that any vari-
ances are identified and dealt with. Control starts with the budget for the
cost centre, which sets out the budgeted expenditure under cost headings
against activity levels. A system of measurement or recording is used to allo-
cate expenditures to cost headings and record activity levels achieved. The
actual expenditures and activity levels are compared and positive and nega-
tive variances noted. Cost centre managers then act to deal with the variances
and report their results to higher management.
Cash management
Cash management involves forecasting and controlling cash flows (inflows
or outflows of cash). It is an important and systematic process of ensuring that
problems of liquidity are minimized and that funds are managed effectively.
420 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
The aim is to ensure that the company is not over-trading, ie that the cost of
its operations does not significantly exceed the amount of cash available to
finance them. The old adage is that whatever else is done, ensure that ‘cash
in exceeds cash out’.
Cash flow statements report the amounts of cash generated and cash used
for a period. They are used to provide information on liquidity (the avail-
ability of cash), solvency and financial adaptability.
Cash budgeting
An operating cash budget deals with budgeted receipts (forecast cash flows)
and budgeted payments (forecast cash outflows). It includes all the revenue
expenditure incurred in financing current operations, ie the costs of running
the business in order to generate sales.
Costing
Costing techniques provide information for decision making and con-
trol. They are used to establish the total cost of a product for stock valu-
ation, pricing and estimating purposes and to enable the company to
establish whether the proposed selling price will enable a profit to be
made.
Costing involves measuring the direct costs of material and labour plus
the indirect costs (overheads) originating in the factory (factory overheads)
and elsewhere in the company (sales, distribution, marketing, research and
development, and administration). Overheads are charged to cost units to
provide information on total costs – this process is called overhead recovery.
There are four main methods of doing this:
1 Absorption costing – this involves allocating all fixed and variable costs
to cost units and is the most widely used method, although it can be
arbitrary.
2 Activity-based costing – costs are assigned to activities on the basis of an
individual product’s demand for each activity.
3 Marginal costing – this segregates fixed costs and apportions the variable
or marginal costs to products.
4 Standard costing – is the preparation of predetermined or standard costs
that are compared with actual costs to identify variances. It is used to
measure performance.
Business and Financial Skills 421
K e y l e a r n i n g p o i n t s
Business skills
Business skills are required to adopt a business-like approach to management –
one that focuses on allocating resources to business opportunities and making
the best use of them to achieve the required results.
Financial skills
A business-like approach means using financial skills to analyse and inter-
pret balance sheets, cash flow and trading statements and profit and loss
accounts, and to understand and make use of the financial techniques of
budgeting and budgetary control, cash budgeting and costing.
Classification of profits
It is necessary to understand the different ways in which profits can be
classified as recorded in trading statements and profit and loss accounts.
There are four headings: gross profit, operating or trading profit, profit be-
fore tax, and net profit.
Trading statements
Trading statements or accounts show the cost of goods manufactured, the
cost of sales, sales revenue and the gross profit, which is transferred to the
profit and loss account.
Financial budgeting
Budgets translate policy into financial terms. They are statements of the
planned allocation and use of the company’s resources.
Budgetary control
Budgetary control ensures that financial budgets are met and that any vari-
ances are identified and dealt with.
Cash management
Cash management involves forecasting and controlling cash flows (inflows
or outflows of cash). An operating cash budget deals with budgeted receipts
(forecast cash inflows) and budgeted payment (forecast cash outflows).
Costing
Costing techniques provide information for decision making and control.
They are used to establish the total cost of a product for stock valuation,
pricing and estimating purposes and to enable the company to establish
whether the proposed selling price will enable a profit to be made. Overheads
are charged to cost units to provide information on total costs – this process
is called overhead recovery. There are four methods of doing this: absorp-
tion costing, activity-based costing, marginal costing and standard costing.
References
CIPD (2010) Next Generation HR: Time for change – towards a next generation
for HR, London, CIPD
Ulrich, D (1997) Judge me more by my future than my past, Human Resource
Management, 36 (1), pp 5–8
Business and Financial Skills 423
Q u e s t i o n s
11 What is profitability?
K e y co n c e p t s a n d t e r m s
Flash card Quantitative research
Learning style Triangulation
Qualitative research
L e a r n i n g o u tcom e s
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key
concepts. You should also know about:
●● Learning styles
●● Basic study skills
●● Making the most of lectures
●● Getting the most out of reading
●● How to revise
●● How to write essays and reports
●● The principles of good writing
●● Referencing
426 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Introduction
Postgraduate study skills are needed by those studying for postgraduate
degrees or for professional qualifications so as to be able to learn effect-
ively. The skills are those associated with the learning acquired from lectures
and reading and those concerned with accessing, evaluating and conducting
research. They are linked to essay and report writing and the skills required
to revise for and take examinations. Most significantly, they are an essential
aspect of continuous professional development and lifelong learning. This
chapter deals with the conditions required for effective learning, the study
skills involved, preparing for and taking exams, and writing essays and reports.
Effective learning
Effective learning is partly dependent on the context – the quality of teaching
and the educational resources available. However, it is primarily a matter of
what learners do – how they make use of or adapt their learning style.
Learning styles
Learners have different styles – a preference for a particular approach to
learning. Kolb et al (1974) identified the following learning styles:
3 Theorists, who adapt and apply their observations in the form of logical
theories. They tend to be perfectionists.
4 Pragmatists, who are keen to try out new ideas, approaches and concepts
to see if they work.
None of these four learning styles is exclusive. It is quite possible that one
person could be both a reflector and a theorist and someone else could be an
activist/pragmatist, a reflector/pragmatist or even a theorist/pragmatist. It is
useful for learners to identify which style or mix of styles they prefer as this
will affect the way they set about learning, but they must be prepared to flex
their style in different situations.
Study skills
Study skills are concerned with absorbing, classifying, evaluating and recording
ideas, concepts and information and reflecting on the meaning and significance
of what has been absorbed. They cover learning from lectures and reading, and
revision. More pragmatically, they prepare people to pass examinations. At pro-
fessional or postgraduate level it is probable, even in a taught Master’s pro-
gramme, that students will be left to their own devices much more than when they
were taking their first degree (although undergraduates from some universities
may question the extent to which they were ever taught a lot during their course).
It is to be hoped that students honed their study skills at undergraduate
level, but they will need to exercise those skills even more effectively when
they are postgraduates. Those who are studying for a professional qualifica-
tion at postgraduate level such as that offered by the Chartered Institute of
Personnel and Development (the CIPD) who have not attended a further or
higher educational establishment will need to give careful thought to the
approach they adopt. Both categories of postgraduate student need to apply
study skills such as those described below.
By the time you get to a postgraduate level of studies you should have
become familiar with the best ways of getting to know your subject, but it
will do no harm to be reminded of the basic principles you should adopt
when pursuing your studies. These are concerned with making the best use
of lectures (including note taking), your reading, the information available
on the internet, reflecting on what you have learnt, and revising.
Revising
Revising for an exam can be a daunting task – ‘Where do I start?’ ‘Where do
I end?’ ‘What do I do in between?’ Answers to these questions are provided
in the lists of dos and don’ts in Table 25.1. There are more dos than don’ts;
revision is a positive process.
Do Don’t
●● Refer to the syllabus to ●● Leave revision to the last minute
identify the main subject before the exam.
areas. ●● Simply keep on reading your notes –
●● Study previous exam papers focus on the material you need to help
to find out how examiners answer exam questions.
cover the syllabus and the ●● Ignore your timetable.
most typical questions they ●● Revise your timetable unnecessarily
ask in each area. Identify just because you are bored with it.
recurring questions.
●● Allow yourself to be diverted – set
●● Define your revision priorities aside times for revision and do not
– draw up a list that sets out permit interruptions.
priorities, starting with the
●● Pile up too much revision material –
important and simple topics,
concentrate on the key issues,
continuing with the important
possibly recorded on flash cards.
but complex (and time-
consuming) topics and ●● Overdo it – there is a limit to what
finishing with the lowest anyone can absorb, hence the need to
priority topics – those that are pace yourself and avoid ‘burning the
complex but not vital. midnight oil’ spells of revision.
Table 25.1 Continued
Do Don’t
●● Draw up a timetable, listing
the topics you want to revise
in order of priority.
●● Set short-term goals for
revision.
●● Identify where you can find
the revision material – ideally
it should all be in your notes,
which you may need to
reduce and reclassify for ease
of reading and in accordance
with priorities. It can usefully
include a set of flash cards
covering the most important
topics, providing a quick and
easy way to revise key points.
●● Pace yourself – track your
progress against the timetable
and adjust if necessary.
●● Check your learning. Record
the key things you have learnt
and refer to your revision
priorities and timetable to
ensure that you are up to
speed.
●● Work out answers to a range
of questions for each topic.
●● Practise answering sample
questions in each area in
handwriting to check that you
can produce persuasive and
legible answers in the time
available (this is very
important). Refer to your notes
and if they are not sufficiently
helpful revise or expand them.
Taking exams
The dos and don’ts for taking exams are set out in Table 25.2.
432 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Do Don’t
●● Answer the question – this is very ●● Answer the question
familiar advice but it is remarkable you would have liked to ask
how in the experience of most yourself (because you
examiners (including this one) know all about it) rather
many candidates fail to do so. than the one put by the
●● Pay particular attention to what you examiner.
are asked to do in the question and ●● Spend too much time
do it. You will lose marks if you don’t. answering the questions you
Typically, you may be asked to: know about, leaving
critically evaluate a concept, notion insufficient time to deal with
or idea: this means that you are the remaining questions.
expected to show that you can use ●● Put down everything you
critical thinking to make informed know, rather than what the
judgements about the validity, examiner asked you to do.
relevance and usefulness of ideas ●● Try to get away with not
and propositions, weighing providing examples or
arguments for and against them, research evidence if asked
assessing the strength of the to do so.
evidence and deciding which are ●● Present the examiner with
preferable; discuss the key aspects undigested chunks of
of the subject, critically evaluate it prose – set out each section
and assess the implications; refer to clearly and ensure that they
recent research (recent usually follow one another logically.
means within the last five years but
●● Produce an unstructured and
it can be stretched to within 10
confusing document – ensure
years for important projects): you
that the examiner knows
need only summarize the main
where you are coming from,
messages and give the name of the
where you are going and
researcher and the date; refer to
where you have got to.
examples from within your own
organization or one known to you: ●● Write illegibly – think of the
show that you understand the examiner, who is only human
practical issues by reference to and will tend to mark you
actual practice; justify: supply down if your prose is virtually
evidenced reasons that support your unreadable.
argument; outline: set out the main ●● Rely on bullet points, simply
points or general principles relating listing headings without
to the topic; review: explore the exploring the issue (in
meaning and significance of a topic. desperation you might use
●● Develop your arguments logically. bullet points for the final
answer if you are short of
●● Give practical examples wherever
time but you will lose
possible.
marks).
Postgraduate Study Skills 433
Table 25.2 Continued
Do Don’t
●● Seize every opportunity to display ●● Deliver glib statements with
your knowledge by citing authors, no real explanation of what
sources, research, your own they mean in practical
organization, other organizations, terms.
case study scenarios, benchmark ●● Forget that examiners prefer
achievements elsewhere, etc. candidates who analyse the
●● Structure your answers so that your subject critically and conduct
material is easy to read and easy to systematic reviews of the
follow. This means: following a subject matter and its
logical progression from implications.
introduction to conclusions, ●● Pepper answers with dubious
underlined side-headings to assumptions or grand
separate one part of your answer over-generalizations that
from the next (especially where a result in unconvincing
question has two or more arguments.
sections); lists of itemized points; ●● Try to get away without
clear differentiation between your incorporating properly-
introduction and your conclusions. identified evidence into
●● Write legibly and articulately. Your material to support
presentation skills make a assumptions and views.
difference, especially at the margin. ●● Simply lift standard
prescriptions wholesale from
textbooks and apply them
without any real understanding
of their meaning.
●● Recommend so-called ‘best
practice’ in a few words that
are insufficient to convey its
real content and meaning and
for use in situations for which
it has no apparent relevance.
434 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Beginning
Your introduction should state why the report has been written and why it
should be read. A problem-solving report should define the problem and
explain the circumstances. The sources of any evidence that will be referred
to in the report should be identified and details of how that evidence was
obtained should be supplied. The structure of the report should be
described.
Middle
The middle of the report should contain the facts you have assembled, your
analysis of those facts and your observations on how they illuminate your
proposition or support your argument. In a business problem-solving report
the analysis should lead logically to a diagnosis of the causes of the problem.
End
The conclusions and recommendations included in the final section should
flow from the analysis and diagnosis. One of the most common weaknesses
in reports is for the facts not to lead on naturally to the conclusions; the
other is for the conclusions not to be supported by the facts.
Summarize the facts and your observations. In a problem-solving busi-
ness report in which you have identified alternative courses of action, set out
the pros and cons of each one, but make it quite clear which one you favour
and why. Don’t leave your readers in mid-air.
The final section of a business report should set out your recommenda-
tions, stating how each of them would help to achieve the stated aims of the
report or overcome any weaknesses revealed by the analytical studies. The
benefits and costs of implementing the recommendations would be explained
436 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
after the conclusions. A plan should be set out for implementing the pro-
posals – the programme of work, complete with deadlines and names of
people who would carry it out. The recipient(s) of the report should be told
what action, such as approval of plans or authorization of expenditure, you
would like them to take.
The structure of a business report given above can be used when dealing
with a problem case study question in an examination.
Good writing
Table 25.3 includes some dos and don’ts of good writing.
Postgraduate Study Skills 437
Do Don’t
●● Keep language simple and direct, ●● Use more words than are
eg use begin not initiate, buy not necessary to express your
purchase, find not locate, go not meaning (avoid verbosity or
proceed, use not utilize. padding).
●● Prefer the short word to the long. ●● Use jargon unless a technical
●● Prefer the familiar word to the term is unavoidable, in which
unusual or stylish. case define it.
●● Use words with a precise ●● Use superfluous adjectives or
meaning rather than those that adverbs.
are vague. ●● Use clichés.
●● Prefer concrete words or phrases ●● Write long, meandering
to abstract ones, eg This material sentences.
has become scarce rather than ●● Write alternatively when you
The availability of this material is mean alternately.
diminishing. ●● Write less when you mean
●● Use active verbs where possible fewer.
rather than passive ones, eg ●● Write refute when you mean
ensure rather than ensuring. deny or repudiate.
●● ‘Use the short expressive phrase ●● Write mitigate when you mean
even if it is conversational’ militate.
(Winston Churchill, cited by
●● Write practical when you mean
Gowers, 1962:37).
practicable.
●● Use short sentences to help you
●● Misspell eg accommodate,
think clearly and gain the
accessory, confident (assured),
understanding of your reader.
confidant (person trusted with
Separate points or ideas in distinct
knowledge), consensus,
sentences.
dependant (as a noun),
●● Remember that each demands a dependent (as an adjective),
singular verb when it is the desiccate, embarrass, liaise,
subject, eg Each of the proposals stationary (at rest), stationery
has merit. (paper), superintendent,
●● Split an infinitive if it reads better. underlie.
●● Start a sentence with a
conjunction, eg and, but, or, if it
makes sense and reads well. But
don’t over-do it.
●● Use prepositions at the end of
sentences whenever you like.
●● Say what you mean and mean
what you say (after Lewis Carroll).
438 Leadership, Management and L&D Skills
Source references
In academic essays, dissertations or reports, and in journal articles and text-
books it is essential when quoting someone or referring to something they
have written to give the source. The normal conventions for referencing
quotes from books or articles are:
In the text of the essay or article give the name of the author or authors (if there
are more than two authors give the name of the first author followed by et al) and
then the date in brackets. If it is a direct quotation give the page number(s), eg:
Gowers (1962: 37)
If you refer to more than one publication by an author published in the same
year attach a, b, etc to the name, eg:
Ulrich (1997a)
Place references at the end of the essay or article and list them by author in
alphabetical order. In a book, put them either at the end of the chapter or
the end of the book.
A reference to a book should state, in order, the family name of the author
or authors, their initials, the date of publication in brackets, the title of the
book in italics, the place of publication and the name of the publisher, eg:
Ulrich, D (1997) Human Resource Champions, Boston, MA, Harvard
Business School Press
If the reference is to a chapter in an edited book it should look like this:
Boxall, P F, Purcell, J and Wright, P (2007) Human resource management;
scope, analysis and significance, in (eds) P Boxall, J Purcell and P Wright,
The Oxford Handbook of Human Resource Management, Oxford,
Oxford University Press, pp 1–18
The page numbers of the chapter are sometimes included at the end, as in
the above example.
A reference to an article should state, in order, the family name of the author
or authors, their initials, the date of publication in brackets, the title of the article
in plain lower case, the name of the publication in italics, the volume (which can
be just the number in bold), the issue number (often in brackets and not always
included, although it is helpful when tracing the article), and the page numbers, eg:
Armstrong, M (2000) The name has changed but has the game remained
the same? Employee Relations, 22 (6), pp 576–89
If you are referencing material obtained online give the name of the author(s)
or publishing institution, the date of publication and the title, quote the URL
and indicate when the publication was accessed, eg:
Postgraduate Study Skills 439
Effective learning
Effective learning is partly dependent on the context – the quality of teaching
and the educational resources available, but it is primarily a matter of what
learners do – how they make use of or adapt their learning style.
Study skills
Study skills are concerned with absorbing, classifying and recording ideas,
concepts and information and reflecting on the meaning and significance of
what has been absorbed. To get the most out of a lecture you should track
the structure of the lecture, listen actively; be critical; follow the lecturer’s
slides and read the notes, but do not rely on them – do your own thinking.
Revising
Lists of dos and don’ts are given in this chapter.
Taking exams
Dos and don’ts for taking exams are given in this chapter.
Good writing
The dos and don’ts of good writing are given in this chapter.
References
In academic essays, dissertations or reports and in journal articles and text-
books it is essential when quoting someone or referring to something they
have written to give the source. The conventions are set out in this chapter.
References
Gowers, E (1962) The Complete Plain Words, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books
Honey, P and Mumford, A (1996) The Manual of Learning Styles, 3rd edn,
Maidenhead, Honey Publications
Horn, R (2009) The Business Skills Handbook, London, CIPD
Kolb, D A, Rubin, I M and McIntyre, J M (1974) Organizational Psychology:
An experimental approach, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall
Q u e s t i o n s
9 What are the key ‘dos’ of taking exams? Name at least four.
10 What are the key ‘don’ts’ of taking exams? Name at least four.
12 What are the main points to be considered when drafting an essay or report?
Index