1/1/2017 GeorgeOrwell:PartI:EnglandYourEngland

GeorgeOrwell
EnglandYourEngland

I
AsIwrite,highlycivilizedhumanbeingsareflyingoverhead,tryingtokillme.
Theydonotfeelanyenmityagainstmeasanindividual,norIagainstthem.Theyareonlydoingtheir
duty,asthesayinggoes.Mostofthem,Ihavenodoubt,arekindheartedlawabidingmenwhowouldnever
dreamofcommittingmurderinprivatelife.Ontheotherhand,ifoneofthemsucceedsinblowingmetopieces
with a wellplaced bomb, he will never sleep any the worse for it. He is serving his country, which has the
powertoabsolvehimfromevil.
Onecannotseethemodernworldasitisunlessonerecognizestheoverwhelmingstrengthofpatriotism,
nationalloyalty.Incertaincircumstancesitcanbreakdown,atcertainlevelsofcivilizationitdoesnotexist,
butasapositiveforcethereisnothingtosetbesideit.ChristianityandinternationalSocialismareasweakas
straw in comparison with it. Hitler and Mussolini rose to power in their own countries very largely because
theycouldgraspthisfactandtheiropponentscouldnot.
Also, one must admit that the divisions between nation and nation are founded on real differences of
outlook.Tillrecentlyitwasthoughtpropertopretendthatallhumanbeingsareverymuchalike,butinfact
anyoneabletousehiseyesknowsthattheaverageofhumanbehaviourdiffersenormouslyfromcountryto
country.Thingsthatcouldhappeninonecountrycouldnothappeninanother.Hitler'sJunepurge,forinstance,
couldnothavehappenedinEngland.And,aswesternpeoplesgo,theEnglishareveryhighlydifferentiated.
Thereisasortofbackhandedadmissionofthisinthedislikewhichnearlyallforeignersfeelforournational
way of life. Few Europeans can endure living in England, and even Americans often feel more at home in
Europe.
When you come back to England from any foreign country, you have immediately the sensation of
breathingadifferentair.Eveninthefirstfewminutesdozensofsmallthingsconspiretogiveyouthisfeeling.
Thebeerisbitterer,thecoinsareheavier,thegrassisgreener,theadvertisementsaremoreblatant.Thecrowds
in the big towns, with their mild knobby faces, their bad teeth and gentle manners, are different from a
Europeancrowd.ThenthevastnessofEnglandswallowsyouup,andyouloseforawhileyourfeelingthatthe
wholenationhasasingleidentifiablecharacter.Aretherereallysuchthingsasnations?Arewenotfortysix
millionindividuals,alldifferent?Andthediversityofit,thechaos!TheclatterofclogsintheLancashiremill
towns, the toandfro of the lorries on the Great North Road, the queues outside the Labour Exchanges, the
rattleofpintablesintheSohopubs,theoldmaidshikingtoHolyCommunionthroughthemistsoftheautumn
morningallthesearenotonlyfragments,butcharacteristicfragments,oftheEnglishscene.Howcanone
makeapatternoutofthismuddle?
Buttalktoforeigners,readforeignbooksornewspapers,andyouarebroughtbacktothesamethought.
Yes,thereissomethingdistinctiveandrecognizableinEnglishcivilization.Itisacultureasindividualasthat
ofSpain.ItissomehowboundupwithsolidbreakfastsandgloomySundays,smokytownsandwindingroads,
green fields and red pillarboxes. It has a flavour of its own. Moreover it is continuous, it stretches into the
futureandthepast,thereissomethinginitthatpersists,asinalivingcreature.WhatcantheEnglandof1940
haveincommonwiththeEnglandof1840?Butthen,whathaveyouincommonwiththechildoffivewhose
photographyourmotherkeepsonthemantelpiece?Nothing,exceptthatyouhappentobethesameperson.
Andaboveall,itisyourcivilization,itisyou.Howevermuchyouhateitorlaughatit,youwillneverbe
happyawayfromitforanylengthoftime.Thesuetpuddingsandtheredpillarboxeshaveenteredintoyour
soul.Goodorevil,itisyours,youbelongtoit,andthissidethegraveyouwillnevergetawayfromthemarks
thatithasgivenyou.

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Meanwhile England, together with the rest of the world, is changing. And like everything else it can
changeonlyincertaindirections,whichuptoapointcanbeforeseen.Thatisnottosaythatthefutureisfixed,
merely that certain alternatives are possible and others not. A seed may grow or not grow, but at any rate a
turnip seed never grows into a parsnip. It is therefore of the deepest importance to try and determine what
Englandis,beforeguessingwhatpartEnglandcanplayinthehugeeventsthatarehappening.

II
Nationalcharacteristicsarenoteasytopindown,andwhenpinneddowntheyoftenturnouttobetrivialitiesor
seemtohavenoconnexionwithoneanother.Spaniardsarecrueltoanimals,Italianscandonothingwithout
making a deafening noise, the Chinese are addicted to gambling. Obviously such things don't matter in
themselves. Nevertheless, nothing is causeless, and even the fact that Englishmen have bad teeth can tell
somethingabouttherealitiesofEnglishlife.
HereareacoupleofgeneralizationsaboutEnglandthatwouldbeacceptedbyalmostallobservers.One
isthattheEnglisharenotgiftedartistically.TheyarenotasmusicalastheGermansorItalians,paintingand
sculpture have never flourished in England as they have in France. Another is that, as Europeans go, the
English are not intellectual. They have a horror of abstract thought, they feel no need for any philosophy or
systematic worldview. Nor is this because they are practical, as they are so fond of claiming for
themselves.Onehasonlytolookattheirmethodsoftownplanningandwatersupply,theirobstinateclinging
toeverythingthatisoutofdateandanuisance,aspellingsystemthatdefiesanalysis,andasystemofweights
and measures that is intelligible only to the compilers of arithmetic books, to see how little they care about
mereefficiency.Buttheyhaveacertainpowerofactingwithouttakingthought.Theirworldfamedhypocrisy
their doublefaced attitude towards the Empire, for instance is bound up with this. Also, in moments of
supremecrisisthewholenationcansuddenlydrawtogetherandactuponaspeciesofinstinct,reallyacodeof
conductwhichisunderstoodbyalmosteveryone,thoughneverformulated.ThephrasethatHitlercoinedfor
the Germans, a sleepwalking people, would have been better applied to the English. Not that there is
anythingtobeproudofinbeingcalledasleepwalker.
But here it is worth noting a minor English trait which is extremely well marked though not often
commentedon,andthatisaloveofflowers.Thisisoneofthefirstthingsthatonenoticeswhenonereaches
England from abroad, especially if one is coming from southern Europe. Does it not contradict the English
indifferencetothearts?Notreally,becauseitisfoundinpeoplewhohavenoaestheticfeelingswhatever.What
itdoeslinkupwith,however,isanotherEnglishcharacteristicwhichissomuchapartofusthatwebarely
noticeit,andthatistheaddictiontohobbiesandsparetimeoccupations,theprivatenessofEnglishlife.Weare
anationofflowerlovers,butalsoanationofstampcollectors,pigeonfanciers,amateurcarpenters,coupon
snippers, dartsplayers, crosswordpuzzle fans. All the culture that is most truly native centres round things
whichevenwhentheyarecommunalarenotofficialthepub,thefootballmatch,thebackgarden,thefireside
andthenicecupoftea.Thelibertyoftheindividualisstillbelievedin,almostasinthenineteenthcentury.
Butthishasnothingtodowitheconomicliberty,therighttoexploitothersforprofit.Itisthelibertytohavea
homeofyourown,todowhatyoulikeinyoursparetime,tochooseyourownamusementsinsteadofhaving
themchosenforyoufromabove.ThemosthatefulofallnamesinanEnglishearisNoseyParker.Itisobvious,
ofcourse,thateventhispurelyprivatelibertyisalostcause.Likeallothermodernpeople,theEnglisharein
processofbeingnumbered,labelled,conscripted,coordinated.Butthepulloftheirimpulsesisintheother
direction, and the kind of regimentation that can be imposed on them will be modified in consequence. No
party rallies, no Youth Movements, no coloured shirts, no Jewbaiting or spontaneous demonstrations. No
Gestapoeither,inallprobability.
But in all societies the common people must live to some extent against the existing order. The
genuinelypopularcultureofEnglandissomethingthatgoesonbeneaththesurface,unofficiallyandmoreor
lessfrownedonbytheauthorities.Onethingonenoticesifonelooksdirectlyatthecommonpeople,especially
in the big towns, is that they are not puritanical. They are inveterate gamblers, drink as much beer as their

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wageswillpermit,aredevotedtobawdyjokes,anduseprobablythefoulestlanguageintheworld.Theyhave
tosatisfythesetastesinthefaceofastonishing,hypocriticallaws(licensinglaws,lotteryacts,etc.etc.)which
aredesignedtointerferewitheverybodybutinpracticealloweverythingtohappen.Also,thecommonpeople
arewithoutdefinitereligiousbelief,andhavebeensoforcenturies.TheAnglicanChurchneverhadarealhold
onthem,itwassimplyapreserveofthelandedgentry,andtheNonconformistsectsonlyinfluencedminorities.
AndyettheyhaveretainedadeeptingeofChristianfeeling,whilealmostforgettingthenameofChrist.The
powerworship which is the new religion of Europe, and which has infected the English intelligentsia, has
never touched the common people. They have never caught up with power politics. The realism which is
preachedinJapaneseandItaliannewspaperswouldhorrifythem.Onecanlearnagooddealaboutthespiritof
England from the comic coloured postcards that you see in the windows of cheap stationers shops. These
thingsareasortofdiaryuponwhichtheEnglishpeoplehaveunconsciouslyrecordedthemselves.Theirold
fashionedoutlook,theirgradedsnobberies,theirmixtureofbawdinessandhypocrisy,theirextremegentleness,
theirdeeplymoralattitudetolife,areallmirroredthere.
The gentleness of the English civilization is perhaps its most marked characteristic. You notice it the
instantyousetfootonEnglishsoil.Itisalandwherethebusconductorsaregoodtemperedandthepolicemen
carrynorevolvers.Innocountryinhabitedbywhitemenisiteasiertoshovepeopleoffthepavement.And
with this goes something that is always written off by European observers as decadence or hypocrisy, the
Englishhatredofwarandmilitarism.Itisrooteddeepinhistory,anditisstronginthelowermiddleclassas
wellastheworkingclass.Successivewarshaveshakenitbutnotdestroyedit.Wellwithinlivingmemoryit
wascommonfortheredcoatstobebooedatinthestreetsandforthelandlordsofrespectablepublichouses
torefusetoallowsoldiersonthepremises.Inpeacetime,evenwhentherearetwomillionunemployed,itis
difficulttofilltheranksofthetinystandingarmy,whichisofficeredbythecountrygentryandaspecialized
stratumofthemiddleclass,andmannedbyfarmlabourersandslumproletarians.Themassofthepeopleare
withoutmilitaryknowledgeortradition,andtheirattitudetowardswarisinvariablydefensive.Nopolitician
could rise to power by promising them conquests or military glory, no Hymn of Hate has ever made any
appealtothem.Inthelastwarthesongswhichthesoldiersmadeupandsangoftheirownaccordwerenot
vengefulbuthumorousandmockdefeatist(1).Theonlyenemytheyevernamedwasthesergeantmajor.
InEnglandalltheboastingandflagwagging,theRuleBritanniastuff,isdonebysmallminorities.The
patriotism of the common people is not vocal or even conscious. They do not retain among their historical
memoriesthenameofasinglemilitaryvictory.Englishliterature,likeotherliteratures,isfullofbattlepoems,
but it is worth noticing that the ones that have won for themselves a kind of popularity are always a tale of
disasters and retreats. There is no popular poem about Trafalgar or Waterloo, for instance. Sir John Moore's
armyatCorunna,fightingadesperaterearguardactionbeforeescapingoverseas(justlikeDunkirk!)hasmore
appeal than a brilliant victory. The most stirring battlepoem in English is about a brigade of cavalry which
chargedinthewrongdirection.Andofthelastwar,thefournameswhichhavereallyengravedthemselveson
the popular memory are Mons, Ypres, Gallipoli and Passchendaele, every time a disaster. The names of the
greatbattlesthatfinallybroketheGermanarmiesaresimplyunknowntothegeneralpublic.
ThereasonwhytheEnglishantimilitarismdisgustsforeignobserversisthatitignorestheexistenceof
theBritishEmpire.Itlookslikesheerhypocrisy.Afterall,theEnglishhaveabsorbedaquarteroftheearthand
heldontoitbymeansofahugenavy.Howdaretheythenturnroundandsaythatwariswicked?
ItisquitetruethattheEnglisharehypocriticalabouttheirEmpire.Intheworkingclassthishypocrisy
takestheformofnotknowingthattheEmpireexists.Buttheirdislikeofstandingarmiesisaperfectlysound
instinct. A navy employs comparatively few people, and it is an external weapon which cannot affect home
politics directly. Military dictatorships exist everywhere, but there is no such thing as a naval dictatorship.
WhatEnglishpeopleofnearlyallclassesloathefromthebottomoftheirheartsistheswaggeringofficertype,
thejingleofspursandthecrashofboots.DecadesbeforeHitlerwaseverheardof,thewordPrussianhad
much the same significance in England as Nazi has today. So deep does this feeling go that for a hundred
yearspasttheofficersoftheBritisharmy,inpeacetime,havealwaysworncivilianclotheswhenoffduty.
Onerapidbutfairlysureguidetothesocialatmosphereofacountryistheparadestepofitsarmy.A
militaryparadeisreallyakindofritualdance,somethinglikeaballet,expressingacertainphilosophyoflife.
Thegoosestep,forinstance,isoneofthemosthorriblesightsintheworld,farmoreterrifyingthanadive
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bomber.Itissimplyanaffirmationofnakedpowercontainedinit,quiteconsciouslyandintentionally,isthe
visionofabootcrashingdownonaface.Itsuglinessispartofitsessence,forwhatitissayingisYes,Iam
ugly,andyoudaren'tlaughatme,likethebullywhomakesfacesathisvictim.Whyisthegoosestepnotused
inEngland?Thereare,heavenknows,plentyofarmyofficerswhowouldbeonlytoogladtointroducesome
suchthing.Itisnotusedbecausethepeopleinthestreetwouldlaugh.Beyondacertainpoint,militarydisplay
is only possible in countries where the common people dare not laugh at the army. The Italians adopted the
goosestepataboutthetimewhenItalypasseddefinitelyunderGermancontrol,and,asonewouldexpect,they
doitlesswellthantheGermans.TheVichygovernment,ifitsurvives,isboundtointroduceastifferparade
grounddisciplineintowhatisleftoftheFrencharmy.IntheBritisharmythedrillisrigidandcomplicated,full
ofmemoriesoftheeighteenthcentury,butwithoutdefiniteswaggerthemarchismerelyaformalizedwalk.It
belongstoasocietywhichisruledbythesword,nodoubt,butaswordwhichmustneverbetakenoutofthe
scabbard.
And yet the gentleness of English civilization is mixed up with barbarities and anachronisms. Our
criminallawisasoutofdateasthemusketsintheTower.OveragainsttheNaziStormTrooperyouhavegot
to set that typically English figure, the hanging judge, some gouty old bully with his mind rooted in the
nineteenthcentury,handingoutsavagesentences.InEnglandpeoplearestillhangedbytheneckandflogged
withthecatoninetails.Bothofthesepunishmentsareobsceneaswellascruel,buttherehasneverbeenany
genuinelypopularoutcryagainstthem.Peopleacceptthem(andDartmoor,andBorstal)almostastheyaccept
theweather.Theyarepartofthelaw,whichisassumedtobeunalterable.
Here one comes upon an allimportant English trait: the respect for constitutionalism and legality, the
beliefinthelawassomethingabovetheStateandabovetheindividual,somethingwhichiscruelandstupid,
ofcourse,butatanyrateincorruptible.
Itisnotthatanyoneimaginesthelawtobejust.Everyoneknowsthatthereisonelawfortherichand
anotherforthepoor.Butnooneacceptstheimplicationsofthis,everyonetakesitforgrantedthatthelaw,such
asitis,willberespected,andfeelsasenseofoutragewhenitisnot.RemarkslikeTheycan'trunmeinI
haven't done anything wrong, or They can't do that it's against the law, are part of the atmosphere of
England.Theprofessedenemiesofsocietyhavethisfeelingasstronglyasanyoneelse.Oneseesitinprison
bookslikeWilfredMacartney'sWallsHaveMouthsorJimPhelan'sJailJourney, in thesolemnidiocies that
take place at the trials of conscientious objectors, in letters to the papers from eminent Marxist professors,
pointingoutthatthisorthatisamiscarriageofBritishjustice.Everyonebelievesinhisheartthatthelawcan
be,oughttobe,and,onthewhole,willbeimpartiallyadministered.Thetotalitarianideathatthereisnosuch
thingaslaw,thereisonlypower,hasnevertakenroot.Eventheintelligentsiahaveonlyaccepteditintheory.
Anillusioncanbecomeahalftruth,amaskcanaltertheexpressionofaface.Thefamiliarargumentsto
theeffectthatdemocracyisjustthesameasorjustasbadastotalitarianismnevertakeaccountofthisfact.
Allsuchargumentsboildowntosayingthathalfaloafisthesameasnobread.InEnglandsuchconceptsas
justice, liberty and objective truth are still believed in. They may be illusions, but they are very powerful
illusions.Thebeliefintheminfluencesconduct,nationallifeisdifferentbecauseofthem.Inproofofwhich,
lookaboutyou.Wherearetherubbertruncheons,whereisthecastoroil?Theswordisstillinthescabbard,
andwhileitstaystherecorruptioncannotgobeyondacertainpoint.TheEnglishelectoralsystem,forinstance,
isanallbutopenfraud.Inadozenobviouswaysitisgerrymanderedintheinterestofthemoneyedclass.But
until some deep change has occurred in the public mind, it cannot become completely corrupt. You do not
arrive at the polling booth to find men with revolvers telling you which way to vote, nor are the votes
miscounted,noristhereanydirectbribery.Evenhypocrisyisapowerfulsafeguard.Thehangingjudge,that
eviloldmaninscarletrobeandhorsehairwig,whomnothingshortofdynamitewilleverteachwhatcentury
heislivingin,butwhowillatanyrateinterpretthelawaccordingtothebooksandwillinnocircumstances
takeamoneybribe,isoneofthesymbolicfiguresofEngland.Heisasymbolofthestrangemixtureofreality
andillusion,democracyandprivilege,humbuganddecency,thesubtlenetworkofcompromises,bywhichthe
nationkeepsitselfinitsfamiliarshape.

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III
I have spoken all the while of the nation, England, Britain, as though fortyfive million souls could
somehow be treated as a unit. But is not England notoriously two nations, the rich and the poor? Dare one
pretendthatthereisanythingincommonbetweenpeoplewith100,000ayearandpeoplewith1aweek?
AndevenWelshandScottishreadersarelikelytohavebeenoffendedbecauseIhaveusedthewordEngland
oftener than Britain, as though the whole population dwelt in London and the Home Counties and neither
northnorwestpossessedacultureofitsown.
Onegetsabetterviewofthisquestionifoneconsiderstheminorpointfirst.Itisquitetruethattheso
calledracesofBritainfeelthemselvestobeverydifferentfromoneanother.AScotsman,forinstance,doesnot
thankyouifyoucallhimanEnglishman.Youcanseethehesitationwefeelonthispointbythefactthatwe
callourislandsbynolessthansixdifferentnames,England,Britain,GreatBritain,theBritishIsles,theUnited
Kingdomand,inveryexaltedmoments,Albion.EventhedifferencesbetweennorthandsouthEnglandloom
large in our own eyes. But somehow these differences fade away the moment that any two Britons are
confronted by a European. It is very rare to meet a foreigner, other than an American, who can distinguish
betweenEnglishandScotsorevenEnglishandIrish.ToaFrenchman,theBretonandtheAuvergnatseemvery
different beings, and the accent of Marseilles is a stock joke in Paris. Yet we speak of France and the
French, recognizing France as an entity, a single civilization, which in fact it is. So also with ourselves.
LookedatfromtheoutsidereventhecockneyandtheYorkshiremanhaveastrongfamilyresemblance.
Andeventhedistinctionbetweenrichandpoordwindlessomewhatwhenoneregardsthenationfrom
theoutside.ThereisnoquestionabouttheinequalityofwealthinEngland.ItisgrosserthaninanyEuropean
country,andyouhaveonlytolookdowntheneareststreettoseeit.Economically,Englandiscertainlytwo
nations,ifnotthreeorfour.Butatthesametimethevastmajorityofthepeoplefeelthemselvestobeasingle
nationandareconsciousofresemblingoneanothermorethantheyresembleforeigners.Patriotismisusually
strongerthanclasshatred,andalwaysstrongerthananykindofinternationalism.Exceptforabriefmomentin
1920(theHandsoffRussiamovement)theBritishworkingclasshaveneverthoughtoractedinternationally.
FortwoandahalfyearstheywatchedtheircomradesinSpainslowlystrangled,andneveraidedthembyeven
asinglestrike(2).Butwhentheirowncountry(thecountryofLordNuffieldandMrMontaguNorman)wasin
danger,theirattitudewasverydifferent.AtthemomentwhenitseemedlikelythatEnglandmightbeinvaded,
AnthonyEdenappealedovertheradioforLocalDefenceVolunteers.Hegotaquarterofamillionmeninthe
firsttwentyfourhours,andanothermillioninthesubsequentmonth.Onehasonlytocomparethesefigures
with,forinstance,thenumberofconscientiousobjectorstoseehowvastisthestrengthoftraditionalloyalties
comparedwithnewones.
In England patriotism takes different forms in different classes, but it runs like a connecting thread
throughnearlyallofthem.OnlytheEuropeanizedintelligentsiaarereallyimmunetoit.Asapositiveemotion
itisstrongerinthemiddleclassthanintheupperclassthecheappublicschools,forinstance,aremoregiven
topatrioticdemonstrationsthantheexpensiveonesbutthenumberofdefinitelytreacherousrichmen,the
LavalQuislingtype,isprobablyverysmall.Intheworkingclasspatriotismisprofound,butitisunconscious.
The working man's heart does not leap when he sees a Union Jack. But the famous insularity and
xenophobia of the English is far stronger in the working class than in the bourgeoisie. In all countries the
poor are more national than the rich, but the English working class are outstanding in their abhorrence of
foreignhabits.Evenwhentheyareobligedtoliveabroadforyearstheyrefuseeithertoaccustomthemselvesto
foreign food or to learn foreign languages. Nearly every Englishman of workingclass origin considers it
effeminatetopronounceaforeignwordcorrectly.Duringthewarof191418theEnglishworkingclasswerein
contactwithforeignerstoanextentthatisrarelypossible.Thesoleresultwasthattheybroughtbackahatred
ofallEuropeans,excepttheGermans,whosecouragetheyadmired.InfouryearsonFrenchsoiltheydidnot
evenacquirealikingforwine.TheinsularityoftheEnglish,theirrefusaltotakeforeignersseriously,isafolly
that has to be paid for very heavily from time to time. But it plays its part in the English mystique, and the
intellectuals who have tried to break it down have generally done more harm than good. At bottom it is the
samequalityintheEnglishcharacterthatrepelsthetouristandkeepsouttheinvader.

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Here one comes back to two English characteristics that I pointed out, seemingly at random, at the
beginningofthelastchapter.Oneisthelackofartisticability.Thisisperhapsanotherwayofsayingthatthe
English are outside the European culture. For there is one art in which they have shown plenty of talent,
namelyliterature.Butthisisalsotheonlyartthatcannotcrossfrontiers.Literature,especiallypoetry,andlyric
poetrymostofall,isakindoffamilyjoke,withlittleornovalueoutsideitsownlanguagegroup.Exceptfor
Shakespeare, the best English poets are barely known in Europe, even as names. The only poets who are
widelyreadareByron,whoisadmiredforthewrongreasons,andOscarWilde,whoispitiedasavictimof
Englishhypocrisy.Andlinkedupwiththis,thoughnotveryobviously,isthelackofphilosophicalfaculty,the
absenceinnearlyallEnglishmenofanyneedforanorderedsystemofthoughtorevenfortheuseoflogic.
Uptoapoint,thesenseofnationalunityisasubstituteforaworldview.Justbecausepatriotismisall
but universal and not even the rich are uninfluenced by it, there can be moments when the whole nation
suddenly swings together and does the same thing, like a herd of cattle facing a wolf. There was such a
moment,unmistakably,atthetimeofthedisasterinFrance.Aftereightmonthsofvaguelywonderingwhatthe
warwasabout,thepeoplesuddenlyknewwhattheyhadgottodo:first,togetthearmyawayfromDunkirk,
andsecondlytopreventinvasion.Itwasliketheawakeningofagiant.Quick!Danger!ThePhilistinesbeupon
thee, Samson! And then the swift unanimous action and, then, alas, the prompt relapse into sleep. In a
dividednationthatwouldhavebeenexactlythemomentforabigpeacemovementtoarise.Butdoesthismean
thattheinstinctoftheEnglishwillalwaystellthemtodotherightthing?Notatall,merelythatitwilltellthem
todothesamething.Inthe1931GeneralElection,forinstance,wealldidthewrongthinginperfectunison.
We were as singleminded as the Gadarene swine. But I honestly doubt whether we can say that we were
shoveddowntheslopeagainstourwill.
ItfollowsthatBritishdemocracyislessofafraudthanitsometimesappears.Aforeignobserversees
onlythehugeinequalityofwealth,theunfairelectoralsystem,thegoverningclasscontroloverthepress,the
radioandeducation,andconcludesthatdemocracyissimplyapolitenamefordictatorship.Butthisignoresthe
considerableagreementthatdoesunfortunatelyexistbetweentheleadersandtheled.Howevermuchonemay
hatetoadmitit,itisalmostcertainthatbetween1931and1940theNationalGovernmentrepresentedthewill
of the mass of the people. It tolerated slums, unemployment and a cowardly foreign policy. Yes, but so did
publicopinion.Itwasastagnantperiod,anditsnaturalleadersweremediocrities.
Inspiteofthecampaignsofafewthousandleftwingers,itisfairlycertainthatthebulkoftheEnglish
peoplewerebehindChamberlain'sforeignpolicy.More,itisfairlycertainthatthesamestrugglewasgoingon
inChamberlain'smindasinthemindsofordinarypeople.Hisopponentsprofessedtoseeinhimadarkand
wilyschemer,plottingtosellEnglandtoHitler,butitisfarlikelierthathewasmerelyastupidoldmandoing
hisbestaccordingtohisverydimlights.Itisdifficultotherwisetoexplainthecontradictionsofhispolicy,his
failuretograspanyofthecoursesthatwereopentohim.Likethemassofthepeople,hedidnotwanttopay
the price either of peace or of war. And public opinion was behind him all the while, in policies that were
completelyincompatiblewithoneanother.ItwasbehindhimwhenhewenttoMunich,whenhetriedtocome
to an understanding with Russia, when he gave the guarantee to Poland, when he honoured it, and when he
prosecutedthewarhalfheartedly.Onlywhentheresultsofhispolicybecameapparentdiditturnagainsthim
whichistosaythatitturnedagainstitsownlethargyofthepastsevenyears.Thereuponthepeoplepickeda
leader nearer to their mood, Churchill, who was at any rate able to grasp that wars are not won without
fighting. Later, perhaps, they will pick another leader who can grasp that only Socialist nations can fight
effectively.
DoImeanbyallthisthatEnglandisagenuinedemocracy?No,notevenareaderoftheDailyTelegraph
couldquiteswallowthat.
England is the most classridden country under the sun. It is a land of snobbery and privilege, ruled
largelybytheoldandsilly.Butinanycalculationaboutitonehasgottotakeintoaccountitsemotionalunity,
thetendencyofnearlyallitsinhabitantstofeelalikeandacttogetherinmomentsofsupremecrisis.Itisthe
onlygreatcountryinEuropethatisnotobligedtodrivehundredsofthousandsofitsnationalsintoexileorthe
concentrationcamp.Atthismoment,afterayearofwar,newspapersandpamphletsabusingtheGovernment,
praisingtheenemyandclamouringforsurrenderarebeingsoldonthestreets,almostwithoutinterference.And
thisislessfromarespectforfreedomofspeechthanfromasimpleperceptionthatthesethingsdon'tmatter.It
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issafetoletapaperlikePeaceNewsbesold,becauseitiscertainthatninetyfivepercentofthepopulation
willneverwanttoreadit.Thenationisboundtogetherbyaninvisiblechain.Atanynormaltimetheruling
classwillrob,mismanage,sabotage,leadusintothemuckbutletpopularopinionreallymakeitselfheard,let
themgetatugfrombelowthattheycannotavoidfeeling,anditisdifficultforthemnottorespond.Theleft
wingwriterswhodenouncethewholeoftherulingclassasproFascistaregrosslyoversimplifying.Even
amongtheinnercliqueofpoliticianswhobroughtustoourpresentpass,itisdoubtfulwhethertherewereany
conscioustraitors.ThecorruptionthathappensinEnglandisseldomofthatkind.Nearlyalwaysitismorein
thenatureofselfdeception,oftherighthandnotknowingwhatthelefthanddoeth.Andbeingunconscious,it
islimited.OneseesthisatitsmostobviousintheEnglishpress.IstheEnglishpresshonestordishonest?At
normaltimesitisdeeplydishonest.Allthepapersthatmatterliveofftheiradvertisements,andtheadvertisers
exercise an indirect censorship over news. Yet I do not suppose there is one paper in England that can be
straightforwardly bribed with hard cash. In the France of the Third Republic all but a very few of the
newspaperscouldnotoriouslybeboughtoverthecounterlikesomanypoundsofcheese.PubliclifeinEngland
has never been openly scandalous. It has not reached the pitch of disintegration at which humbug can be
dropped.
EnglandisnotthejewelledisleofShakespeare'smuchquotedmessage,norisittheinfernodepictedby
Dr Goebbels. More than either it resembles a family, a rather stuffy Victorian family, with not many black
sheepinitbutwithallitscupboardsburstingwithskeletons.Ithasrichrelationswhohavetobekowtowedto
andpoorrelationswhoarehorriblysatupon,andthereisadeepconspiracyofsilenceaboutthesourceofthe
familyincome.Itisafamilyinwhichtheyoungaregenerallythwartedandmostofthepowerisinthehands
of irresponsible uncles and bedridden aunts. Still, it is a family. It has its private language and its common
memories,andattheapproachofanenemyitclosesitsranks.Afamilywiththewrongmembersincontrol
that,perhaps,isasnearasonecancometodescribingEnglandinaphrase.

IV
ProbablythebattleofWaterloowaswonontheplayingfieldsofEton,buttheopeningbattlesofallsubsequent
warshavebeenlostthere.OneofthedominantfactsinEnglishlifeduringthepastthreequartersofacentury
hasbeenthedecayofabilityintherulingclass.
Intheyearsbetween1920and1940itwashappeningwiththespeedofachemicalreaction.Yetatthe
momentofwritingitisstillpossibletospeakofarulingclass.Liketheknifewhichhashadtwonewblades
and three new handles, the upper fringe of English society is still almost what it was in the mid nineteenth
century. After 1832 the old landowning aristocracy steadily lost power, but instead of disappearing or
becomingafossiltheysimplyintermarriedwiththemerchants,manufacturersandfinancierswhohadreplaced
them,andsoonturnedthemintoaccuratecopiesofthemselves.Thewealthyshipownerorcottonmillersetup
for himself an alibi as a country gentleman, while his sons learned the right mannerisms at public schools
whichhadbeendesignedforjustthatpurpose.Englandwasruledbyanaristocracyconstantlyrecruitedfrom
parvenus.Andconsideringwhatenergytheselfmademenpossessed,andconsideringthattheywerebuying
their way into a class which at any rate had a tradition of public service, one might have expected that able
rulerscouldbeproducedinsomesuchway.
Andyetsomehowtherulingclassdecayed,lostitsability,itsdaring,finallyevenitsruthlessness,untila
time came when stuffed shirts like Eden or Halifax could stand out as men of exceptional talent. As for
Baldwin,onecouldnotevendignifyhimwiththenameofstuffedshirt.Hewassimplyaholeintheair.The
mishandling of England's domestic problems during the nineteentwenties had been bad enough, but British
foreignpolicybetween1931and1939isoneofthewondersoftheworld.Why?Whathadhappened?What
was it that at every decisive moment made every British statesman do the wrong thing with so unerring an
instinct?
Theunderlyingfactwasthatthewholepositionofthemoneyedclasshadlongceasedtobejustifiable.
Theretheysat,atthecentreofavastempireandaworldwidefinancialnetwork,drawinginterestandprofits

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andspendingthemonwhat?ItwasfairtosaythatlifewithintheBritishEmpirewasinmanywaysbetter
thanlifeoutsideit.Still,theEmpirewasunderdeveloped,IndiasleptintheMiddleAges,theDominionslay
empty,withforeignersjealouslybarredout,andevenEnglandwasfullofslumsandunemployment.Onlyhalf
amillionpeople,thepeopleinthecountryhouses,definitelybenefitedfromtheexistingsystem.Moreover,the
tendencyofsmallbusinessestomergetogetherintolargeonesrobbedmoreandmoreofthemoneyedclassof
their function and turned them into mere owners, their work being done for them by salaried managers and
technicians.ForlongpasttherehadbeeninEnglandanentirelyfunctionlessclass,livingonmoneythatwas
investedtheyhardlyknewwhere,theidlerich,thepeoplewhosephotographsyoucanlookatintheTatler
and the Bystander, always supposing that you want to. The existence of these people was by any standard
unjustifiable.Theyweresimplyparasites,lessusefultosocietythanhisfleasaretoadog.
By1920thereweremanypeoplewhowereawareofallthis.By1930millionswereawareofit.Butthe
Britishrulingclassobviouslycouldnotadmittothemselvesthattheirusefulnesswasatanend.Hadtheydone
thattheywouldhavehadtoabdicate.Foritwasnotpossibleforthemtoturnthemselvesintomerebandits,like
the American millionaires, consciously clinging to unjust privileges and beating down opposition by bribery
andteargasbombs.Afterall,theybelongedtoaclasswithacertaintradition,theyhadbeentopublicschools
where the duty of dying for your country, if necessary, is laid down as the first and greatest of the
Commandments. They had to feel themselves true patriots, even while they plundered their countrymen.
Clearlytherewasonlyoneescapeforthemintostupidity.Theycouldkeepsocietyinitsexistingshapeonly
by being unable to grasp that any improvement was possible. Difficult though this was, they achieved it,
largelybyfixingtheireyesonthepastandrefusingtonoticethechangesthatweregoingonroundthem.
ThereismuchinEnglandthatthisexplains.Itexplainsthedecayofcountrylife,duetothekeepingup
of a sham feudalism which drives the more spirited workers off the land. It explains the immobility of the
public schools, which have barely altered since the eighties of the last century. It explains the military
incompetencewhichhasagainandagainstartledtheworld.SincethefiftieseverywarinwhichEnglandhas
engaged has started off with a series of disasters, after which the situation has been saved by people
comparatively low in the social scale. The higher commanders, drawn from the aristocracy, could never
prepareformodernwar,becauseinordertodosotheywouldhavehadtoadmittothemselvesthattheworld
was changing. They have always clung to obsolete methods and weapons, because they inevitably saw each
warasarepetitionofthelast.BeforetheBoerWartheypreparedfortheZuluWar,beforethe1914forthe
BoerWar,andbeforethepresentwarfor1914.EvenatthismomenthundredsofthousandsofmeninEngland
arebeingtrainedwiththebayonet,aweaponentirelyuselessexceptforopeningtins.Itisworthnoticingthat
thenavyand,latterly,theairforce,havealwaysbeenmoreefficientthantheregulararmy.Butthenavyisonly
partially,andtheairforcehardlyatall,withintherulingclassorbit.
ItmustbeadmittedthatsolongasthingswerepeacefulthemethodsoftheBritishrulingclassserved
themwellenough.Theirownpeoplemanifestlytoleratedthem.HoweverunjustlyEnglandmightbeorganized,
itwasatanyratenottornbyclasswarfareorhauntedbysecretpolice.TheEmpirewaspeacefulasnoareaof
comparablesizehaseverbeen.Throughoutitsvastextent,nearlyaquarteroftheearth,therewerefewerarmed
men than would be found necessary by a minor Balkan state. As people to live under, and looking at them
merelyfromaliberal,negativestandpoint,theBritishrulingclasshadtheirpoints.Theywerepreferabletothe
trulymodernmen,theNazisandFascists.Butithadlongbeenobviousthattheywouldbehelplessagainstany
seriousattackfromtheoutside.
They could not struggle against Nazism or Fascism, because they could not understand them. Neither
couldtheyhavestruggledagainstCommunism,ifCommunismhadbeenaseriousforceinwesternEurope.To
understandFascismtheywouldhavehadtostudythetheoryofSocialism,whichwouldhaveforcedthemto
realizethattheeconomicsystembywhichtheylivedwasunjust,inefficientandoutofdate.Butitwasexactly
this fact that they had trained themselves never to face. They dealt with Fascism as the cavalry generals of
1914dealtwiththemachinegunsbyignoringit.Afteryearsofaggressionandmassacres,theyhadgrasped
onlyonefact,thatHitlerandMussoliniwerehostiletoCommunism.Therefore,itwasargued,theymust be
friendly to the British dividenddrawer. Hence the truly frightening spectacle of Conservative M.P.s wildly
cheeringthenewsthatBritishships,bringingfoodtotheSpanishRepublicangovernment,hadbeenbombed
by Italian aeroplanes. Even when they had begun to grasp that Fascism was dangerous, its essentially
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revolutionarynature,thehugemilitaryeffortitwascapableofmaking,thesortoftacticsitwoulduse,were
quite beyond their comprehension. At the time of the Spanish Civil War, anyone with as much political
knowledge as can be acquired from a sixpenny pamphlet on Socialism knew that, if Franco won, the result
wouldbestrategicallydisastrousforEnglandandyetgeneralsandadmiralswhohadgiventheirlivestothe
studyofwarwereunabletograspthisfact.ThisveinofpoliticalignorancerunsrightthroughEnglishofficial
life, through Cabinet ministers, ambassadors, consuls, judges, magistrates, policemen. The policeman who
arreststhereddoesnotunderstandthetheoriestheredispreachingifhedidhisownpositionasbodyguard
ofthemoneyedclassmightseemlesspleasanttohim.Thereisreasontothinkthatevenmilitaryespionageis
hopelessly hampered by ignorance of the new economic doctrines and the ramifications of the underground
parties.
TheBritishrulingclasswerenotaltogetherwronginthinkingthatFascismwasontheirside.Itisafact
thatanyrichman,unlessheisaJew,haslesstofearfromFascismthanfromeitherCommunismordemocratic
Socialism.Oneoughtnevertoforgetthis,fornearlythewholeofGermanandItalianpropagandaisdesigned
tocoveritup.ThenaturalinstinctofmenlikeSimon,Hoare,Chamberlainetc.wastocometoanagreement
withHitler.ButandherethepeculiarfeatureofEnglishlifethatIhavespokenof,thedeepsenseofnational
solidarity,comesintheycouldonlydosobybreakinguptheEmpireandsellingtheirownpeopleintosemi
slavery.Atrulycorruptclasswouldhavedonethiswithouthesitation,asinFrance.Butthingshadnotgone
that distance in England. Politicians who would make cringing speeches about the duty of loyalty to our
conquerorsarehardlytobefoundinEnglishpubliclife.Tossedtoandfrobetweentheirincomesandtheir
principles,itwasimpossiblethatmenlikeChamberlainshoulddoanythingbutmaketheworstofbothworlds.
OnethingthathasalwaysshownthattheEnglishrulingclassaremorallyfairlysound,isthatintimeof
wartheyarereadyenoughtogetthemselveskilled.Severaldukes,earlsandwhatnotswerekilledintherecent
campaign in Flanders. That could not happen if these people were the cynical scoundrels that they are
sometimes declared to be. It is important not to misunderstand their motives, or one cannot predict their
actions. What is to be expected of them is not treachery, or physical cowardice, but stupidity, unconscious
sabotage,aninfallibleinstinctfordoingthewrongthing.Theyarenotwicked,ornotaltogetherwickedthey
are merely unteachable. Only when their money and power are gone will the younger among them begin to
graspwhatcenturytheyarelivingin.

V
ThestagnationoftheEmpireinthebetweenwaryearsaffectedeveryoneinEngland,butithadanespecially
directeffectupontwoimportantsubsectionsofthemiddleclass.Onewasthemilitaryandimperialistmiddle
class,generallynicknamedtheBlimps,andtheothertheleftwingintelligentsia.Thesetwoseeminglyhostile
types,symbolicoppositesthehalfpaycolonelwithhisbullneckanddiminutivebrain,likeadinosaur,the
highbrowwithhisdomedforeheadandstalklikeneckarementallylinkedtogetherandconstantlyinteract
upononeanotherinanycasetheyareborntoaconsiderableextentintothesamefamilies.
ThirtyyearsagotheBlimpclasswasalreadylosingitsvitality.Themiddleclassfamiliescelebratedby
Kipling,theprolificlowbrowfamilieswhosesonsofficeredthearmyandnavyandswarmedoverallthewaste
places of the earth from the Yukon to the Irrawaddy, were dwindling before 1914. The thing that had killed
themwasthetelegraph.Inanarrowingworld,moreandmoregovernedfromWhitehall,therewaseveryyear
less room for individual initiative. Men like Clive, Nelson, Nicholson, Gordon would find no place for
themselvesinthemodernBritishEmpire.By1920nearlyeveryinchofthecolonialempirewasinthegripof
Whitehall. Wellmeaning, overcivilized men, in dark suits and black felt hats, with neatly rolled umbrellas
crookedovertheleftforearm,wereimposingtheirconstipatedviewoflifeonMalayaandNigeria,Mombasa
and Mandalay. The onetime empire builders were reduced to the status of clerks, buried deeper and deeper
undermoundsofpaperandredtape.Intheearlytwentiesonecouldsee,allovertheEmpire,theolderofficials,
whohadknownmore spacious days, writhing impotently under the changes thatwerehappening.Fromthat
timeonwardsithasbeennextdoortoimpossibletoinduceyoungmenofspirittotakeanypartinimperial

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administration.Andwhatwastrueoftheofficialworldwastruealsoofthecommercial.Thegreatmonopoly
companiesswalloweduphostsofpettytraders.InsteadofgoingouttotradeadventurouslyintheIndiesone
wenttoanofficestoolinBombayorSingapore.AndlifeinBombayorSingaporewasactuallydullerandsafer
than life in London. Imperialist sentiment remained strong in the middle class, chiefly owing to family
tradition,butthejobofadministeringtheEmpirehadceasedtoappeal.FewablemenwenteastofSuezifthere
wasanywayofavoidingit.
But the general weakening of imperialism, and to some extent of the whole British morale, that took
placeduringthenineteenthirties,waspartlytheworkoftheleftwingintelligentsia,itselfakindofgrowththat
hadsproutedfromthestagnationoftheEmpire.
It should be noted that there is now no intelligentsia that is not in some sense left. Perhaps the last
rightwingintellectualwasT.E.Lawrence.Sinceabout1930everyonedescribableasanintellectualhaslived
inastateofchronicdiscontentwiththeexistingorder.Necessarilyso,becausesocietyasitwasconstitutedhad
noroomforhim.InanEmpirethatwassimplystagnant,neitherbeingdevelopednorfallingtopieces,andin
anEnglandruledbypeoplewhosechiefassetwastheirstupidity,tobecleverwastobesuspect.Ifyouhad
thekindofbrainthatcouldunderstandthepoemsofT.S.EliotorthetheoriesofKarlMarx,thehigherups
would see to it that you were kept out of any important job. The intellectuals could find a function for
themselvesonlyintheliteraryreviewsandtheleftwingpoliticalparties.
ThementalityoftheEnglishleftwingintelligentsiacanbestudiedinhalfadozenweeklyandmonthly
papers. The immediately striking thing about all these papers is their generally negative, querulous attitude,
theircompletelackatalltimesofanyconstructivesuggestion.Thereislittleinthemexcepttheirresponsible
carping of people who have never been and never expect to be in a position of power. Another marked
characteristicistheemotionalshallownessofpeoplewholiveinaworldofideasandhavelittlecontactwith
physical reality. Many intellectuals of the Left were flabbily pacifist up to 1935, shrieked for war against
Germany in the years 19359, and then promptly cooled off when the war started. It is broadly though not
precisely true that the people who were most antiFascist during the Spanish Civil War are most defeatist
now. And underlying this is the really important fact about so many of the English intelligentsia their
severancefromthecommoncultureofthecountry.
Inintention,atanyrate,theEnglishintelligentsiaareEuropeanized.TheytaketheircookeryfromParis
andtheiropinionsfromMoscow.Inthegeneralpatriotismofthecountrytheyformasortofislandofdissident
thought.Englandisperhapstheonlygreatcountrywhoseintellectualsareashamedoftheirownnationality.In
leftwingcirclesitisalwaysfeltthatthereissomethingslightlydisgracefulinbeinganEnglishmanandthatit
isadutytosniggerateveryEnglishinstitution,fromhorseracingtosuetpuddings.Itisastrangefact,butitis
unquestionably true that almost any English intellectual would feel more ashamed of standing to attention
duringGodsavetheKingthanofstealingfromapoorbox.Allthroughthecriticalyearsmanyleftwingers
were chipping away at English morale, trying to spread an outlook that was sometimes squashily pacifist,
sometimes violently proRussian, but always antiBritish. It is questionable how much effect this had, but it
certainly had some. If the English people suffered for several years a real weakening of morale, so that the
Fascist nations judged that they were decadent and that it was safe to plunge into war, the intellectual
sabotage from the Left was partly responsible. Both the New Statesman and the News Chronicle cried out
againsttheMunichsettlement,buteventheyhaddonesomethingtomakeitpossible.Tenyearsofsystematic
BlimpbaitingaffectedeventheBlimpsthemselvesandmadeitharderthanithadbeenbeforetogetintelligent
youngmentoenterthearmedforces.GiventhestagnationoftheEmpire,themilitarymiddleclassmusthave
decayedinanycase,butthespreadofashallowLeftismhastenedtheprocess.
It is clear that the special position of the English intellectuals during the past ten years, as purely
negativecreatures,mereantiBlimps,wasabyproductofrulingclassstupidity.Societycouldnotusethem,
andtheyhadnotgotitinthemtoseethatdevotiontoone'scountryimpliesforbetter,forworse.BothBlimps
and highbrows took for granted, as though it were a law of nature, the divorce between patriotism and
intelligence. If you were a patriot you read Blackwood'sMagazine and publicly thanked God that you were
not brainy. If you were an intellectual you sniggered at the Union Jack and regarded physical courage as
barbarous.Itisobviousthatthispreposterousconventioncannotcontinue.TheBloomsburyhighbrow,withhis
mechanical snigger, is as outofdate as the cavalry colonel. A modern nation cannot afford either of them.
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Patriotismandintelligencewillhavetocometogetheragain.Itisthefactthatwearefightingawar,andavery
peculiarkindofwar,thatmaymakethispossible.

VI
One of the most important developments in England during the past twenty years has been the upward and
downwardextensionofthemiddleclass.Ithashappenedonsuchascaleastomaketheoldclassificationof
societyintocapitalists,proletariansandpetitbourgeois(smallpropertyowners)almostobsolete.
England is a country in which property and financial power are concentrated in very few hands. Few
peopleinmodernEnglandownanythingatall,exceptclothes,furnitureandpossiblyahouse.Thepeasantry
have long since disappeared, the independent shopkeeper is being destroyed, the small businessman is
diminishing in numbers. But at the same time modern industry is so complicated that it cannot get along
withoutgreatnumbersofmanagers,salesmen,engineers,chemistsandtechniciansofallkinds,drawingfairly
largesalaries.Andtheseinturncallintobeingaprofessionalclassofdoctors,lawyers,teachers,artists,etc.
etc.Thetendencyofadvancedcapitalismhasthereforebeentoenlargethemiddleclassandnottowipeitout
asitonceseemedlikelytodo.
But much more important than this is the spread of middleclass ideas and habits among the working
class.TheBritishworkingclassarenowbetteroffinalmostallwaysthantheywerethirtyyearsago.Thisis
partlyduetotheeffortsofthetradeunions,butpartlytothemereadvanceofphysicalscience.Itisnotalways
realizedthatwithinrathernarrowlimitsthestandardoflifeofacountrycanrisewithoutacorrespondingrise
in real wages. Up to a point, civilization can lift itself up by its boottags. However unjustly society is
organized, certain technical advances are bound to benefit the whole community, because certain kinds of
goodsarenecessarilyheldincommon.Amillionairecannot,forexample,lightthestreetsforhimselfwhile
darkening them for other people. Nearly all citizens of civilized countries now enjoy the use of good roads,
germfree water, police protection, free libraries and probably free education of a kind. Public education in
England has been meanly starved of money, but it has nevertheless improved, largely owing to the devoted
efforts of the teachers, and the habit of reading has become enormously more widespread. To an increasing
extenttherichandthepoorreadthesamebooks,andtheyalsoseethesamefilmsandlistentothesameradio
programmes.Andthedifferencesintheirwayoflifehavebeendiminishedbythemassproductionofcheap
clothes and improvements in housing. So far as outward appearance goes, the clothes of rich and poor,
especiallyinthecaseofwomen,differfarlessthantheydidthirtyorevenfifteenyearsago.Astohousing,
Englandstillhasslumswhichareablotoncivilization,butmuchbuildinghasbeendoneduringthepastten
years, largely by the local authorities. The modern council house, with its bathroom and electric light, is
smallerthanthestockbroker'svilla,butitisrecognizablythesamekindofhouse,whichthefarmlabourer's
cottageisnot.Apersonwhohasgrownupinacouncilhousingestateislikelytobeindeed,visiblyismore
middleclassinoutlookthanapersonwhohasgrownupinaslum.
Theeffectofallthisisageneralsofteningofmanners.Itisenhancedbythefactthatmodernindustrial
methodstendalwaystodemandlessmusculareffortandthereforetoleavepeoplewithmoreenergywhentheir
day'sworkisdone.Manyworkersinthelightindustriesarelesstrulymanuallabourersthanisadoctorora
grocer.Intastes,habits,mannersandoutlooktheworkingclassandthemiddleclassaredrawingtogether.The
unjustdistinctionsremain,buttherealdifferencesdiminish.Theoldstyleproletariancollarless,unshaven
and with muscles warped by heavy labour still exists, but he is constantly decreasing in numbers he only
predominatesintheheavyindustryareasofthenorthofEngland.
After 1918 there began to appear something that had never existed in England before: people of
indeterminatesocialclass.In1910everyhumanbeingintheseislandscouldbeplacedinaninstantbyhis
clothes,mannersandaccent.Thatisnolongerthecase.Aboveall,itisnotthecaseinthenewtownshipsthat
havedevelopedasaresultofcheapmotorcarsandthesouthwardshiftofindustry.Theplacetolookforthe
germs of the future England is in lightindustry areas and along the arterial roads. In Slough, Dagenham,
Barnet,Letchworth,Hayeseverywhere,indeed,ontheoutskirtsofgreattownstheoldpatternisgradually

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changingintosomethingnew.Inthosevastnewwildernessesofglassandbrickthesharpdistinctionsofthe
olderkindoftown,withitsslumsandmansions,orofthecountry,withitsmanorhousesandsqualidcottages,
no longer exist. There are wide gradations of income, but it is the same kind of life that is being lived at
differentlevels,inlaboursavingflatsorcouncilhouses,alongtheconcreteroadsandinthenakeddemocracy
of the swimmingpools. It is a rather restless, cultureless life, centring round tinned food, Picture Post, the
radio and the internal combustion engine. It is a civilization in which children grow up with an intimate
knowledgeofmagnetoesandincompleteignoranceoftheBible.Tothatcivilizationbelongthepeoplewhoare
mostathomeinandmostdefinitelyofthemodernworld,thetechniciansandthehigherpaidskilledworkers,
theairmenandtheirmechanics,theradioexperts,filmproducers,popularjournalistsandindustrialchemists.
Theyaretheindeterminatestratumatwhichtheolderclassdistinctionsarebeginningtobreakdown.
Thiswar,unlesswearedefeated,willwipeoutmostoftheexistingclassprivileges.Thereareeveryday
fewerpeoplewhowishthemtocontinue.NorneedwefearthatasthepatternchangeslifeinEnglandwilllose
itspeculiarflavour.ThenewredcitiesofGreaterLondonarecrudeenough,butthesethingsareonlytherash
thataccompaniesachange.InwhatevershapeEnglandemergesfromthewaritwillbedeeplytingedwiththe
characteristicsthatIhavespokenofearlier.TheintellectualswhohopetoseeitRussianizedorGermanized
willbedisappointed.Thegentleness,thehypocrisy,thethoughtlessness,thereverenceforlawandthehatredof
uniformswillremain,alongwiththesuetpuddingsandthemistyskies.Itneedssomeverygreatdisaster,such
asprolongedsubjugationbyaforeignenemy,todestroyanationalculture.TheStockExchangewillbepulled
down,thehorseploughwillgivewaytothetractor,thecountryhouseswillbeturnedintochildren'sholiday
camps,theEtonandHarrowmatchwillbeforgotten,butEnglandwillstillbeEngland,aneverlastinganimal
stretchingintothefutureandthepast,and,likealllivingthings,havingthepowertochangeoutofrecognition
andyetremainthesame.

1941

_____
1)Forexample:

Idon'twanttojointhebloodyArmy,
Idon'twanttogountothewar
Iwantnomoretoroam,
I'dratherstayathome,
Livingontheearningsofawhore.

Butitwasnotinthatspiritthattheyfought.[back]
2)Itistruethattheyaidedthemtoacertainextentwithmoney.Still,thesumsraisedforthevariousaidSpainfunds
wouldnotequalfivepercentoftheturnoverofthefootballpoolsduringthesameperiod.[back]

THEEND

____BD____
GeorgeOrwell:EnglandYourEngland
Firstpublished:TheLionandtheUnicorn:SocialismandtheEnglishGenius.GB,London.February19,1941.

Reprinted:
EnglandYourEnglandandOtherEssays.1953.
Such,SuchWeretheJoys.1953.
ACollectionofEssays.1954.
TheOrwellReader,Fiction,Essays,andReportage1956.
DeclineoftheEnglishMurderandOtherEssays.1965.

:wolfsblutalaskasalmon..

(Textsource:OrwellProjectbyO.Dag.19992004www.orwell.ru)
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