Wiki Water PDF
Wiki Water PDF
Water
Water is a chemical substance with the
chemical formula H2O. Its molecule
contains one oxygen and two hydrogen
atoms connected by covalent bonds. Water
is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it often
co-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice,
and gaseous state, water vapor or steam.
Water on Earth moves continually through a cycle of evaporation or transpiration (evapotranspiration), precipitation,
and runoff, usually reaching the sea. Over land, evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over
land.
Clean drinking water is essential to human and other lifeforms. Access to safe drinking water has improved steadily
and substantially over the last decades in almost every part of the world.[4] [5] There is a clear correlation between
access to safe water and GDP per capita.[6] However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of
the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability.[7] A recent report (November 2009) suggests that by
2030, in some developing regions of the world, water demand will exceed supply by 50%.[8] Water plays an
important role in the world economy, as it functions as a solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances and
facilitates industrial cooling and transportation. Approximately 70% of freshwater is consumed by agriculture.[9]
Elements which are more electropositive than hydrogen such as lithium, sodium, calcium, potassium and caesium
displace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides. Being a flammable gas, the hydrogen given off is dangerous
and the reaction of water with the more electropositive of these elements may be violently explosive.
The surface temperature of Earth has been relatively constant through geologic time despite varying levels of
incoming solar radiation (insolation), indicating that a dynamic process governs Earth's temperature via a
combination of greenhouse gases and surface or atmospheric albedo. This proposal is known as the Gaia hypothesis.
The state of water on a planet depends on ambient pressure, which is determined by the planet's gravity. If a planet is
sufficiently massive, the water on it may be solid even at high temperatures, because of the high pressure caused by
gravity, as it was observed on exoplanets Gliese 436 b[25] and GJ 1214 b.[26]
There are various theories about origin of water on Earth.
Water on Earth
Hydrology is the study of the
movement, distribution, and quality of
water throughout the Earth. The study
of the distribution of water is
hydrography. The study of the
distribution and movement of
groundwater is hydrogeology, of
glaciers is glaciology, of inland waters
is limnology and distribution of oceans
is oceanography. Ecological processes
with hydrology are in focus of
ecohydrology.
Water cycle
The water cycle (known scientifically
as the hydrologic cycle) refers to the
continuous exchange of water within
the hydrosphere, between the
atmosphere, soil water, surface water,
groundwater, and plants.
the environment creating river valleys and deltas which provide rich soil and level ground for the establishment of
population centers. A flood occurs when an area of land, usually low-lying, is covered with water. It is when a river
overflows its banks or flood from the sea. A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a
deficiency in its water supply. This occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation.
Sea water
Sea water contains about 3.5% salt on average, plus smaller amounts of other substances. The physical properties of
sea water differ from fresh water in some important respects. It freezes at a lower temperature (about 1.9 C) and its
density increases with decreasing temperature to the freezing point, instead of reaching maximum density at a
temperature above freezing. The salinity of water in major seas varies from about 0.7% in the Baltic Sea to 4.0% in
the Red Sea.
Tides
Tides are the cyclic rising and falling of Earth's ocean surface caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun
acting on the oceans. Tides cause changes in the depth of the marine and estuarine water bodies and produce
oscillating currents known as tidal streams. The changing tide produced at a given location is the result of the
changing positions of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth coupled with the effects of Earth rotation and the local
bathymetry. The strip of seashore that is submerged at high tide and exposed at low tide, the intertidal zone, is an
important ecological product of ocean tides.
Water 8
Effects on life
From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that
are critical for the proliferation of life that set it apart from other
substances. It carries out this role by allowing organic compounds to
react in ways that ultimately allow replication. All known forms of life
depend on water. Water is vital both as a solvent in which many of the
body's solutes dissolve and as an essential part of many metabolic
processes within the body. Metabolism is the sum total of anabolism
and catabolism. In anabolism, water is removed from molecules
(through energy requiring enzymatic chemical reactions) in order to
An oasis is an isolated water source with
grow larger molecules (e.g. starches, triglycerides and proteins for
vegetation in desert
storage of fuels and information). In catabolism, water is used to break
bonds in order to generate smaller molecules (e.g. glucose, fatty acids
and amino acids to be used for fuels for energy use or other purposes).
Without water, these particular metabolic processes could not exist.
Middle East, where water is more scarce, access to clean drinking water was and is a major factor in human
development.
In the USA, non-potable forms of wastewater generated by humans may be referred to as greywater, which is
treatable and thus easily able to be made potable again, and blackwater, which generally contains sewage and other
forms of waste which require further treatment in order to be made reusable. Greywater composes 50-80% of
residential wastewater generated by a household's sanitation equipment (sinks, showers and kitchen runoff, but not
toilets, which generate blackwater.) These terms may have different meanings in other countries and cultures.
This natural resource is becoming scarcer in certain places, and its availability is a major social and economic
concern. Currently, about a billion people around the world routinely drink unhealthy water. Most countries accepted
the goal of halving by 2015 the number of people worldwide who do not have access to safe water and sanitation
during the 2003 G8 Evian summit.[27] Even if this difficult goal is met, it will still leave more than an estimated half
a billion people without access to safe drinking water and over a billion without access to adequate sanitation. Poor
water quality and bad sanitation are deadly; some five million deaths a year are caused by polluted drinking water.
The World Health Organization estimates that safe water could prevent 1.4 million child deaths from diarrhea each
year.[28] Water, however, is not a finite resource, but rather re-circulated as potable water in precipitation in
quantities many degrees of magnitude higher than human consumption. Therefore, it is the relatively small quantity
of water in reserve in the earth (about 1% of our drinking water supply, which is replenished in aquifers around
every 1 to 10 years), that is a non-renewable resource, and it is, rather, the distribution of potable and irrigation water
which is scarce, rather than the actual amount of it that exists on the earth. Water-poor countries use importation of
goods as the primary method of importing water (to leave enough for local human consumption), since the
manufacturing process uses around 10 to 100 times products' masses in water.
In the developing world, 90% of all wastewater still goes untreated into local rivers and streams.[29] Some 50
countries, with roughly a third of the worlds population, also suffer from medium or high water stress, and 17 of
these extract more water annually than is recharged through their natural water cycles.[30] The strain not only affects
surface freshwater bodies like rivers and lakes, but it also degrades groundwater resources.
Water 11
Human uses
Agriculture
The Kelvin temperature scale of the SI system is based on the triple point of water, defined as exactly 273.16K or
0.01C. The scale is a more accurate development of the Celsius temperature scale, which was originally defined
according the boiling point (set to 100C) and melting point (set to 0C) of water.
Natural water consists mainly of the isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but there is also small quantity of heavier
isotopes such as hydrogen-2 (deuterium). The amount of deuterium oxides or heavy water is very small, but it still
affects the properties of water. Water from rivers and lakes tends to contain less deuterium than seawater. Therefore,
standard water is defined in the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification.
For drinking
Humans require water that does not contain too many impurities. Common impurities include metal salts and oxides
(including copper, iron, calcium and lead)[43] and/or harmful bacteria, such as Vibrio. Some solutes are acceptable
and even desirable for taste enhancement and to provide needed electrolytes.[44]
The single largest (by volume) freshwater resource suitable for drinking is Lake Baikal in Siberia.[45]
Washing
The propensity of water to form solutions and emulsions is useful in various washing processes. Many industrial
processes rely on reactions using chemicals dissolved in water, suspension of solids in water slurries or using water
to dissolve and extract substances. Washing is also an important component of several aspects of personal body
hygiene.
Chemical uses
Water is widely used in chemical reactions as a solvent or reactant and less commonly as a solute or catalyst. In
inorganic reactions, water is a common solvent, dissolving many ionic compounds. In organic reactions, it is not
usually used as a reaction solvent, because it does not dissolve the reactants well and is amphoteric (acidic and basic)
and nucleophilic. Nevertheless, these properties are sometimes desirable. Also, acceleration of Diels-Alder reactions
by water has been observed. Supercritical water has recently been a topic of research. Oxygen-saturated supercritical
water combusts organic pollutants efficiently.
Water 13
Water and steam are used as heat transfer fluids in diverse heat
exchange systems, due to its availability and high heat capacity, both
as a coolant and for heating. Cool water may even be naturally
available from a lake or the sea. Condensing steam is a particularly
efficient heating fluid because of the large heat of vaporization. A
disadvantage is that water and steam are somewhat corrosive. In almost
all electric power stations, water is the coolant, which vaporizes and
drives steam turbines to drive generators. In the U.S., cooling power
plants is the largest use of water.[32]
Extinguishing fires
Use of water in fire fighting should also take into account the hazards
of a steam explosion, which may occur when water is used on very hot Water is used for fighting wildfires.
Recreation
Water industry
Polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water; to the extent
that a pollutant limits other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of the
resource, regardless of benefits to the polluter. Like other types of
pollution, this does not enter standard accounting of market costs,
being conceived as externalities for which the market cannot account.
Thus other people pay the price of water pollution, while the private
firms' profits are not redistributed to the local population victim of this
pollution. Pharmaceuticals consumed by humans often end up in the
Water purification facility waterways and can have detrimental effects on aquatic life if they
bioaccumulate and if they are not biodegradable.
Wastewater facilities are storm sewers and wastewater treatment plants. Another way to remove pollution from
surface runoff water is bioswale.
Industrial applications
Water is used in power generation. Hydroelectricity is electricity obtained from hydropower. Hydroelectric power
comes from water driving a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting,
renewable energy source. The energy is supplied by the sun. Heat from the sun evaporates water, which condenses as
rain in higher altitudes, from where it flows down.
Food processing
Water plays many critical roles within the field of food science. It is
important for a food scientist to understand the roles that water plays
within food processing to ensure the success of their products.
Solutes such as salts and sugars found in water affect the physical
properties of water. The boiling and freezing points of water are
affected by solutes, as well as air pressure, which is in turn affected by
altitude. Water boils at lower temperatures with the lower air pressure
which occurs at higher elevations. One mole of sucrose (sugar) per
kilogram of water raises the boiling point of water by 0.51 C, and one
Water can be used to cook foods such as noodles.
mole of salt per kg raises the boiling point by 1.02 C; similarly,
increasing the number of dissolved particles lowers water's freezing
[46]
point. Solutes in water also affect water activity which affects many chemical reactions and the growth of
microbes in food.[47] Water activity can be described as a ratio of the vapor pressure of water in a solution to the
vapor pressure of pure water.[46] Solutes in water lower water activity. This is important to know because most
bacterial growth ceases at low levels of water activity.[47] Not only does microbial growth affect the safety of food
but also the preservation and shelf life of food.
Water hardness is also a critical factor in food processing. It can dramatically affect the quality of a product as well
as playing a role in sanitation. Water hardness is classified based on the amounts of removable calcium carbonate
salt it contains per gallon. Water hardness is measured in grains; 0.064 g calcium carbonate is equivalent to one grain
of hardness.[46] Water is classified as soft if it contains 1 to 4 grains, medium if it contains 5 to 10 grains and hard if
it contains 11 to 20 grains. [46] The hardness of water may be altered or treated by using a chemical ion exchange
system. The hardness of water also affects its pH balance which plays a critical role in food processing. For example,
hard water prevents successful production of clear beverages. Water hardness also affects sanitation; with increasing
hardness, there is a loss of effectiveness for its use as a sanitizer.[46]
Boiling, steaming, and simmering are popular cooking methods that often require immersing food in water or its
gaseous state, steam. Water is also used for dishwashing.
Water 17
A 2006 United Nations report stated that "there is enough water for everyone", but that access to it is hampered by
mismanagement and corruption.[49] In addition, global initiatives to improve the efficiency of aid delivery, such as
the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, have not been taken up by water sector donors as effectively as they have
in education and health, potentially leaving multiple donors working on overlapping projects and recipient
governments without empowerment to act.[50]
The UN World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from the World Water Assessment Program indicates
that, in the next 20 years, the quantity of water available to everyone is predicted to decrease by 30%. 40% of the
world's inhabitants currently have insufficient fresh water for minimal hygiene. More than 2.2 million people died in
2000 from waterborne diseases (related to the consumption of contaminated water) or drought. In 2004, the UK
charity WaterAid reported that a child dies every 15 seconds from easily preventable water-related diseases; often
this means lack of sewage disposal; see toilet.
Organizations concerned with water protection include International Water Association (IWA), WaterAid, Water 1st,
American Water Resources Association [51]. Water related conventions are United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification (UNCCD), International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea and Ramsar Convention. World Day for Water takes place on 22 March and
World Ocean Day on 8 June.
Water used in the production of a good or service is virtual water.
Water in culture
Religion
Water is considered a purifier in most religions. Major faiths that incorporate ritual washing (ablution) include
Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Rastafari movement, Shinto, Taoism, Judaism, and Wicca. Immersion (or aspersion or
affusion) of a person in water is a central sacrament of Christianity (where it is called baptism); it is also a part of the
practice of other religions, including Judaism (mikvah) and Sikhism (Amrit Sanskar). In addition, a ritual bath in
pure water is performed for the dead in many religions including Judaism and Islam. In Islam, the five daily prayers
Water 18
can be done in most cases (see Tayammum) after completing washing certain parts of the body using clean water
(wudu). In Shinto, water is used in almost all rituals to cleanse a person or an area (e.g., in the ritual of misogi).
Water is mentioned numerous times in the Bible, for example: "The earth was formed out of water and by water"
(NIV). In the Qur'an it is stated that "Living things are made of water" and it is often used to described Paradise.
Philosophy
The Ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles held that water is one of the four classical elements along with fire,
earth and air, and was regarded as the ylem, or basic substance of the universe. Water was considered cold and moist.
In the theory of the four bodily humors, water was associated with phlegm. The classical element of Water was also
one of the five elements in traditional Chinese philosophy, along with earth, fire, wood, and metal.
Water is also taken as a role model in some parts of traditional and popular Asian philosophy. James Legge's 1891
translation of the Dao De Jing states "The highest excellence is like (that of) water. The excellence of water appears
in its benefiting all things, and in its occupying, without striving (to the contrary), the low place which all men
dislike. Hence (its way) is near to (that of) the Tao" and "There is nothing in the world more soft and weak than
water, and yet for attacking things that are firm and strong there is nothing that can take precedence of itfor there
is nothing (so effectual) for which it can be changed."[52]
Literature
Water is used in literature as a symbol of purification. Examples include the critical importance of a river in As I Lay
Dying by William Faulkner and the drowning of Ophelia in Hamlet.
Sherlock Holmes held that "From a drop of water, a logician could infer the possibility of an Atlantic or a Niagara
without having seen or heard of one or the other."[53]
See also
The water (data page) is a collection of the chemical and physical properties of water.
Water is described in many terms and contexts:
according to state
solid ice
liquid water
gaseous water vapor
plasma
according to meteorology:
hydrometeor
precipitation
levitating particles
clouds
fog
mist
ascending particles (drifted by wind)
spindrift
stirred snow
according to occurrence
groundwater
meltwater
meteoric water
connate water
fresh water
surface water
mineral water contains many minerals
brackish water
dead water strange phenomenon which can occur when a layer of fresh or brackish water rests on top of
denser salt water, without the two layers mixing. It is dangerous for ship traveling.
seawater
brine
according to uses
tap water
bottled water
drinking water or potable water useful for everyday drinking, without fouling, it contains balanced minerals
that are not harmful to health (see below)
purified water, laboratory-grade, analytical-grade or reagent-grade water water which has been highly
purified for specific uses in science or engineering. Often broadly classified as Type I, Type II, or Type III, this
category of water includes, but is not limited to, the following:
distilled water
Water 20
Other topics
Dihydrogen monoxide hoax
Water Pasteurization Indicator
Water intoxication
Water pinch analysis
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Water 21
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Water 22
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Further reading
OA Jones, JN Lester and N Voulvoulis, Pharmaceuticals: a threat to drinking water? TRENDS in Biotechnology
23(4): 163, 2005
Franks, F (Ed), Water, A comprehensive treatise, Plenum Press, New York, 19721982
PH Gleick and associates, The World's Water: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources. Island Press,
Washington, D.C. (published every two years, beginning in 1998.)
Marks, William E., The Holy Order of Water: Healing Earth's Waters and Ourselves. Bell Pond Books ( a div. of
Steiner Books), Great Barrington, MA, November 2001 [ISBN 0-88010-483-X]
Debenedetti, P. G., and Stanley, H. E.; "Supercooled and Glassy Water", Physics Today 56 (6), p.4046 (2003).
Downloadable PDF (1.9 MB) (http://polymer.bu.edu/hes/articles/ds03.pdf)
External links
OECD Water statistics (http://stats.oecd.org/wbos/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=ENV_WAT)
bjn:Banyu
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