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AnalogI PDF
AnalogI PDF
Force on a conductor
I A conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic field B T,
at an angle of . The current flow in the conductor is I
A. Force exerted on the conductor can be calculated
from
r r r
F = IL B
F = ILB sin
B
F
Analog Devices: Current Measurements
Force on a conductor
With no current flowing through the conductor,
the spring will be at its unstretched length. As
current flows through the conductor, the spring
will stretch and developed force required to
balance the electromagnetic force.
Fs = kx kx = ILB
I I
k = spring constant, x = the total distance
B moved by the spring and is 90o
k
F = IBL I= x
BL
DArsonval or PMMC Instrument
F = IBL
F = IBL F = IBL
D L = the length of coil perpendicular to the
paper
Since the force acts on each side of the coil, the total force for a coil of
N turns is
F = NIBL
The force on each side acts at a coil diameter D, producing a deflecting
torque
TD = NIBLD
Torque Equation and Scale
The controlling torque exerted by the spiral springs is proportional to
the angle of deflection of the pointer:
TC = K
Where K = the spring constant. For a given deflection, the controlling
and deflecting torques are equal
BLIND = K
Since all quantities except and I are constant for any given
instrument, the deflection angle is
= CI
Therefore the pointer deflection is always proportional to the coil
current. Consequently, the scale of the instrument is linear.
Galvanometer
Solution:
Known: FSD of Im Rm
Solution:
(a) FSD = 100 mA: Rs = 1.001
B
C
Rs1
D
Rs2
Rs3 E
C B
A
Rs4 D
Im
VS
Im
I
R1 R2 R3
+ B
I Is C
Is -
A An Ayrton shunt used with an
D ammeter consists of several series-
connected resistors all connected in
R1 + R2 + R3 in parallel with Rm parallel with the PMMC instrument.
Rm Range change is effected by switch
between resistor junctions
Im
VS
Im
R1 R2 R3
+ B
I
C A
I Is Is -
D
R1 + R2 in parallel with Rm + R3
DC Ammeter
Example: A PMMC instrument has a three-resistor Ayrton shunt connected across it to make an
ammeter. The resistance values are R1 = 0.05 , R2 = 0.45 , and R3 = 4.5 . The meter has Rm =
1 k and FSD = 50 A. Calculate the three ranges of the ammeter.
Solution:
Rm
Im Position B C D
VS
Im
R1 R2 R3 IFSD (mA) 10.05 100.05 1000.05
+ B
I
C A
I Is Is -
D
DC Voltmeter
An ammeter is always connected across
or parallel with the points in a circuit at
which the voltage is to be measured.
PMMC The internal resistance should be very
instrument high
V
V = I m Rs + I m Rm Rs = Rm
Im
Series resistance
or multiplier Given V = Range
Range
V Rs = Rm
Im
Multiplier Coil
resistance
The reciprocal of full scale current is the
resistance
Rs Rm
/V)
voltmeter sensitivity (k
R3
V = I m (Rm + R)
Rm
V = I m (Rm + R)
Known: FSD of Im Rm
Solution:
Multiplier
resistors
R1
Meter Rm R1 R2 R3
resistance R2
R3
Rm
V V
(a) (b)
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
198.3 k
998.3 k
1.9983 M
198.3 k
800 k
1 M
Ohmmeter: Voltmeter-ammeter method
Pro and con:
Simple and theoretical oriented
Requires two meter and calculations
Subject to error: Voltage drop in ammeter (Fig. (a))
Current in voltmeter (Fig. (b))
I
+ VA -
A A
+ + + + IV Ix
I
VS V V Rx Vx VS V V Rx
- - - - -
Fig. (b)
Fig. (a)
V V Rx
V V + VA V Measured Rx: Rmeas = = =
Measured Rx: Rmeas = = x = Rx + A I I x + IV 1 + IV / I x
I I I
if Vx>>VA Rmeas Rx if Ix>>IV Rmeas Rx
Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure
large resistance small resistance
Ohmmeter: Series Connection
Voltmeter-ammeter method is rarely used in practical applications
(mostly used in Laboratory)
Ohmmeter uses only one meter by keeping one parameter constant
Example: series ohmmeter
Resistance to
be measured Nonlinear scale
Standard
resistance
15k
Rx k 5k
45 50
R1
Battery
Meter Infinity 25 75
Rm
VS resistance
0
10
0
Vs
0
Rx = R1 Rm Meter
A
I
Basic series ohmmeter consisting of a PMMC and a series-connected standard resistor (R1). When
the ohmmeter terminals are shorted (Rx = 0) meter full scale defection occurs. At half scale defection
Rx = R1 + Rm, and at zero defection the terminals are open-circuited.
Loading Effect: Voltage Measurement
a Rth a
Linear
Circuit
Vab V Rm Vth Vab V Rm
b b
Undisturbed condition: Rm = Vab = Vu = Vth
Rm
Measured condition: Rm Vab = Vm = Vth
Rm + Rth
1
General equation: Vm = Vu
1 + Rth / Rm
Vm Vu
Measurement error: error = 100
Vu
Rth 1
= 100% = 100%
Rm + Rth 1 + Rm / Rth
Therefore, in practice, to get the acceptable results, we must have Rm 10 Rth (error ~ 9%)
Loading Effect
R1
100k
5V 6.7 V
100k
10 V 10 V
R2
100k
5V 3.3 V V
100k
100k
100 // 100
Vmeas = 10 V = 3.3 V
100 + 100 // 100
100k
100k 6V 5.2 V
10 V 10 V
100k
100k 4V V
200k 4.8 V V
1000k
Error of the measurement is the combination of the loading effect and the meter error
Linear
Circuit
Vab A Rm Vth Vab A Rm
b b
Undisturbed condition: Rm = 0 I = I u = Vth / Rth
I m Iu
Measurement error: error = 100
Iu
Rm 1
= 100% = 100%
Rm + Rth 1 + Rth / Rm
Therefore, in practice, to get the acceptable results, we must have Rm Rth /10 (error ~ 9%)
AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based
Waveform Amplitude Average RMS
A
A 0
2
A A
A
2
2A A
A
2
A A
0
3
A 0 A
D D
A A A
D +W D +W
D W
AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based
Basic PMMC instrument is polarized, therefore its terminals must be
identified as + and -.
PMMC instrument can not response quite well with the frequency 50 Hz or
higher, So the pointer will settle at the average value of the current flowing
through the moving coil: average-responding meter.
Using 4 diodes
Full-wave Rectifier Voltmeter
On positive cycle, D1 and D4
Multiplier are forward-biased, while D2
resistors Rm
Rs D1 D3 and D3 are reverse-biased
Vp
Vrms
Vav On negative cycle, D2 and D3
are forward-biased, while D1
and D4 are reverse-biased
D2 D4
The scale is calibrated for
pure sine with the scale factor
Actually voltage to be indicated in ac 2 / 2A/
of 1.11 (A/ )
measurements is normally the rms quantity
AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based
Example: A PMMC instrument has FSD of 100 A and a coil resistance of 1k is to be employed
as an ac voltmeter with FSD = 100 V (rms). Silicon diodes are used in the full-bridge rectifier circuit
(a) calculate the multiplier resistance value required, (b) the position of the pointer when the rms
input is 75 V and (c) the sensitivity of the voltmeter
Known: FSD of Im Rm
Solution:
Multiplier
resistors Rm
Rs D1 D3
Vp
Vrms
Vav
D2 D4
(a) Rs = 890.7 k
(b) 0.75 of FSD
(c) 9 k/V
AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based
Half-wave Rectifier Voltmeter
Rs
D1
Vp
Rm
Vrms
D2 RSH Vav
The shunt resistor RSH is connected to be able to measure the relative large
current.
2 / A/
The scale is calibrated for pure sine with the scale factor of 2.22 (A/ )
AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based
Example: A PMMC instrument has FSD of 50 A and a coil resistance of 1700 is used in the
half-wave rectifier voltmeter. The silicon diode (D1) must have a minimum (peak) forward current
of 100 A. When the measured voltage is 20% of FSD. The voltmeter is to indicate 50 Vrms at full
scale Calculate the values of RS and RSH.
Known: FSD of Im Rm
Rs
D1
Vp
Rm
Vrms
D2 RSH Vav
AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based
Example The symmetrical square-wave voltage is applied to an average-responding ac
voltmeter with a scale calibrated in terms of the rms value of a sine wave. If the
voltmeter is the full-wave rectified configuration. Calculate the error in the meter
indication. Neglect all voltage drop in all diodes.
E
Solution 11%
Em
T
Bridge Circuit
Bridge Circuit is a null method, operates on the principle of
comparison. That is a known (standard) value is adjusted until it is
equal to the unknown value.
Bridge Circuit
DC Bridge AC Bridge
(Resistance)
Inductance Capacitance Frequency
A Balance condition:
No potential difference across the
R1 R2 galvanometer (there is no current through
the galvanometer)
I1 I2
Under this condition: VAD = VAB
V D B
I3 I4 I1R1 = I 2 R2
And also VDC = VBC
R3 R4
I3 R3 = I 4 R4
where I1, I2, I3, and I4 are current in resistance
arms respectively, since I1 = I3 and I2 = I4
C R1 R2 R2
= or Rx = R4 = R3
R3 R4 R1
Example
1 1 1 1
12 V 12 V
1 1 2 2
1 10 1 10
12 V 12 V
2 20 2 10
consider a bridge circuit under a small unbalance condition, and apply circuit
analysis to solve the current through galvanometer
B
Sensitivity of Galvanometer (continued)
C D
RTH = R1 // R3 + R2 // R4
R3 R4
Completed Circuit
RTH
C
VTH
Ig= VTH
RTH+Rg Ig =
VTH G RTH + Rg
D
SOLUTION The bridge circuit is in the small unbalance condition since the value of
resistance in arm BC is 2,005 .
A Thvenin Voltage (VTH)
100 1000
100 1000
R1 R2
VTH = V AD VAC = 5 V
5V D G C 100 + 200 1000 + 2005
R3 R4
2.77 mV
200 2005
(a)
Thvenin Resistance (RTH)
100 A 1000
RTH = 100 // 200 + 1000 // 2005 = 734
C D
200 2005 The galvanometer current
B
VTH 2.77 mV
(b) Ig = = = 3.32 A
RTH= 734 C RTH + Rg 734 + 100
Ig=3.34 A
VTH
2.77 mV G Rg= 100 Galvanometer deflection
D
10 mm
d = 3.32 A = 33.2 mm
(c) A
Example 2 The galvanometer in the previous example is replaced by one with an internal
resistance of 500 and a current sensitivity of 1mm/A. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm
can be observed on the galvanometer scale, determine if this new galvanometer is capable
of detecting the 5- unbalance in arm BC
Example 3 If all resistances in the Example 1 increase by 10 times, and we use the
galvanometer in the Example 2. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm can be observed on the
galvanometer scale, determine if this new setting can be detected (the 50- unbalance in
arm BC)
Deflection Method
R v (k )
4
6V
3
2 4.5 k
1
0
Rv Output 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
5 k signal
Temp (oC)
(b)
(a)
AC Bridge: Balance Condition
B
all four arms are considered as impedance
Z1 Z2 (frequency dependent components)
The detector is an ac responding device:
I1 I2
headphone, ac meter
V A D C Source: an ac voltage at desired frequency
I1 I2 Z1 = R + j L = 200 + j100
V Z 2 = R + 1/ j C = 300 j 600
A D C
Z3 = R = 450
Z 4 = unknown
Z3 Z4
D
The general equation for bridge balance states that Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3
Operational Amplifier: Op Amp
VCC(+)
I1
Inverting _ _
Input
Output I2
Non-inverting
Input
+ +
V-
V+ Vout
VEE(-)
(a) Electrical Symbol for the op amp (b) Minimum connections to an op amp
Rule 1: I1 = I2 = 0; R+/- =
Rule 2: V+ = V-; Virtually shorted
Inverting Amplifier
Apply Rule 2: (no voltage difference between inverting and non-inverting inputs)
v A v1 v A vout (1)
+ =0
R1 vA R1 R4
_
R2 vB Since vA = vB (Rule 2) and
+ +
vout R3
v1 v A = vB = (2)
R3 - v2
v2 R2 + R3
vout R1 + R4 R3 v1
Substitute eq. (2) into eq. (1), we get = 2
v
R4 R1 R4 R2 + R3 R1
Rf
If R1 = R2 = R and R3 = R4 = Rf vout = ( v2 v1 )
R
Difference of v1and v2
Differentiator and Integrator: Mathematic Operation
R i
vout = iR
C dvC
_ But i=C and vin = vC
dt
i + +
vout dvin
vin - vout = RC
dt
Differentiator
C i
vout = vC
R
+ vc - t
1 vin = iR
_ But vC (t ) = idt + vC (0) and
C 0
i + + t
1
vout
vin
vout = vin dt + vC (0)
- RC 0
Integrator