Water and the Hydrosphere

Patricia C. Henshaw, Robert J. Charlson, and

Stephen J. Burges

6.1 Introduction 6. T. 1 Water as a Substance

It is hard to imagine any part of the Earth system The water molecule, H2O, structurally
that is more essential than or that has as many
different functions as the water of the hydro- O
sphere. In particular, the presence of a mobile Ai05X
liquid phase, with its long list of special chemi- H H
cal and physical properties, must be clearly is a bent molecule with a very strong permanent
identified as the main feature of Earth that dipole moment. This dipole is the result of the
separates it from the other terrestrial planets or negatively charged O atom and the two posi-
from any known astronomical object. Close to tively charged H atoms (the whole molecule
home, the "terrestrial planets," Earth, Mars, and being neutral). The existence of this charge
Venus are presumed to have accreted similar separation arises due to the near orthogonality
abundances of "excess volatiles" - H2O, CO2, of the orbitals of the bonding electrons of the
etc. - but evolved very differently. Even in the central O atom, while its large magnitude arises
earliest stages of planetary evolution, liquid comes from the lack of shielding of the bonding
water provided a medium in which chemical electron and the small size of the O atom.
reactions occurred between atmospheric CO2 The permanent dipole moment is so strong
and the minerals in primitive igneous rocks to that it permits the function of what are called
allow the precipitation of carbonate minerals hydrogen bonds between the highly electronega-
and to prevent a runaway greenhouse effect. tive O atom of one molecule and a nearby
While no exact chronology or quantification of hydrogen atom of another molecule (see Fig. 6-
this early chemical event can be given, it seems 1). The hydrogen bond is not a chemical bond in
clear that some such process prevented the the ordinary sense of the forces that hold mole-
accumulation of all of the Earth's CO2 and H2O cules together, which can be deduced from its
(as a vapor) in the atmosphere at the same time. strength of ca. 20 kj/mol. Ordinary molecular
This would have caused the Earth to be moj'e or bonds have typical strengths (energy required to
less like Venus - a condition from which there break them) of a few hundred kj/mol.
would appear to be no return to our present It is the hydrogen bonds of water that give
state. Before embarking on a description of this it unique physical and chemical properties,
niost important reservoir, it is useful - perhaps characteristics that set it apart from all of the
necessary - to reflect on the special properties of other molecules formed from elements near the
water itself. We can then proceed to a discussion top of the periodic table. Table 6-1 compares
of how the hydrosphere works. several key properties of water to selected
Earth System Science Copyright 2000 Academic Press Limited
ISBN 0-12-379370-X All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
110 Patricia C. Henshaw, Robert J. Charlson, and Stephen J. Barges

the same hydrogen bonds. As one result, the

solar heating of the planet (largely in the tropics
and subtropics), which results primarily in evap-
oration, transfers latent heat to the atmosphere
in the form of water vapor. Subsequent precipi-
tation at colder temperatures (higher latitudes or
altitudes) releases the latent heat, making water
vapor an important heat-transport vehicle.
This latent heat of evaporation, Lg, also
Fig. 6-1 Hydrogen bonds in liquid water. appears in the fundamental description of the
dependence of the vapor pressure of water, p, on
temperature, T - the Clausius-Clapeyron equa-
simple compounds that might be expected to tion:
have similar properties to water but do not. In
d(lnp)
regard to melting and boiling point, water (1)
dT KT2
behaves like a much larger molecule, but it has
low density like the low atomic number com- or in integral form, between locations with pi, Tj
pound that it really is. and p2, T2:
Likewise, liquid water has anomalously high Le 1 1
molar heat capacity {75 J/mol K), meaning that In Pi (2)
Pi R
liquid water can absorb relatively large amounts
of heat from the sun by day and release it at where R is the universal gas constant in appro-
night without much change of temperature. priate units.
Owing to the large amount of liquid water at The large value of Lg results in a very strong
the surface of Earth, this large heat capacity is dependence of vapor pressure on temperature.
important in mediating temperatures and there- As a result, the water vapor content of the air is
fore climate. extremely variable, from parts per million by
Still further, water has large latent heats of volume in the coldest parts of the atmosphere to
evaporation and freezing (J/mol), all because of several percent in the warmest and wettest

Table 6-1 Anomalous properties of water

Property Water Comparison species

Boiling point 373 K CH4:112 K (comparable size molecule)
NH3: 240 K
H2S:211K(dihydride)
H2Se: 231 K (dihydride)
Ar: 87 K
Melting point 273 K CH4: 89 K
NH3:195 K
H2S: 190 K
H2Se: 209 K
Ar: 84 K
Heat capacity of liquid 4218 J/(K kg) CH4:2170J/Kkg
Latent heat of vaporization (0C) 2.5 x lO^J/kg
Latent heat of freezing 3.3 x lO^^J/kg
Ratio of density frozen/density liquid (0C) 0.92
Surface tension 73 dyn/cm CCI4: 27 (nonpolar liquids)
CeHe: 29
 Water and the Hydrosphere 111

parts. The large latent heat of freezing of liquid

water imposes a requirement for large transport
of heat from bodies of water before the tempera-
ture can drop very much below 0C, yet another
type of thermostat.
A further unusual property of water is that it
l\ \I I I I II
has a maximum density at around 4C and
2 3 4 5 10
expands upon freezing, again because of hydro-
Wavelength (|Lim)
gen bonds. There are more of these bonds in ice
than in liquid water, creating a relatively open Fig. 6-2 Comparison of infrared absorbance of a
crystal structure in the solid phase. When ice vertical column of atmospheric CO2 and H2O vapor.
melts (requiring the addition of a large amount The nearly total absorbance by H2O between 5 and 7
of latent heat of freezing or fusion, Lf) some of fim, nearly coinciding with the peak of the wave-
the hydrogen bonds are broken, and a tighter length-dependent emission of the surface, make H2O
packing of H2O molecule results in the denser a much more effective greenhouse gas. Liquid water
liquid. (not shown) in clouds adds still more absorbance.
The high latent heat of evaporation or vapor-
ization - due to the hydrogen bonds causing
attraction of water molecules to each other - also that on Mars, which is arid. Mars has an atmos-
causes molecules at the surface of water to have phere that is ca. 95% CO2 (by mass, about 50
cohesive forces. This results in water having times more than on Earth). The greenhouse
anomalously high surface tension. In turn, this effect of Martian CO2 causes a temperature
property plays a very strong role in the process increase of only a few degrees. In contrast, the
of nucleation of cloud droplets, as one of the key total natural greenhouse effect on Earth is ca. 33
factors involved in determining cloud droplet K, the majority of which is due to water vapor
sizes and growth and coalescence rates. The and water clouds. Nonetheless, as will be seen in
latter is a significant factor in delivery of water Chapter 17, the anthropogenic greenhouse effect
to the continents by rain. due to enhanced CO2, CH4, N2O etc. cannot be
Very short wavelengths (A < 186 nm) of UV dismissed, as changes in the Earth's average
radiation are required to dissociate the very temperature of even 1 K are significant.
strong O-H in water (bond strength = 456 k j / Besides these special physical properties,
mol). The large concentrations of O2 and O3 in hydrogen-bonded liquid water also has unique
air absorb incoming solar UV radiation high in solvent and solution properties. One feature is
the atmosphere, preventing much of this photo- high proton (H^) mobility due to the ability of
dissociation. The strong bonds and the small individual hydrogen nuclei to jump from one
size and mass of H2O also give it a very complex water molecule to the next. Recalling that at
infrared absorption spectrum that extends to temperatures of about 300 K, the molar concen-
shorter wavelengths (i.e. higher frequencies, v, tration in pure water of HsO^ ions is ca.
and higher energies, hv) than many other simple 10~'^M, the "extra" proton can come from
molecules (CO2 for example). One absorption either of two water molecules. This freedom of
feature, the 6.3 /im band, is extremely strong, as H^ to transfer from one to an adjacent "parent"
can be seen in Fig. 6-2. The result of this strong molecule allows relatively high electrical con-
IR absorption, the large amount of water vapor ductivity. A proton added at one point in an
in the atmosphere, and the proximity of the 6.3 aqueous solution causes a domino effect,
/im absorption band of water vapor to the peak because the initiating proton has only a short
of the Earth's black-body emission is that water distance to travel to cause one to pop out some-
vapor is by far the dominant greenhouse gas. where else.
We can see the importance of water vapor as a The existence of strongly polar water mole-
greenhouse gas by comparing the greenhouse cules and mobile protons also makes H2O an
effect on Earth, a relatively humid planet, with excellent and almost universal solvent for ionic
772 Patricia C. Henshaw, Robert J. Charlson, and Stephen J. Burges

compounds and polar organic species. Com- disciplines. The Earth and its atmosphere, in the
pounds that will not significantly dissolve in broadest view, are a complex, intimately
water (i.e. saturated solutions with concentra- coupled system of chemical, physical, and bio-
tions less than ca. 10 ~^ M) include aliphatic and logical cycles, and water, with its myriad unique
aromatic hydrocarbons, as well as plastics and chemical and physical properties, plays a part in
many other polymers. almost all of them.
To understand the role water plays in global
cycles, it is necessary to first understand the
6.1,2 The Right Abundance of Water to mechanics of the water cycle. The hydrologic
Support Life cycle is driven by solar radiation, which pro-
vides the energy necessary to overcome latent
As can be seen in Fig. 2-1 (abundance of ele- heat capacities involved in phase changes. Grav-
ments), hydrogen and oxygen (along with ity plays a key role in returning condensed
carbon, magnesium, silicon, sulfur, and iron) water to the surface as precipitation, and via
are particularly abundant in the solar system, runoff from the continents to the oceans. At the
probably because the common isotopic forms of simplest level, the global water cycle results
the latter six elements have nuclear masses that from imbalances between precipitation and eva-
are multiples of the helium (He) nucleus. potranspiration (ET) at the ocean and land
Oxygen is present in the Earth's crust in an surfaces. Globally, the oceans lose more water
abundance that exceeds the amount required to by evaporation than they gain by precipitation,
form oxides of silicon, sulfur, and iron in the whereas the land surface receives more precipi-
crust; the excess oxygen occurs mostly as the tation than is lost through ET; runoff from the
volatiles CO2 and H2O. The CO2 now resides land surfaces then balances the ocean-atmos-
primarily in carbonate rocks whereas the H2O is phere water deficit. The hydrologic cycle is
almost all in the oceans. significantly more complex than this simple
While it is clear that the hydrosphere is a description would suggest. In addition to the
significant portion of the planet's mass, there is atmosphere, oceans, and rivers, significant
not, at least currently, so much water that the amounts of water are stored in groundwater,
continents are submerged. Conversely, the glaciers and ice sheets, soil moisture, and, to a
oceans are large enough that their surface area smaller extent, biomass. Figure 6-3 shows a
would never become an important limiting schematic of the global hydrologic cycle, with
factor in the hydrologic cycle. Although there storages in km^ and fluxes in km^/yr.
have been many shifts in the balance of the
hydrosphere, this condition has prevailed since
the biosphere began to evolve. The presence of Atmosphere 12.9x103 (8 days)

liquid water allowed the Earth to become and 71 x103 "T"

neg.
remain a living planet, and by the astronomical Biomass 2.7x103
1.12x103 i_
coincidence of the Earth's location, the planet (6 days) Glaciers
~1 24.1 x106
received just the proper abundance to sustain (9000 years)
71 x103
and recycle this all-important resource, almost Soil Moisture Rivers 2.12x103 458x103 /
16.5x103 (50 days)! Lakes 176 XI03 2.7x103
in perpetuity. -J-
Marshes 11.5x103
(4.5 years)
Oceans
^^U 1.338x109
6.2 Global Water Balance Groundwater 23.4 x 106 (2600 years)
Permafrost 0.3 x 106
(500 years)
While the hydrosphere has long been appre-
ciated as essential to life on Earth, only in the Fig. 6-3 Global water balance. Storages in km^,
past couple of decades have scientists expanded fluxes in km^/yr. Turnover times calculated as stor-
their exploration of the global hydrologic cycle age divided by total annual inflow. (Data from
and its roles across the spectrum of Earth science Shiklomanov and Sokolov, 1983.)
 Water and the Hydrosphere 113

Table 6-2 Reservoir storage

UNESCO (1978) Nace (1969) Baumgartner and Reichel (1975)

Reservoir (millions of km^) (millions of km^) (millions of km^)

Oceans 1338 1350 1348

Cryosphere 24.06 26.0 27.82
Groundwater 23.40 7.0 8.062
Fresh groundwater 10.53 7.956
Soil moisture 0.0165 0.150 0.0612
Permafrost 0.3000
Lakes 0.1764 0.230 0.224
Freshwater lakes 0.0910 0.125 0.126
Rivers 0.00212 0.0017 0.0011
Marshes 0.01147
Atmosphere 0.0129 0.013 0.013
Biosphere 0.00112 negligible 0.0011

Total 1386 1384 1384

Freshwater total 35.03 36.0 36.00

Calculation of the global water balance is a extensive knowledge of hydrologic and meteor-
nontrivial problem. Gross storage volumes are ologic parameters. Consequently, numerous
calculated predominantly by multiplying sur- estimates of storage and flux volumes exist for
face areas by estimated average depths the hydrologic cycle; the representation in Fig. 6-
(UNESCO, 1978). While modem remote sensing 3 was selected for its completeness. Some of the
technology has made it possible to determine variability in estimates of the global water bal-
areal extents of surface reservoirs, such as ance is reflected in the reservoir storage values
oceans, lakes, and ice sheets quite accurately, shown in Table 6-2.
estimations of depths or thicknesses are still
highly uncertain and often subjective. For exam-
ple, the wide variations in groundwater esti- 6.2.7 Reservoirs
mates can often be attributed to differing
interpretations of the extent of groundwater Figure 6-3 shows the hydrologic cycle as seven
into the Earth's crust. Similarly, soil moisture primary reservoirs interconnected by a number
depths vary from less than a meter to tens of of water fluxes. The role of each reservoir in the
meters or more, so global soil moisture averages hydrologic cycle and its connections with other
are by necessity highly subjective. Even more cycles is briefly summarized below, in order of
well-defined reservoirs, such as oceans or lakes, storage volume.
cannot be accurately quantified without com-
plete knowledge of their bathymetry and verti- 6.2.7.7 Oceans
cal temperature profiles, an impossible
requirement on a global scale. The oceans are by far the largest reservoir in the
Although fluxes of precipitation and river hydrologic cycle, containing more than 25 times
discharge can be quite accurately determined as much water as the rest of the reservoirs
on a local scale, large portions of the globe, combined. As another means of comparison,
especially the oceans and Antarctica, are essen- the volume of water in the oceans is four orders
tially ungauged, requiring extensive extrapola- of magnitude larger than that in the next most
tion of existing data. Evaporation fluxes are visible reservoir, the world's lakes and rivers.
even less well known, since calculation requires The oceans are also one of the Earth's primary
114 Patricia C. Henshaw, Robert J. Charlson, and Stephen J. Barges

heat reservoirs and have absorbed approxi- water from the last ice age, which is essentially a
mately half of the CO2 emitted to the atmos- nonrenewable supply.
phere; consequently the oceans play an Groundwater is fed through infiltration and
important role in climate. Coupled with atmos- percolation through the soil and is recycled via
pheric circulation, surface and thermohaline transpiration through plants, interflow into
circulations in the oceans transfer heat from river networks, and some direct discharge to
low to high latitudes and provide a modulating the ocean. This reservoir is extremely important
effect on global temperatures. in global water resources, though reserves in
some areas are threatened by overdraft and
pollution.
6.2.7.2 Glaciers and ice sheets

6.2.7.4 Lakes and rivers

The cryosphere - the portion of the Earth's
water frozen in ice caps, glaciers, and sea ice -
Despite their small volume, lakes and rivers
contains the largest reserves of freshwater on
play a disproportionately large role in the
Earth. Due to the remoteness of most of the
cycling of water. River networks transport the
planet's ice-covered areas, estimates of water
majority of surface (rain and snowmelt) and
stored in the cryosphere have a high degree of
subsurface runoff to the oceans to balance the
uncertainty. Current best estimates, based on
hydrologic cycle. As such, rivers also provide a
improved remote sensing technology for deter-
means of transport for eroded sediment and
mining ice extent, place ice storage at 3 x 10^
dissolved ions, nutrients, and organic matter,
km^, of which the Antarctic ice sheet makes up
giving them a prominent role in tectonic and
about 90% (IPCC, 1996b). Since inflows and
biogeochemical cycles. This is discussed more in
outflows are small, at least in the current climate
Chapter 8. Nutrient cycling in aquatic systems,
mode, the cryosphere is a fairly static compo-
particularly lakes, is also an important link in
nent of the hydrosphere. However, ice-covered
particularly the phosphorus and nitrogen cycles.
portions of the planet do contribute significantly
From a human standpoint, surface waters are
to albedo and can affect atmospheric circulation,
the most critical reservoir of freshwater, as they
making them important links in climatic feed-
provide water resources for most of the Earth's
backs, as discussed in Chapter 17. The climatic
population (L'vovich, 1974).
record in ice sheets and glaciers is discussed in
detail in Chapter 18.
6.2.7.5 So/7 moisture and biomass

6.2.7.3 Groundwater These two reservoirs, representing the land sur-

face, link the atmosphere with other land-based
The hydrologic cycle's lithospheric link, ground- hydrologic reservoirs and processes. Although
water, consists of the water stored in under- storage in soil moisture is small, it plays a critical
ground aquifers, i.e. all subsurface storage role in the cycling of water, acting as "a kind of
below the subterranean water table. Ground- intermediary between climate and meteorologi-
water reserves extend far down into the Earth's cal factors on the one hand and the phenomena
crust, although the active zone, which contains of the hydrologic regime (groundwater, rivers,
most of the fresh groundwater, is restricted to and lakes) on the other" (L'vovich, 1974). Ante-
the upper reaches. This stratification results in a cedent soil moisture conditions dictate how
wide range of residence times for subsurface much precipitation can be infiltrated into the
water, with some deep regions remaining essen- soil and how much is shed as surface runoff. The
tially static for up to millions of years. For soil moisture reservoir feeds groundwater
example, the "mining" of the Ogallala Aquifer through percolation and plants through tran-
underlying the Great Plains region of the United spiration.
States is of particular concern because the aqui- Biomass is not a particularly important stor-
fer contains substantial amounts of glacial melt- age reservoir, but it does play a large role in
 Water and the Hydrosphere 115

cycling, mainly via transpiration through land how long it takes to replace the entire storage in
plants and, to a lesser extent, via photosynthesis. a reservoir. In a steady-state system, which is a
Soil-plant interactions are also the key determi- reasonable approximation for Earth cycles on
nants of land surface evaporation; in vegetated geologic time scales, turnover times also provide
continental areas, most evaporation of soil a sense of how long it will take a reservoir to
moisture occurs by virtue of transpiration. In respond to perturbations in the cycle. Reservoirs
addition to evaporation, the land surface con- with short turnover times are most sensitive,
tributes to albedo, though surface effects have while those with longer turnover times respond
proven difficult to parameterize in global cli- more slowly and can often act as buffers on
mate models. Albedo is a strong function of the shorter time scales.
availability of liquid water. Arid areas (deserts) The enormous volume of the oceans results in
have very high albedo compared to vegetated an average turnover time of more than 2600
land. Consult Chapter 17 for more information years, compared to less than 10 days for atmos-
on climate considerations. pheric water. Although the reservoir is much
smaller than the oceans, the cryosphere has the
6.2.7.6 Atmosphere longest turnover time due to the small input
flux. Average turnover times for all seven reser-
Although it is one of the smallest reservoirs in voirs, calculated from the data in Fig. 6-3, are
terms of water storage, the atmosphere is prob- shown in Table 6-3.
ably the second most important reservoir in the Many hydrologic reservoirs can be further
hydrosphere (after the oceans). The atmosphere subdivided into smaller reservoirs, each with a
has direct connections with all other reservoirs characteristic turnover time. For example, water
and the largest overall volume of fluxes. Water resides in the Pacific Ocean longer than in the
is present in the atmosphere in solid, liquid, and Atlantic, and the oceans' surface waters cycle
vapor forms, all of which are important compo- much more quickly than the deep ocean. Simi-
nents of the Earth's natural greenhouse effect. larly, groundwater near the surface is much
Cycling of water within the atmosphere, both more active than deep reservoirs, which may
physically (e.g. cloud formation) and chemi- cycle over thousands or millions of years, and
cally, is also integral to other biogeochemical water frozen in the soil as permafrost. Typical
cycles and climate. Consult Chapter 17 for more range in turnover times for hydrospheric reser-
details. voirs on a hillslope scale (10-10^ m) are shown
in Table 6-4 (estimates from Falkenmark and
Chapman, 1989). Depths are estimated as typi-
6,2,2 Turnover Times cal volume averaged over the watershed area.
Global freshwater reserves (discounting pol-
Average turnover time (defined as storage lution) are a small percentage of global water,
volume divided by annual inflow or outflow accounting for only 35 x 10^ km of the total
volume, assuming steady state) is a measure of 1.386 X 10^ km^ global water supply (UNESCO,

Table 6-3 Reservoir turnover times

Reservoir Volume (km'^) Avg. turnover time

Oceans 1.338 X 10^ 2640 yrs

Cryosphere 24.1 X 10^ 8900 yrs
Groundwater / permafrost 23.7 X 10^ 515 yrs
Lakes/rivers 189 990 4.3 yrs
Soil moisture 16500 52 days
Atmosphere 12900 8.2 days
Biomass 1120 5.6 days
776 Patricia C. Henshaw, Robert]. Charlson, and Stephen J. Burges

Table 6-4 Hillslope scale turnover times since freshwater volume is essentially equal to
non-marine storage and net evaporation is the
Reservoir Depth (mm) Turnover times only output flux from the oceans, this may be
Atmosphere 25^ 8-10 days taken as a reasonable estimation. For practical
Plants 5-50 Hours-days purposes, freshwater resources available to
Streams/rivers 3 Weeks humans cycle more rapidly, but since 97% of
Lakes / reservoirs Months-years freshwater is stored in ice, the global average
Soil moisture 10-10^ Years turnover is much longer.
Groundwater loMo^ Days-10^ years^

^ Global average.
^ Longer turnovers associated with large watershed 6.2J Fluxes
areas.
Robert Horton, an influential pioneer in the field
of hydrology, developed one of the first com-
1978). Assuming an input flux equal to oceanic prehensive representations of the hydrologic
evaporation, this w^ould give a turnover time of cycle in 1931. His original diagram. Fig. 6-4,
about 750 years. The turnover time analysis is illustrates the processes by which water moves
not strictly correct since freshwater resides in a between the Earth's hydrologic reservoirs.
number of interconnected reservoirs; however. Hydrologic fluxes can be summed up in four

Fig. 6-4 The fluxes of the hydrologic cycle, developed by Robert Horton (1931).
 Water and the Hydrosphere 117

processes, shown around the outside of Mor- 6.2.3.2 Evapotranspiration

ton's wheel - precipitation, surface dissipation
of precipitation, evaporation, and atmospheric Water returns to the atmosphere via evapora-
moisture transport. This section will discuss tion from the oceans and evapotranspiration
precipitation, evaporation (and closely related from the land surface. Like precipitation, evap-
transpiration), and runoff - the processes that oration is largest over the oceans {88% of total)
link the oceans, atmosphere, and land surface. and is distributed non-uniformly around the
Atmospheric moisture is addressed in Chapter globe. Evaporation requires a large input of
7. These fluxes are highly variable over the energy to overcome the latent heat of vaporiza-
Earth's surface in both space and time, which tion, so global patterns are similar to radiation
has extremely important implications for water balance and temperature distributions, though
resources; spatial and temporal variability is anomalous local maxima and minima occur due
discussed in Section 6.3. to the effects of wind and water availability.
Evapotranspiration (ET) is the collective term
for land surface evaporation and plant tran-
6.2.3.7 Precipitation spiration, which are difficult to isolate in prac-
tice. Transpiration refers to the process in which
The flow of water from the atmosphere to the water is transported through plants and
ocean and land surfaces as rain, snow, and ice returned to the atmosphere through pores in
constitutes the atmospheric efflux in the hydro- the leaves called stomata, and is distinct from
logic cycle. Although most precipitation falls on direct evaporation of intercepted precipitation
the oceans (ca. 79% of the global total), precipi- from leaf surfaces. Some land surface processes
tation onto land is much more hydrologically and the roles of vegetation in the water and
significant. On a global scale, nearly two-thirds energy balances are illustrated in Fig. 6-5. Due to
of the land portion returns to the atmosphere via
evapotranspiration (see below), while the
remaining one-third contributes to groundwater
and surface runoff. Precipitation is highly vari-
able over the globe, with atmospheric circula-
tion patterns concentrating it in the tropics and
mid-latitudes.
An important component of precipitation on a
regional scale comes from precipitation recy-
cling; that is, a portion of the precipitation in a
region comes from water vapor evaporated
from within that region, with the remainder
composed of atmospheric moisture advected
into the region. The precipitation recycling
ratio, the ratio of recycled precipitation to total
precipitation, is then a function of evaporation
and internal and external atmospheric moisture
fluxes (Budyko, 1974; Eltahir and Bras, 1996).
The settling of the Great Plains in the late 19th
and early 20th centuries was in fact spurred by
early (and largely unfounded) concepts of pre-
cipitation recycling. S. Aughey (cited in Holz-
TO GROUNDWATER
man, 1937) wrote of Nebraska in 1880 that
increased evaporation from cultivated land Fig. 6-5 Evaporation and transpiration from vegeta-
would increase moisture and rainfall - i.e., that tion are among the complex land surface interactions
"rain follows the plow." in the hydrologic cycle. (From Dickinson, 1984.)
118 Patricia C. Henshaw, Robert J. Charlson, and Stephen J. Burges

the number of variables involved, ET can be

extremely difficult to measure and is often
determined by closing the water or energy
balance calculated from better-known compo-
nents.

6.2.3.3 Runoff
PRECIPITATION IN INCHES

The excess of evaporation from the oceans is Jl n-1 I. :^:

12 18
June 1927 July 1927
made up for by runoff from the land. Although
this flux is much smaller than precipitation and Fig. 6-6 Hydrograph showing the rapid contribu-
ET, it is a major link in many cycles and is of tion of surface runoff and more steady baseflow.
particular importance to humans in terms of Runoff in cubic feet per second, precipitaion in
water supply. Runoff can be broadly catego- inches. (From Langbein and Wells, 1955.)
rized into subsurface, or groundwater, flow
and surface flow, consisting of overland runoff
and river discharge.
limestone and gravel; surface flow is typically
6.2.3.3.7 Subsurface runoff. When precipita- on the order of a meter per second.
tion hits the land surface, the vast majority does
not go directly into the network of streams and 6.2.3.3.2 Surface runoff. Hydrologists have
rivers; in fact, it may be cycled several times identified two processes for generating surface
before ever reaching a river and the ocean. runoff over land. The first, saturated overland flow
Instead, most precipitation that is not inter- (SOF), is generated when precipitation (or snow-
cepted by the vegetation canopy and re-evapo- melt) occurs over a saturated soil; since water
rated infiltrates into the soil, where it may reside has nowhere to infiltrate, it then runs off over
as soil moisture, percolate down to ground- land. SOF typically occurs only in humid envi-
water, or be transpired by plants. ronments or where the water table rises to
Very little groundwater is discharged directly intersect with a stream. Horton overland flow
to the oceans, but groundwater does provide a (HOF or infiltration-limited overland flow)
significant contribution to stream discharge in occurs when precipitation intensity exceeds the
most areas. Subsurface flow is generally much infiltration capacity of the soil in a non-saturated
slower than surface runoff, allowing ground- environment. In this case, only the excess pre-
water to provide perennial baseflow to streams cipitation (that exceeding the infiltration capa-
far into a dry season, long after surface storm city) runs off over the surface. Both types of
runoff has been discharged. Figure 6-6 shows a overland runoff generate relatively rapid flows
typical storm hydrograph, with baseflow and that constitute the surface water contribution to
stormflow components indicated. Groundwater the hydrograph (Fig. 6-6).
flow velocities have been found to follow Dar- Figure 6-7 illustrates the runoff paths for HOF
cy's law: and SOF, as well as for subsurface stormflow
and groundwater flow. Subsurface stormflow is
K dh
(3) a moderately rapid runoff process in which
water flows to a stream through highly perme-
where v is velocity, K is soil hydraulic conduc- able surface soil layers (without reaching the
tivity with units of (length/time), n is the water table). Note in Fig. 6-7 that while HOF
dynamic (or actively available) porosity, and and subsurface stormflow may occur over a
dh/dL is the hydraulic gradient. large fraction of an infiltration-limited hillslope,
Hydraulic conductivities vary over a range of SOF occurs over a smaller portion adjacent to
10~^^ c m / s for unfractured igneous and meta- the stream.
morphic rocks to 2 or 3 c m / s for porous (karst) Hillslopes occupy about 99% of the landscape
 Water and the Hydrosphere 119
Precipitation discharge of the world's rivers is about 10^ m V s
or 1 Sverdrup (Sv); by comparison, the oceans'
thermohaline circulation transports about 15 Sv
(Broecker, 1997).
In addition to runoff, rivers transport prod-
ucts of upland weathering to the oceans, form-
ing a key link in the tectonic cycle of uplift and
erosion. This interaction will be explored further
in Section 6.6.

Fig. 6-7 Vertical cross-section showing pathways for

surface and subsurface runoff. Path 1: HOP; path 2: 6.3 Hydrologic Variability
groundwater flow; path 3: subsurface stormflow;
path 4: SOP. (Prom Dunne and Leopold, 1978.)
Part of the difficulty in studying the hydrologic
cycle arises from the huge variability in fluxes
over time and space. Most of us have experi-
and provide stream channels with water supply, enced the differences in rain and snowfall asso-
making hillslope processes extremely important ciated with changing seasons and observed the
on a local scale. However, the much more visible different precipitation patterns experienced by
component of surface runoff comes from river other areas of the country and the world. This
discharge. Globally, rivers discharge roughly hydrologic variability is present across virtually
45 000 km^ per year to the oceans (Shiklomanov all spatial and temporal scales, from the smallest
and Sokolov, 1983). The 16 largest rivers account hillslope over a period of minutes to the entire
for more than one-third of total discharge, and globe over the geologic history of the Earth.
over half of that contribution comes from the Understanding hydrologic variabiHty is particu-
three largest. Table 6-5 lists the 10 largest rivers larly important for management of water
in the world in terms of average discharge rate resources. In that context, continental scale var-
(m^/s) and annual discharge volume (km^/yr) iations in precipitation and runoff within a year
(Dingman, 1994). and over several years to decades are of the most
While river discharge is the primary means of interest.
transferring water from the land to the oceans, Variability has traditionally been accounted
its magnitude pales in comparison to circulation for in hydrologic models in one of two ways.
within the oceans themselves. The total average Stochastic models attempt to preserve statistical
relationships between significant variables
determined from historical records, while phys-
Table 6-5 World's largest rivers ically based models are designed to represent
natural processes based on values of known
River Discharge Discharge
variables and empirical parameters. While sto-
(mVs) (km^/yr)
chastic models tend to be simpler and less data
Amazon 190000 6000 intensive, they require long historical records,
Congo 42000 1330 which are unavailable in many areas, and
Yangtze 35000 1100 cannot represent conditions outside the range
Orinoco 29 000 915 of historic values. Physically based models
Brahmaputra 20000 630 require extensive input data, but because they
La Plata 19500 615 explicitly represent physical processes, they are
Yenesei 17800 565 more appropriate for studying effects of and
Mississippi 17700 560 responses to global change and can be used for
Lena 16300 515
limited extrapolation beyond the range of data
Mekong 15900 500
used for their calibration and testing.
120 Patricia C. Henshaw, Robert J. Charlson, and Stephen J. Burges

6,3.1 Precipitation ing areas, peaks occur later than in low-lati-

tude or low-altitude areas. Figure 6-9 shows
On a global scale, and as discussed in Chapter the relative amount of runoff in each month
7, precipitation patterns clearly reflect the con- for selected US rivers. While average flow in
vergence and divergence zones in the general the southeastern rivers is nearly constant
atmospheric circulation. Rainfall peaks over (approximately 8% per month), northern
the tropics, decreases in the subtropical lati- rivers and those fed by mountain snowpack
tudes, and exhibits more modest peaks at mid- show distinct peaks, with peak timing depen-
latitudes before going to essentially zero at the dent on when snowmelt occurs.
poles. Figure 7-7 in the next chapter provides a Water resources decision making in many
more complete description of the overall lati- areas, particularly arid and semi-arid climates
tude dependence. At the regional or continen- such as the American West, depends on inter-
tal scale, the precipitation patterns are annual to decadal variations in surface water
complicated by many other factors, including availability. In addition to more predictable
mesoscale atmospheric circulations and oro- seasonal differences, runoff tends to exhibit
graphic effects. long-term trends alternating between flood and
Figure 6-8 shows the average monthly pre- drought periods. Figure 6-10 shows historical
cipitation for selected locations in the United wet and dry periods based on streamflow
States, illustrating both the spatial variability in records for 50 world rivers. For the most part,
total precipitation and the marked differences these periods are consistent on a regional basis,
in distribution of precipitation through the though they appear to alternate on a hemi-
year. The US exhibits four basic annual patterns spheric scale.
for precipitation distribution, which can be The importance of these long-term trends for
used to classify climate (Thomthwaite, 1948). water resources is illustrated by the case of the
The West Coast experiences dry summers and Colorado River Compact, which allocates the
winter precipitation maximums from storms water of the Colorado River to the seven states
coming in off the Pacific, while the interior of in its drainage area. The agreement, signed in
the continent tends to have late spring or early 1922, based allocations on annual discharge
summer peaks associated with peaks in the soil from the preceding decade, which remains the
moisture cycles. The northeast receives moder- wettest period on record; subsequent drier years
ate precipitation throughout the year, while the have given rise to numerous water rights dis-
southeast receives large amounts of rain from putes among the seven states and between the
late summer thunderstorms fueled by the sur- United States and Mexico.
rounding warm oceans. The rain shadow
effects of the Sierra Nevada, Cascades, and
Rocky Moimtains, as well as the aridity of the 6,3.3 Hydrologic Sensitivity
desert southwest, can also be observed in Fig.
6-8. The ability to predict runoff and water avail-
ability is critical to water resources planners.
However, the complex non-linearities of the
63,2 Runoff hydrologic cycle make this an extremely diffi-
cult process. Even where precipitation is fairly
Because it depends on a number of conditions well known, runoff prediction is a non-trivial
that are themselves inherently variable, runoff problem, as land surface response depends as
tends to vary even more than precipitation, much (or more) on precipitation patterns and
particularly over time. Seasonal runoff patterns timing as on precipitation amount. The histor-
depend largely on latitude and altitude of the ical record of monthly rainfall and inflow at the
watershed, due to the importance of snowmelt Serpentine Dam, near Perth, Western Australia,
in runoff peaks. In high-latitude basins or provides an illustration of this sensitivity (Fig. 6-
those with significant high-altitude contribut- 11a andb).
Water and the Hydrosphere 121
00
ON
0)
o
u
(N
II
I
OS
o
;3
722 Patricia C Henshaw, Robert J. Charlson, and Stephen J. Burges
LO
LO
ON
73
.S
bJD
s
O
tin
O
u
OS
a;
T5
N
O
(-0
I
a;
^
03
-^
J *^
*c;
CI.
o a
S 1
.
^ -^
O :S
bb
 Water and the Hydrosphere 123

18()0 1850 1900 1950 20(K)

Red River
N. Saskatchewan
S. Saskatchewan
St. Lawrence
Susquehanna
Niagara
Assiniboine
Colorado
Mississippi
Missouri
Ohio
Columbia
Snake

Vuoksi
V. Gota
Rhine
Loire
Seine
Garonne
Rhone
Po
Ebro
Guadalquivir

Elbe

flUS^.B
Vistula
Oder Central
Danube Europe
Dvina
Don
Volga Western
Neman
Ural U.S.S.R

Kolyma
Amur
Ob
Yenisei Eastern
Lena U.S.S.R

Nile
Senegal
Niger
Chari
Congo Africa
Orange Dry period
Limpopo
Humid period
Amazon
Parana
Sao Francisco South
Ametica
Godavari
Mekonc South eastern
Asia
1800 1850 1900 1950 2{XX)

Fig. 6-10 Long-term global streamflow trends. Wet and dry periods from the historical record of 50 major
rivers. (From Probst and Tardy, 1987.)

The precipitation record shows a mild Runoff sensitivity, particularly in arid and
decrease in rainfall for May, June, and July over semi-arid climates, is largely a result of sensi-
the last 20 years of record. However, runoff tivity in soil moisture response. If rainfall
decreased to less than half the historical average amount and frequency decrease, more soil
for May and June over the same period, and moisture is lost to evapotranspiration, creating
reduced runoff persisted into December, despite a soil moisture deficit that must be replaced
a return to normal or above normal precipitation before surface runoff or significant ground-
levels over the latter half of the year. water flow returns. The converse also tends to
124 Patricia C Henshaw, Robert J. Charlson, and Stephen J. Burges

(a) Monthly rainfall record

6.4 Water and Climate

Monthly Average
m (1911 - 1994)
In addition to biogeochemical cycles (discussed
S (1950 - 1994) in Section 6.5), the hydrosphere is a major
(1975 - 1994) component of many physical cycles, with cli-
mate among the most prominent. Water affects
the solar radiation budget through albedo (pri-
marily clouds and ice/snow), the terrestrial
radiation budget as a strong absorber of terres-
trial emissions, and global temperature distribu-
tion as the primary transporter of heat in the
ocean and atmosphere.

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month 6.4,1 Water and the Energy Balance

Water plays a crucial role in the redistribution of

heat from the tropics to the high-latitude polar
0(1911 - 1994)
S(1950 - 1994)
regions. Water transports heat in two forms.
(1975 - 1994) Sensible heat refers to the portion of the radiant
energy budget that changes the temperature of
the surface of the atmosphere. Sensible heat flux
produces changes in temperature proportional
to the product of density and specific heat
(Shuttleworth, 1993). Since liquid water has one
of the highest specific heats of any substance
(4218 J/(kg K) at 0C), the oceans can store and
release vast amounts of sensible heat without
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
large changes in their own temperatures. Sur-
Month
face ocean currents transport warm tropical
water poleward and recirculate cooler surface
Fig. 6-11 (a) Monthly rainfall record. Serpentine waters toward the equator. These currents are
dam, Perth, Western Australia. (From Burges, 1998.) complemented by the global thermohaline cir-
(b) Monthly inflow. Serpentine Dam, Western Aus-
culation, which circulates water through the
tralia. (From Burges, 1998.)
depths of the oceans. Ice and water vapor can
also store significant amounts of sensible heat,
though their specific heat capacities are only
one-half to one-third that of liquid water, respec-
be true: frequent storms can saturate the soil, tively.
generating more surface runoff and enhancing Latent heat is the energy associated with phase
subsurface flow. changes. Evaporation of water requires an
The complexities of land surface response and energy input of 2.5 x 10^ J per kilogram of
runoff generation have also presented a major water at 0C, almost 600 times the specific heat.
obstacle to global climate modelers. Hydrologic When water vapor is transported via atmos-
response is linked to several important climate pheric circulation and recondensed, latent heat
feedbacks (see Section 6.4.2), so until the hydro- energy is released at the new location. Atmos-
logic cycle, and in particular its land surface pheric transport of water vapor thus transfers
component, can be accurately represented, both latent and sensible heat from low to high
there is little hope for accurate assessments of latitudes.
global change. Sensible and latent heat can be related
 Water and the Hydrosphere 125

through the Bowen ratio, which is the ratio of particularly at the regional scale important for
sensible heat to latent heat flux at the surface. water resources, are much more speculative
The Bowen ratio, R, can be estimated from (IPCC, 1996a).
atmospheric properties as follows:
SH T,
R 0.66- (4) 6.4.2.7 Climate feedbacks
LE eo 1000
where SH = sensible heat (Energy/unit time and In its assessment of climate change, the IPCC
unit area); LE = latent energy flux (Energy/unit (1990) identified five hydrosphere-related feed-
time and unit area); TQ = surface temperature back mechanisms in the climate system likely to
(C); Ta = reference level air temperature (C); eo be activated by increased greenhouse gas con-
= saturation vapor pressure (mbar); e^^ = atmos- centrations in the atmosphere. These feedbacks
pheric vapor pressure (mbar); p = atmospheric are briefly described below; for more detailed
pressure (mbar). discussion of the climate system, refer to Chap-
For saturated surfaces, the Bowen ratio can ter 17.
then be used to calculate evapotranspiration as a
residual of the surface energy balance (Penman, 6.4.2.1.1 Atmospheric moisture. Short resi-
1948). Since direct measurement of ET is difficult dence times and rapid phase changes for water
and expensive, the energy balance method is in the atmosphere give it a disproportionately
fairly common. large influence on climate. Changes in atmos-
pheric moisture affect cloud properties and are
related to the cloud feedback mechanisms dis-
6.4.2 Climate Feedbacks and Response to cussed below. In addition, water vapor is the
Global Warming most effective greenhouse gas due to its large
heat capacity and absorption spectrum; thus
Five components of the hydrosphere play major expected increases in atmospheric vapor content
roles in climate feedbacks - atmospheric mois- (due to accelerated evaporation) would have a
ture, clouds, snow and ice, land surface, and positive feedback effect. Increased evaporation
oceans. Changes to the hydrologic cycle, among and associated release of latent heat to the atmos-
other things, as a result of altered climate condi- phere (upon condensation) would warm the
tions are then referred to as responses. Inter- troposphere, increasing its moisture storage
actions with climate can best be explored by capacity. Additional water vapor then traps
examining potential response to a climate more terrestrial radiation, enhancing the green-
perturbation, in this case, predicted global house effect and further warming the tropo-
warming. sphere. Although runaway warming would be
Current debate regarding the role of the prevented by changes in lapse rates to increase
hydrologic cycle in climate focuses on potential the flux of water vapor from the troposphere to
responses to anthropogenically induced global higher altitudes, the predicted net effect of the
warming through an enhanced greenhouse atmospheric moisture feedback is surface and
effect due to increased atmospheric CO2 and atmospheric warming (Ramanathan, 1988).
other gases. Based on GCM simulation results,
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 6.4.2.1.2 Clouds. Cloud feedback mechanisms
(IPCC) has concluded that global mean surface are among the most complex in the climate
atmospheric temperature will increase by 1.0 to system, due to the many disparate roles played
3.5C in the next century, though this will be by clouds, which control a large portion of the
distributed unevenly over the Earth, with the planetary albedo but also trap terrestrial radia-
most significant warming expected at high lati- tion, reducing the energy escaping to space. To
tudes. Warmer temperatures are expected to complicate matters further, different types of
accelerate the hydrologic cycle, though the mag- clouds behave differently in the same environ-
nitude and distribution of hydrologic changes. ment. In the present climate mode, clouds have
726 Patricia C. Henshaw, Robert J. Charlson, and Stephen J. Barges

a global mean cooling effect, but the sign of resistance in plants, with the potential to reduce
cloud feedback in climate models remains con- transpiration loss per unit leaf area by up to
troversial. 50%, but also increases plant growth. The net
Considerable uncertainty about the types of effect on transpiration is uncertain (Rosenberg et
clouds that will increase due to greenhouse al, 1990).
warming is the primary obstacle to predicting
cloud feedback. Higher cloud top heights, 6.4.2.7.5 Ocean circulation. Paleoclimate evi-
assuming no change in cloud cover or water dence has linked changes in thermohaline circu-
content, might result in surface warming due to lation and the formation of North Atlantic Deep
greater capacity to absorb outgoing (terrestrial) Water (NADW) with several of the major cli-
radiation. Conversely, higher water content mate shifts of the last glacial period. Therefore,
would increase cloud albedo and result in net ocean circulation feedback will probably play
surface cooling potentially capable of balancing some role in determining the hydrologic and
additional greenhouse warming (Chahine, climatic response to greenhouse warming,
1992). Ocean surface warming has also shown a though long ocean response times could make
moderating effect, increasing convective activity this a less important feedback in the short term.
and the formation of high-albedo cirrus clouds The mechanism for thermohaline response is the
(Chahine, 1992). influx of low-density freshwater into the polar
oceans due to precipitation and the melting of
6.4.2.7.3 Snow-ice albedo. Although cryo- glaciers and icecaps. Since density is the domi-
spheric processes remain among the greatest nant driving force for sinking, increased high-
sources of uncertainty in climate modeling, latitude precipitation and/or significant melting
models have consistently shown enhanced events could trigger a slowing or stoppage of
warming at the poles, resulting in melting of deep-water formation. As a result, global circu-
sea ice and less snow and ice cover. Since snow lation and poleward heat transfer would be
and ice have higher albedos than the underlying greatly reduced, lowering surface temperatures
land surfaces and oceans, this results in and providing a negative feedback on global
increased absorbed atmospheric radiation at warming. Broecker (1997) hypothesized that a
the surface and further warming. Increased net increase in freshwater input to the North
vegetative cover from the predicted poleward Atlantic of 50% - which is within predicted
migration of currently more temperate biomes ranges - would disrupt the salt balance suffi-
would also reduce surface albedo of the polar ciently to trigger an instability in and reorgani-
regions (IPCC, 1998). Significant melting of sea zation of the thermohaline circulation.
ice could also result in changes to ocean thermo-
haline circulation, as has been observed at sev-
6.4.2.2 Hydrologic response
eral points in the paleoclimate record (see
below).
Accelerated hydrologic processes are predicted
6.4.2.7.4 Land surface/biosphere. The com- to result in an increase of global mean precipita-
plexity and high regional variability of land tion by 3 to 15%, though changes in regional
surface and biosphere effects make them ex- precipitation would likely vary by 20%
tremely difficult to model, though some general (Schneider et ah, 1990). Like temperature, pre-
feedbacks have been identified. Changes in pre- cipitation changes would be unevenly distribu-
cipitation (amount and temperature) and evap- ted, with high- and most mid-latitude areas
oration regimes will affect soil moisture storage receiving higher precipitation, while rainfall in
and infiltration rates (which in turn influence the tropics may decrease. Changes in the
runoff magnitude). Higher evaporation rates amount and type of precipitation (rain versus
would be expected to reduce soil moisture and snow) also have important implications for
runoff, though this could be partially offset by runoff magnitude and timing, with regional
reduced transpiration caused by elevated CO2. changes in runoff predicted to vary by as much
Increased carbon dioxide increases stomatal as 5 0 % (Schneider et ah, 1990). Current
 Water and the Hydrosphere 127

studies of El Nino/southern oscillation and 6.5.2 Nitrogen

other circulation anomalies demonstrate the
potential for significant effects of altered global In the nitrogen cycle, precipitation is the pri-
circulation on precipitation patterns. mary mechanism for deposition from the atmos-
phere to the terrestrial-ocean system. Nitrate in
rain is also a significant contributor to acid rain
in the eastern US and Europe. River runoff is
6.5 Water and Biogeochemical Cycles
again the most significant flux between the
terrestrial and ocean reservoirs in the nitrogen
Transport in water is an important mechanism
cycle. River loads are significantly increased by
for transfer of biogeochemical elements between
human activity, with fertilizers, agricultural and
the atmosphere, land, and oceans. In particular,
industrial runoffs, and acid rain contributing
rain is the primary means of removal from the
about one-sixth of river nitrogen in one study
atmosphere for many substances, and rivers
(Berner and Berner, 1987).
(and to some extent groundwater) convey
weathering products and runoff from the land
surface to the oceans.
The following sections summarize only the 6.5.3 Sulfur
most prominent interactions between the ele-
mental cycles and the links in the hydrologic As with the nitrogen cycle, the sulfur cycle relies
cycle. Water also plays a role in many chemical on rain and rivers for transport between the
and biological reactions that are beyond the atmosphere, land surface, and oceans. The high
scope of this discussion. The carbon, nitrogen, solubility of H2O2 in water makes cloud drop-
sulfur, and phosphorus cycles are discussed in lets the locus of oxidation of SO2. Rainout is the
detail in Chapters 11, 12, 13, and 14, respec- primary removal mechanism for sulfur (mainly
tively. as sulfate) from the atmosphere, although dry
deposition can also be important, particularly
for SO2. Sulfur has an additional link with the
atmospheric portion of the hydrologic cycle, as
6.5.7 Carbon
sulfate is the dominant component of cloud
condensation nuclei in many environments
Rainwater and snowmelt water are primary
(Bigg et al, 1984). This is of particular concern
factors determining the very nature of the ter-
for acid rain given the magnitude of anthropo-
restrial carbon cycle, with photosynthesis acting
genic sulfur emissions. Rivers are also an impor-
as the primary exchange mechanism from the
tant transporter of sulfur, with sulfate
atmosphere. Bicarbonate is the most prevalent
representing the fourth most prevalent dis-
ion in natural surface waters (rivers and lakes),
solved substance in global average river water
which are extremely important in the carbon
(after bicarbonate, calcium ion, and silica).
cycle, accounting for 90% of the carbon flux
between the land surface and oceans (Holmen,
Chapter 11). In addition, bicarbonate is a major
component of soil water and a contributor to its 6.5.4 Phosphorus
natural acid-base balance. The carbonate equi-
librium controls the pH of most natural waters, Unlike other biogeochemical elements, phos-
and high concentrations of bicarbonate provide phorus does not have a significant atmospheric
a pH buffer in many systems. Other acid-base reservoir. Thus, while some amount of phos-
reactions (discussed in Chapter 16), particularly phorus is occasionally dissolved in rain, this
in the atmosphere, also influence pH (in both does not represent an important link in the
natural and polluted systems) but are generally phosphorus cycle. River runoff is the primary
less important than the carbonate system on a means of transport between the land surface and
global basis. oceans, and unlike the other elements discussed.
128 Patricia C Henshaw, Robert J. Charlson, and Stephen J. Burges

phosphorus is transported in both dissolved and environments (high precipitation and runoff)
particulate form. tend to have low concentrations of sodium-
Phosphorus is extremely important in bio- chloride-dominated salts. Evaporation-domi-
logical reactions and is thus cycled through nated rivers (low precipitation and runoff) are
biological systems many times before it ulti- also NaCl dominated but with high total salt
mately reaches the ocean. Phosphorus cycling is concentrations. Areas with moderate precipita-
particularly important in lake and wetland sys- tion and runoff generate rock-dominated river
tems, where it is often temporarily stored in chemistry, with moderate concentrations of cal-
sediments. Consequently, the groundwater link cium bicarbonate salts (Gibbs, 1970). Natural
is more important in the phosphorus cycle than salt concentrations can be altered or over-
in other elemental cycles. Concentrations of whelmed by human activities, particularly by
dissolved P in groundwater depend on bio- irrigated agriculture.
logical and inorganic reactions.

6.7 Anthropogenic Influences

6.6 Water and the Tectonic Cycles
Though the hydrosphere continues to operate in
In addition to transporting biogeochemical ele- response to the same forces it always has,
ments between the Earth's reservoirs, water humans have had an unmistakable role in alter-
serves as the primary change agent for the land ing some of its balances. In general, these
surface itself, transporting the products of impacts have had relatively little effect on the
weathering and erosion through the river net- overall global water balance, and there is little
works to the oceans. Weathering and erosion, chance that direct manipulation of the hydro-
primarily by water and glaciers, balance geo- sphere will alter water storage and cycling on a
logic uplift in mountain regions and redistribute global basis.
sediments to the lowland floodplains and con- On regional scales, however, people have
tinental shelves to help maintain a constant spent the last several thousand years trying to
recycling of the lithosphere. redistribute water resources temporally and
The suspended sediment load carried by spatially. Weirs, canals, and reservoirs have
rivers, which discharge 13.5 Tg per year to the been built to control the timing of runoff and,
oceans, consists of particulate sediments and more recently, to relocate surface water sup-
dissolved solids. Transport of larger bedload plies, with the unintended result of greater
sediments is estimated at 1-2 Tg per year, evaporation losses from reservoir surfaces. Irri-
although all of the bedload may not typically gated agriculture also diverts ocean-bound
reach the ocean (Milliman and Meade, 1983). flow, much of which is then returned to the
Since sediment load depends on erosion, yields atmosphere through evapotranspiration. Thus,
tend to be highest for drainage basins with people pay for the privilege of redistributing
extensive geological activity. Consequently, gla- water with greater losses to the atmosphere.
cial and southeast Asian rivers (due to high Dams and reservoirs represent some of the
uplift rates in the Himalayas) have the highest largest engineering projects of the 20th century,
sediment concentrations (sediment per unit and they play a major role in the alteration of the
runoff or drainage area), while desert rivers in hydrologic cycle on a regional scale. The Colum-
Australia and Africa have the lowest (Milliman bia River system in the northwestern United
and Meade, 1983). The topic of sediment trans- States and southwestern Canada is one of the
port by rivers is a major focus of Chapter 8. most extensively dammed river systems in the
River water chemistry is determined by the world, with more than 50 dams providing irri-
relative concentrations of major dissolved com- gation, hydroelectric power, flood protection,
ponents (bicarbonate, calcium ion, silica, and and water supply for the Pacific Northwest.
sulfate), which are in turn controlled by the The dams have significantly altered the natural
environment. Rivers in precipitation-dominated annual hydrograph, as shown in Fig. 6-12. The
 Water and the Hydrosphere 129
^ 500 One of the largest human influences on the
CO
1915-24
2 450 B 1985-94 hydrologic cycle results from changes in land
X use. Alteration of the land surface and natural
CO 400
vegetation disrupts the natural balance of pre-
V 350
cipitation, evapotranspiration, and runoff at a
CO 300
given location. This effect tends to be exagger-
.g 250
|. 200
ated by the fact that land use change (e.g.
agriculture and urbanization) is often associated

iMIiJI ll
S 150
I
Co
100 with the direct physical changes discussed
? 50 above.
^ 0 These and other direct human impacts on the
O N D J F M A M J J A S
hydrosphere are unlikely to affect the global
Fig. 6-12 Comparison of mean monthly averaged hydrologic cycle, particularly since humans
daily discharges for the Columbia River at The Dalles, have not had a great deal of success in manip-
Oregon for water years 1915-1924 (1 Oct. 1914-30 ulating the water balances of the ocean and
Sep. 1924) and 1985-1994. (Data from US Geological atmosphere, the largest and most sensitive reser-
Survey, Station 14105700.) voirs in the system, respectively. Significant
anthropogenic effects on the hydrologic cycle
are much more likely to arise from indirect
May-June runoff peaks, 2 to 2.5 times the annual changes, most notably human-induced climate
average runoff in the 1915-1924 period prior to change.
dam construction, v\^ere barely 1.5 times the
average flow between 1985 and 1994. Mean-
while, autumn low flows during the 1985-1994 6.8 Conclusion
period are close to the mean annual flow, com-
pared to low flows at about half the mean prior Cycling of water between the atmosphere, land
to river regulation. surface, and oceans is important not only to
The consequences of this regulated system humans and other organisms, which rely on
include significantly lower total discharge water to live, but in maintaining balances in
(beyond what would be expected from climate other cycles as well. Hydrologic fluxes, predo-
variability), ecological effects of altered fresh- minantly rain and rivers, transport significant
water inputs to the Pacific, and altered sediment amounts of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and phos-
budgets due to sediment trapping behind dams. phorus, among other elements, between reser-
One unintended result of the changed hydro- voirs in their own biogeochemical cycles. Rivers
graph has been reduced autumn and winter are also a major link in the tectonic cycle,
surface salinity from the mouth of the Columbia transporting sediment eroded from upland
along the North American coast to the Aleutian areas to inland basins and to the oceans. The
Island chain, which has potentially negative heat capacities and physical properties of all
ecological consequences for endangered salmon phases of water also give the hydrosphere an
runs. important role in the global heat balance and
Regional water balances are also altered by climate.
agricultural and domestic water uses drawing To this point, direct human impacts on the
on underground aquifers, increasingly at rates hydrosphere have remained restricted to the
that exceed natural recharge capability and regional scale. Although they can still be impor-
result in groundwater overdraft. Pollution of tant, particularly in terms of water supply, these
surface and groundwaters, though it has no direct manipulations of the hydrologic cycle are
physical effect on the water cycle itself, results unlikely to affect the global water balance sig-
in a loss of freshwater resources in addition to nificantly. However, this is not to suggest that
the effects on balances in other biogeochemical the global water cycle is immune to human
cycles. influence; its close ties to other physical and
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