Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Traditional Religion of The Liangmai Naga
Traditional Religion of The Liangmai Naga
RESEARCH ARTICLE
ABSTRACT
This paper discusses the performance of religion and nature of its
continuity and change among the Liangmais in North-East India. The Liangmais
are an indigenous group inhabited in Manipur and Nagaland. They practice
Christianity as their religion. However, prior to conversion to Christianity, they
had their own traditional religion, which was belief in the existence of spirits.
Dr.Widinibou Charengna During British rule in India, Christianity swept over the entire region and this
community had since then embraced Christianity yet the tradition, beliefs
system, symbols etc. continued to be major part of their culture. After their
conversion to Christianity, there have been many changes in their society and
culture. At the same time, many of their traditional practices have penetrated
into their practice of Christianity. The paper looks into the nature of change and
D Mary Kim Haokip
continuity in their belief sytem, religious performances, traditions and culture
practices.
Citation:
APA Charengna,W. & Haokip, D.M.K., (2017) The Performance of Traditional Religion of The Liangmai
Naga in North East India: Continuity and Change.Vedas Journal of English Language and
Literature- JOELL, 4(2), 29-35.
MLA Charengna Widinibou and D.Mary Kim Haokip The Performance of Traditional Religion of The
Liangmai Naga in North East India: Continuity and Change.Vedas Journal of English Language and
Literature- JOELL 4.2(2017): 29-35.
1* 2
29 Dr.Widinibou Charengna , Dr. D. Mary Kim Haokip
VEDAS
JOURNAL OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE (JOELL) Vol.4 Issue 2
An International Peer Reviewed Journal 2017
http://www.joell.in
1. INTRODUCTION faith. The spirit world is real for them and they
Liangmais are one of the ethnic and believed in a variety of spirits. The Liangmais believed
indigeneous communities living in the North eastern that the spirits guard them from disease, pestilence
part of India, particularly Nagaland and Manipur. The and natural devastations like failure of crops, storm
Liangmai Nagas ethnically belonged to the Mongoloid and floods. The Liangmais believed in the existence
group of race and their languages belonged to the of many spirits. Therefore, they are treated at
Tibeto-Burman language family. Etymologically, the different levels as they are feared, worshipped,
term Liangmai is composed of two words: appeased, etc. They can be categorized as the
LIANG and MAI, LIANG Support or grouped as one benevolent and the malevolent spirits. Christian
and MAI people. Thus, Liangmai means the people missionary writers Liangmai projected religion to be
who have grouped themselves in support of each animistic and misunderstood that all the spirits are
other to live together as one community or tribe. malevolent, mischievous and dangerous.
Liangmai and Zeme are referred to collectively as 2.1 MALEVOLENT SPIRIT
Zeliang in Nagaland whereas in Manipur, they are The Liangmais believed in the existence of
recognised separately as Zeme and Liangmai. malevolent spirits known as Charakasabo who
In Manipur, Liangmais are mainly found in manifest themselves in the hills, forest, big rocks,
Tamenglong, Senapati and Imphal west districts. In rivers; big trees by howling and screaming even at
Nagaland, they are mainly settled in Tening Sub- noon. The Charakasabo, the Malevolent Spirits were
division of Peren district including Jalukie, Peren. always thought to be dangerous and destructive to
They are also found in Dimapur and Kohima. human affairs. Natural phenomenon like hailstorm,
According to Liangmai Naga Council (LNC), the total landslide, thunder, lightning, earthquake, and
population of Liangmais is 65,000. Liangmai hurricane were assumed to be the action of these
population in Manipur state is higher than that of malevolent spirits. These are the spirits of people
Nagaland. who die in accidents or unnatural death; for instance,
2. TRADITIONAL RELIGIOUS BELIEFS OF THE persons who die in childbirth or in pregnancy and
LIANGMAIS children who die in their mothers womb or before
Liangmais had their own traditional religion the cleaning ceremony are completed or those who
before their conversion to Christianity. With the die of accidents such as drowning, falling from tree
coming of the Christian missionaries, they have etc. These spirits are believed to live outside the
emrace as their main Christianity. However, in village, on road sides, in the fields, rivers, ponds,
Nagaland, a small section of the people at Tening trees and stones. It is believed that all kinds of
town, still uphold the traditional religion by affiliating human sufferings such as damage of properties,
a cult with Heraka which was founded by Mr. disease, accidents of various kinds and madness are
Jadonang and Rani Gaidinliu. Prior to the coming of all caused by these spirits.
Christianity, the Liangmais had their own traditional 2.2 THE BENEVOLENT SPIRIT
religious belief in the form of worshipping natural The benevolent spirits are believed to help
objects such as tree, stone, sun and other objects. some people in different situations such as hunting,
They believed in the supreme God who is known as prevent accident during journey and the like. It is
Charawang perceived to be omnipotent, generally thought to be the spirit responsible for the
omnipresent and omniscient.The Liangmais believed welfare and prosperity of humans. This spirit not only
that the Supreme God is the creator God who creates but also sustains and controls the earth.
reigned with limitless power in heaven and earth. Thus, benevolent spirit is worshiped and people offer
They also have explicit ideas about gods, goddesses sacrifices not out of fear, but it is worshiped out of
and spiritual beings and believed that their deities reverence and love. In return, this spirit needs to be
control their lives. worshipped through proper sacrifices lest the spirit
Besides the Supreme Being, belief in the might not guard the people and consequently,
existence of the spirits occupies the core of Liangmai
1* 2
30 Dr.Widinibou Charengna , Dr. D. Mary Kim Haokip
VEDAS
JOURNAL OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE (JOELL) Vol.4 Issue 2
An International Peer Reviewed Journal 2017
http://www.joell.in
disease, epidemics and failure of crops might take known as Karapui for female and karapiu for male.
place in the village. Witchcraft and magic practices were more prevalent
It is generally believed that benevolent particularly in the pre-Christian period. Magic would
spirits are gracious to a few individuals. This spirit has be thrown on individuals if there is covetousness,
the power to heal the sick, shower good harvest, and jealousy, and antagonism. Romantic magic were cast
bestow prosperity to people. on girls by the man in love to win her. Even a girl
3. RITUALS AND SACRIFICES could cast a romantic magic on a boy in similar
At the beginning of each year, the priest of situation. They can also kill or harm anyone by
the village performs a community offering to the causing severe stomach pain, headache, vomiting,
spirit asking for abundant harvest. On this day, men backache and the alike. They indirectly assault even
are prohibited from going out of the village and and cooked rice and meat in which food can no longer be
the priest is required to abstain from sexual consumed as it is defiled by contaminated by them.
relationship with his wife. In other instances, karapui or karapiu could be
The Liangmais sacrifice animals to motion in the form of pig, snake, lion and cat.
Charawang the supreme God to seek blessings for 5. TABOO
their lives, family members, crops, fields, and Taboo is a prohibition and religious sanction
domestic animals. Rituals and sacrifices were more including the social disapproval laid down by society
prominent at the time of planting paddy seeds, on incest, morality, ethics, and other issues. Taboo is
harvest, natural calamities, sickness, festivals, practised within gender, religion, cultivation, journey,
epidemics, wedding, death and celebration of a marriage, birth, death etc. Traditionally, Liangmai
childs birth. Naga men are prohibited to involve in weaving. They
On seed sowing festival, an animal, either a abstain from touching any weaving equipments. Men
pig or a mithun, is sacrificed as an offering to are not allowed to walk beneath hangers where
Charawang the Supreme God, for good harvest and womens clothes are hanged. The taboo restricted
prosperity followed by the feast of the villagers. the behaviour of individuals in the society and dealt
Everyone comes and joins in this community feast. with their moral life. It is linked to the supreme God
The spleen of the sacrified pig is examined as an who would punish or render reward to individuals
omen to see and predict the success of the harvest based on his/her moral character.
and prosperity of the people in that coming year. In Liangmai Naga society, there are many
Phaimiu the Priest performs rituals and taboos pertaining to women. They are prohibited to
sacrifices with an egg or hen or goat with the blow a whistle and to climb on the roof of house.
chanting of hymns as remedial measures for sickness, They are also not permitted to participate in magubo,
natural calamities, and epidemics. Sacrifices were traditional howl. There are also many taboos and
also offered by either shedding blood of domestic restriction for women during pregnancy and
animals or by setting free in the jungle to propitiate conception, When a woman conceives, she is
the sickness. required to undertake various precautions e.g. avoid
Cows, buffaloes and other domesticated meeting strangers, abstain from heavy works and
animals like dog, chicken were sacrificed at the eating meats of wild animals. Later on, she is to
demise of a wealthy man in the village. When an confine herself to household works. She is forbidden
ordinary person dies, the family members would to consume certain foods such as crab, cat, bear and
offer sacrifices with cooked rice, rice beer, vegetarian brain of any animals. The Liangmais assumed that
and non vegetarian foods wrapped in plantains or consumption of these food items would lead to a
banana leaves called Chagumnui near the tomb. miscarriage. The husband is also supposed to restrain
4. WITCHCRAFT AND MAGIC himself from hunting. There is also a prohibition of
The Liangmais practised witchcraft and marriage within the same clan and those who marry
magic depending on the required situations. The within the same clan are socially outcast from the
individuals who practise witchcraft and magic were
1* 2
31 Dr.Widinibou Charengna , Dr. D. Mary Kim Haokip
VEDAS
JOURNAL OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE (JOELL) Vol.4 Issue 2
An International Peer Reviewed Journal 2017
http://www.joell.in
village. There is a belief that if one breaks the rules of people who have been possessed by the evil spirits.
marriage; it will lead to abnormal births. However, Liangmai Nagas converted to Christianity
There are also many beliefs and taboos rather late as compared to other Naga tribes.
regarding natural phenomenon. For example, when Rev. William Pettigrew was the first man to
kathi earthquake occurs, they believed that bring the gospel to the Liangmai soil in 1919 A.D. This
Charawang God wish to validate the existence of paved the way for Liangmais to come into contact
humanity by shaking the ground. That is why till with the Christian missionaries. In 1920, Mr. Mateibo
today when an earthquake occurs people scream Pamei from LongdiPabram of Tamenglong district in
relentlessly as Chamai ring bam kha ye which means Manipur became the first convert among the
human beings are still alive on earth. They believed Liangmai Naga in 1920 and Mr. Maisi Newmai from
that God ceased to shake the earth after hearing the Taningjam village of Tamenglong district in Manipur
voices of the people. If one is cooking food at the converted to Christianity in 1923.
time of earthquake, it should not be consumed as it is The Liangmai Nagas built their first Liangmai
believed to be contaminated and not healthy for Christian church in LongdiPabram village,
consumption. They also believed that it is bad to Tamenglong district of Manipur. The conversion of
sleep in south-north position rather the head should Liangmai Nagas into Christianity began to proliferate
be facing towards the north. in the 1950s and 1960s. Although majority of the
6. CONVERSION TO CHRISTIANITY Lianmgai have converted to Christianity but a small
Liangmai religion was traditionally animism; section of people at Tening town, Nagaland still
however, they have converted to Christianity due to uphold traditional religion by affiliating a cult with
the influence of the Christian missionaries. After the Heraka which was founded by Mr. Jadonang and Rani
conversion of Liangmai Naga into Christianity, there Gaidinliu. In spite of their conversion to Christianity,
have been many changes in different aspects of their they have been preserving their traditional tribal
social and cultural life. The traditional dances and customs, norms, and laws that govern the people
music are at risk after being converted into with changed mode of Christian principle and values.
Christianity. People sing Christian hymns and The Christian missionaries urged the people
contemporary gospel songs in the churches. Singing to abandon sacrifices to the deities, drink rice beer,
of folk songs was not encouraged except during the and sleep in marung. These proscriptions were the
festival and cultural celebrations. However, they have very anti thesis of their traditional life. They
assimilated the Christian way of life but retained convinced to cease from practicing head hunting.
some of their traditions to a certain extent. They were taught to love their enemies and refrain
There were several reasons for the Liangmai from killing each others. The most significant impact
Naga to be converted into Christianity. They have of Christianity among the Naga was in the field of
knowledge of rites and rituals practices handed down education and literature. A change so drastic that
to them from one generation to another. But they missionary often called darkness to dawn. With the
have no traditional structure of worship and they do untiring work of William Pettigrew in the process to
not construct a place in honour of their deities. preach the gospel of Jesus Christ the people were
Therefore, they could easily absorb Christianity also taught about reading and writing and it was him
because missionaries teach them to develop a who decided to use roman script for this people. As
personal relationship with Jesus Christ. They were far as religion is concerned it is Christianity that gave
taught that Christianity is an only way of life. them peace, a new hope and Christianity is so deeply
Christian missionaries point out that any non- rooted that reviving their traditional religion is not
Christian societies were under darkness and they something the present generation can foresee.
have to be empowered to come into the light of the Today, the people of Liangmai are almost Christians
world through Jesus Christ. From this perspective, in total and it would not be long before the whole
the Naga in general and the Liangmai in particular population becomes Christians when all the elders
were under the darkness. They were considered as who hold on to their traditional religion passed away.
1* 2
32 Dr.Widinibou Charengna , Dr. D. Mary Kim Haokip
VEDAS
JOURNAL OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE (JOELL) Vol.4 Issue 2
An International Peer Reviewed Journal 2017
http://www.joell.in
But with the coming of Baptist missionary, it also respected for the fact that it was the priest who
open the way for other Christian denominations to propitiate, who in other sense communicates.
come and the total population of Liangmai in the Conversion to Christianity has not changed the role
present generation is divided into Baptist (90%) of the priest. Infact, the role of the priest has
Catholics (4%) Seven Day Adventist (2 %) and non- increased and thet are now known as Kalenmai
Christians and others (4%). Prophet/Visioner
7. CONTINUITY AND CHANGE
With the coming of Christianity and 7.3. CONTINUITY IN OFFERING
education, the people began to have exposure to the Prior to their conversion to Christianity,
outside world which brought a massive change in they had to pay the best portion of their harvest to
their culture including the dress pattern, speech and the Charawang God. This giving continued after
behaviour but underneath they are the same people converting to Christianity. They pay ten percent of
with some attached goals recognizable from within their income. Paying of tithe to the Church is made
their traditional culture. It is within this culture that manditory. In addition, offering in the form of cash or
people hold on to their traditional values giving them kind still continues in the church. If any family or
a sense of unity and belongingness which makes individual avoid or pay less then what they ought to,
them realizes the importance of their unique culture. they became the talk of the village. Even if the people
What we see today is the strong continuity in culture had not seen such breaches they believe that the one
which is even increasing but on religious account who is omnipresent can see everything.
such continuity is diminishing. With the advent of 7.4. CONTINUITY IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Christianity, traditional religious practices and Although they have emrace christiniatiy and
modified to suit the teachings of Christianity. Some of have gaven up many social and cultural practices, the
traditional judicial system still persist. When the
the most important changes and continuity are
magnitude of the conflict is high, it is the traditional
discussed in the following sections. judgment system that they still invoke. One such
7.1. CHANGE IN BELIEF SYSTEM example is called Apaimai, which is very powerful
The witchcraft and magic is not something village council. They are the highest authority in the
to be followed after converting to Christianity. Except village. In case of conflict or dispute, it is resolved by
this body. If any crimes like theft, murder, adultery
for those who are very religious, the prominent
etc. occur, it is this village council these cases and
continuity was seen in the belief system. It is a their decision is final.
struggle for many individuals with the belief system 7.5. CONTINUITY IN BURIAL
of the traditional life, in the way they think, the The Liangmai people bury the dead since
symbols and meaning they conceived are very much time immemorial by performing different rituals for
influenced by the way of traditional thoughts that the deceased. This burial system still continues with
signifies the meaning of everything around them the rituals performed according to the Christian faith.
which is strictly against the Christian faith.The beliefs 7.6. CONTINUITY IN LIFE AFTER DEATH
and commitments never run dry, remembering and The Liangmais believe in the existence of
praying to the converted faith of Christianity in soul which is a part of human body but if anybody die
everything they do has now become part of their the soul separates from the human body. In the days
existence. Thus, the people as god fearing or spirits of yore, the soul goes to chariuram but after
fearing continue, but to a new God, the God converting to Christianity they believed the soul goes
Christianity has given them. The Liangmai tribal to paradise until the second coming of Jesus Christ.
community is now living a converted Christian life, a 7.7. CONTINUITY IN FESTIVALS AND RITUALS
belief in one god. The Liangmai Naga today has come a long
7.2. CONTINUITY IN THE IMPORTANCE OF PRIEST way from purely agriculturist to embarking modern
The priest in the days of yore was called Phaimiu who education system. It was said that during the era of
played an important role among the people in the conversion when strong movement of Christianity
Liangmai society. The priest was feared and
1* 2
33 Dr.Widinibou Charengna , Dr. D. Mary Kim Haokip
VEDAS
JOURNAL OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE (JOELL) Vol.4 Issue 2
An International Peer Reviewed Journal 2017
http://www.joell.in
th
was sweeping across the Liangmai hills, some being converted into Christianity in the 20 century.
traditional cultures got swept away too as they broke They believe in the biblical doctrine that their intense
and threw away all that has to do with the tradition. problems would be solved with the divine
Yet there is a huge continuity blended with the intervention of Jesus Christ and they do not require
Christian faith to suit the religious framework of the any kind of magical assistance like before. It is
Christianity today. One strong area of continuity is assumed that their problems in any circumstances
seen in the festivals which are still celebrated even would be solved through the power of Jesus Christ.
after converting to Christianity. The whole spirit and 8. CONCLUSION
concept of festival remains the same with the change It can be concluded that with the coming of
in the way religion play its part. Some of the Christianity there has been many changes in almost
continuity in festivals are as follows: every aspects of life including their social, political
1) Chaga ngee- The seed sowing festival and world view with the people having more or less
2) Hentak ngee- This is a post-trans-plantation continuous contact to the outside world. They are no
festival more immune from dynamic changes of their
3) Miusan ngee- Pre-harvest festival where surroundings.
they plucked the best fruits and brought to For the Liangmais, the change is in the God
the Church for offering they worship, which is the vital force of religion but
4) Miukenkeebo- This is harvest festival. the spirit, the commitment continues to run and
5) Makaiphik ngee- This is a festival of religion continues to have the major influence in
thanksgiving. every sphere of their life. In spite of changing their
6) Karinggen keebo- Blessing Pre-memorial faith and embracing new religion, one cannot deny
ceremony the continuity that persists in the area which is
In the days of yore, all these festivals and permitted by the new religion. The traditional
rituals would have been associated with propitiation festivals, symbols and meanings of the nature
to spirit and drinking of rice beer but this propitiation continue to have an important place in the present
and offering along with drinking of rice beer is strictly Liangmai Naga tribal community. The importance and
prohibited after converting to Christianity. Some awareness of such festivals seems to be increasing as
festivals could not be brought forward after the people realized the uniqueness and importance
converting to Christianity as it has to do with of their culture. This can be seen from the fact that in
propitiating the spirit and some of such festivals almost every occasions and functions people are
which retains only in the memory of the people asked to wear their traditional dress, perform
are:Chakengngee (festival of dead), Pungchangngee traditional dances called Charilen and traditional
(festival celebrating long life)etc, Zou hubo (Festival song called pui pi tu ping sangnu. This is a conscious
of a person who has accomplished many effort from the young learned ones to revive and
achievements). This is the highest status of a man preserve their culture and in the near future their
could achieve in his lifetime. culture and tradition will be revived only to be
All these animistic rituals were preserved for future references.
supplemented by addition of new Christian festivals REFERENCES
which is now playing an important part of their life [1]. Newmai, Ajailiu, (2009) Religion of the Liangmai Nagas in
such as Christmas, Good Friday, Easter Sunday, etc. North-East India In Manohar, D. M (Eds) Dalit and Region
(pp 30-55) New Delhi: Atlantic Publisher & Distributors.
Apart from all these continuity, there are many areas
[2]. Elwin, Verrier, (1969) The Nagas in the Nineteen Century,
of continuity such as, village administration, shawl Bombay: Oxford University Press.
presentation on the occasion of marriage or death, [3]. Kamei, Gangmumei, (1997) Jadonang-A History of the
giving the meat share to the in-laws etc. Zeliangrong Naga: From Makhel to Rani Gaidinliu,
Guwahati: Spectrum Publication.
Christianity has also brought about other
[4]. Ruivah K., (1993) Social Change among the Naga
changes in their belief system. The Liangmai Nagas (Tangkhul), New Delhi: Cosmo Publication.
have ceased to practise magic and witchcraft after
1* 2
34 Dr.Widinibou Charengna , Dr. D. Mary Kim Haokip
VEDAS
JOURNAL OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE (JOELL) Vol.4 Issue 2
An International Peer Reviewed Journal 2017
http://www.joell.in
1* 2
35 Dr.Widinibou Charengna , Dr. D. Mary Kim Haokip