All About Mud PDF
All About Mud PDF
All About Mud PDF
Written By
Mohamed Bakry
HYDRODYNAMICS:
Viscosity of Fluids:
All fluids exhibit a certain resistance to flow, In general terms, a fluid is often described as being thick or thin.
A thick fluid crude oil has a high viscosity than thin fluid such as water.
In general viscosity is defined as the relationship between the shear stress (flow pressure) and the shear rate
(flow rate), shear stress and shear rate cause deformation of mud matter and thus affect the flow property of the
drilling fluid.
1. Shear stress:
It can b defined as the force required to overcome the fluid resistance to flow divided by the area that force
acting on.
Shear stress (t) =force applied (dynes) / A (cm2)
= dunes / cm2
Where: A is the surface area subjected to stress.
2. Shear rate:
It can be defined as the relative viscosity of the fluid layers, or elements divided by their normal separation
distance.
Shear rate (y) = V (cm/sec) / H (cm) = sec-1
FIGURE
Assume that two flat plates are placed parallel too each other, at 1 cm apart the top plat is free to move, while
the bottom plat is fixed , the space between the two plates is filled with fluid . So if a force is then applied to
the top plate, so that it moves with a constant velocity of 1 cm /sec, that force will be transmitted to the fluid,
thus causing the layers within to move also but with different rates. The layers that is close to the moving plate
will move approximately with the same velocity of the plat, while the movement of the force that is transmitted
through the layers diminishes until the movement at the fixed plat is nearly equal zero.
Thus viscosity can be defined as a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow.
Viscosity = shear stress / shear rate.
Rheology can be defined as the science of the deformation of the flow of matter.
It as usually described by viscosity and gel strength.
Types of flow regimes:
Laminar flow.
Turbulent flow.
N.B. The type of flow is usually depending on the flow rate (SPM * POP), the flow pressure and the relative of
the flow channel.
Laminar flow:
Is generally associated with low flow rate, low fluid velocities and with fluid movement in uniform layers. In
laminar flow the force (pressure) required to induce flow increases as the fluid velocity increase.
CURVE
In laminar flow, the fluid particles tend to move in straight lines parallel to direction of flow. The layers near the
wall of the flow channel tend to move at a lower velocity than that exists in the center of the flow channel, thus
the flow profile of the fluid in case of laminar flow when move a cylindrical pipe will be in a sort of concentric
cylinder.
FIGURE
Turbulent flow:
In generally occurs at high flow rates, high fluid velocities, and is characterized by an erratic, random
movement of the drilling fluid particles.
A flowing fluid is generally considered to be an either laminar or turbulent flow.
There is a very critical period called transitional period between two regimes when the movement of fluid
particles is no longer complete laminar, nor has it yet become complete random .
I.e.: If the flow pressure is reduced slightly, the fluid particles will return to the laminar movement. Conversely,
if the flow pressure is increased sufficiently the fluid particles will assume the random flow patterns associated
with the turbulent flow.
This transition occurs at some critical velocity, which is generally governed by the ratio of the fluids internal
forces to its viscous forces this ratio is called Reynolds number (Nre)
Nre = [diameter of the flow channel *average flow velocity * fluid density]/ fluid viscosity
CURVE
N.B.
Shear stress and shear rate data, allows accurate determinations of the fluid behavior under varying flow
conditions.
This data then provides the basis for further calculations used to determine several important aspects related to
the drilling fluids parameters.
I.e.: proper understanding and application of rheological principles can be valuable aid in determination of
dynamic performance of drilling fluid in order to establish and maintain the most effective properties for
efficient and economical drilling fluid performance.
These further calculations are:
1. Fluid velocity.
2. Calculation of the system pressure losses.
3. Calculation of surge and swab pressures.
4. Bit and jet nozzle hydraulics.
5. Relative hole cleaning efficiency.
6. Equivalent circulating density.
7. Estimation of the relative extent of hole erosion.
Reynolds Number:
WHERE :
CAUTION
!S T O P
IN GENERAL: PV gives an
indication about the nature of solids in mud
NB:
* The finer the solids, the higher the PV due to the increase of surface area which surrounded by more Volume of water.
*PV may be called (bit viscosity) which is equivalent to the viscosity of mud coming out of the bit, because PV has to be measured at
high shear rate.
*PV = 600 reading 300 reading
1- DILUTION:
a- with water in case of water base mud.
b- With diesel in case of oil base mud.
c- With clean premixed mud.
IN OTHER WORDS:
ITS THE FORCE REQUIRED TO SLIDE ONE LAYER OF THE MUD OVER ANOTHER
These forces are a result of the +ve and ve charges located on the surface of fluids layers.
YP is the measurement of these forces and its effect on fluids under flowing condition of drilling fluid.
A- CHEMICAL DEGRADATION
B- CLAY MOVEMENT
C- DEHYDRATION
**Over 150 F the space between clay particles increases causes over hydration on the clay particles, so Water is no longer
available in the system to keep mud flows, thats why mud become more thicker
**Over 350F a chemical degradation to clay particles occurs, causes an increase in activating ions and by term an increase in
Electro-chemicals attraction occurs, so Flocculation occurs accompanied by increase in YP.
NB: High PH causes flocculation due to increases of attraction forces between particles.
GENERAL NOTES:
2- YP = 300 READING - PV
5- PV IS A FUNCTION OF SOLIDS.
Is the measurement of chemical attraction forces between mud particles under static conditions. GEL Strength is
an indicator for low shear rate rheology at 3 rpm reading ( V.G meter)
TYPES OF GEL:
1- Fragile or flat Gel:
Gel strength of 10 minute is slightly higher than 10 seconds gel even if 10 seconds gel reading
is high.
Gel strength increases significantly after 10 minute, even if 10 seconds gel is low.
NB: Relation between Gel,YP, and Viscosity, Cake and pore hole diameter:---
The increases of viscosity causes increase in YP & Gel, where too much increase of viscosity causes removed
of filter cake and may causes wash in bore hole diameter.
FILTRATION:
Is the rate of water loss of mud into formations
1- The quantity of filtrate which is the volume of filtrate that invades the formation.
(Anyhow lowering the water loss helps in hole stability)
2- The quality of filtrate, which gives an idea about the type and concentration of materials dissolved in
filtrate.
This gives an idea about the extend of stability of mud resulting from chemical interaction forces
between mud components, also gives an idea about the amount of contaminants dissolved in mud (LGS,
SALT and Chemical contaminants) that
Contributes this stability.
NB: 5ppb water loss reducer ==== water loss = +/- 3.0
FILTER CAKE:
IS THE MEASUREMENT OF THE RELATIVE AMOUNT OF MUD SHEETS DEPOSITED ON
THE PORE HOLE FORMATION SURFACE
1- QUALITY:
A- Impermeable
B- Non Porous
This much affected by:
percentage of solid in mud
shape and size of solids
chemical contaminant in mud
Isolating the formation from the drilling fluids will minimize the potentially detrimental interaction between
Filtrate and exposed formation and thus control the hole stability, this is complied by controlling:
Water loss
Quality and quantity of filter cake.
In other word minimize water loss by mean of water loss reducers together with getting rid of colloidal
Materials (LGS) off mud and chemical treatment of chemical contaminants .
SOLIDS:
TYPES OF SOLIDS:
2- A decrease in concentration of drilled solids contributes to improve and maintain rheological and other mud
properties and thus reduce mud maintenance cost.
Increase of solids in mud can be detected by:
1- Weighting mud
2- Evaporating and condensing mud fluid in a cylinder, leaving solid residual behind.
3- Increase of PV
NB: Some times diesel acts like solids, making what is known as (mechanical solids) causing increase in PV,YP
and Viscosity, this take place as a diesel in retort make a sort of droplets which dont condense and thus gives
slightly increase in solid percentage.
I.e.: never to put off solid control equipment to increase mud weight
Example:
To increase mud weight 0.1 PPG with drilled solids, that means ==0.1 X 2.6 X 42 = 10.92 ppb of low gravity
solids which is too high and will cause a lot of solid problems as mentioned before.
SOLID CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Solid Control Depending on:
1. Screening.
2. Centrifugal force.
3. Combination of both.
A. Screen Device:
This depends on:
Screening area and number of mesh.
Pump out put.
Solids load or penetration rate.
Mud viscosity.
Factors Affecting Shaker Efficiency and Solid Removal:
1. Screen selection:
Selecting the right screen for shakers recommended to remove the maximum amount of solids of mud, and
limits solids returning to mud system.
Screen selection depends on:
Amount and shape of solids to be removed.
Circulating rate.
Viscosity.
Screen life expectancy.
NB:
1. You will normally remove some finer solids than the mesh size due to piggy backing .
2. Changing wire diameter will change the cut point although mesh is the same.
3. Fine screen anticipating losing mesh water due to increase of surface area on smaller solids which are
removed.
Screen Types:
a. Sandwich:
If its a 40 mesh I.E.: it is accurately 80 mesh.
Advantages: never plugged with sand.
Disadvantages : plugged with gumbo shales.
b. Rectangular opening.
c. Plain weave.
d. Conventional.
Advantages: resist more than sandwich.
Disadvantages: plugged with sand faster than sandwich.
e. Oblong:
The best square mesh screens.
f. Pyramidal:
Advantages: never plugged with sand.
Disadvantages: plugged with gumbo shales.
What does screen mesh means?
Mesh means the linear measurements of number of openings per square inch.
I.E: Mesh counts opening per square inch.
EG: 80 mesh 80 openings per square inch.
One mesh includes width of one opening plus width of one wire.
Mesh count only tells the number of openings per linear inch in each direction.
Changing wire diameter without changing mesh will change the cut point although mesh is the same.
Size openings depend on mesh count and wire size.
NB: If screens are cutted at the same point several times you have to change the support cushion(Page6-10).
Type of Motion:
A. Circular.
B. Elliptical.
C. Longitudinal.
Flow Capacity:
a. As PV increases flow capacity decreases.
b. As mesh screens increase flow capacity increase.
c. % screen covered increase flow capacity increase.
d. Plugging effect increase flow capacity increase.
Precautions;
Wash down screens before trips.
Keep screens clean and you will reduce blinding and plugging effect.
Speed of Rotation:
The general vibration frequency for shakers is 1100 to 3300 RPM.
PS:
Cut point of shaker means that all cuttings above that size of mesh screens will be separated on the shaker,
below that size will pass from mesh screens of shaker back to system until removed with other solid control
equipments.
Cut point Millimicrons.
In General the Optimum Shale Shaker Operation Depends on:
Mounting and Leveling:
Shakers must be leveled according to GPM not too much to the front so as not to lose mud. Or not too much up
so as cuttings do not accumulate on the back sides of screens which by turn will cause too much load on that
part of screens and thus may cause screen cut and by turn solids will escape into system.
Provide required voltage and frequency .
Vibrator should rotate in proper direction.
Install proper screens and proper support cushions.
Proper and screen size is recommended so as not to have too narrow mesh and thus solids may plug screens and
thus lose mud at shakers OR too wide and thus allow cuttings to pass into system and thus increase solids
percentage in mud.
Also make sure that sealing rubber (support cushions) of screens is proper and not small or cutted otherwise the
solids will escape into system through cutted points.
Tension screens properly.
Size of mesh screens so as mud to cover 75 80 % of length.
Use water hose to wash down screens on trips.
You need partial plugging of mesh screens to aid in flow capacity and cutting removal.
Make sure that the bypath of shakers is not leaking. Otherwise solids will escape to system.
The volume of fluid lost on shale shakers per unit time depends on
1. Shaker design.
2. Screen mesh and type.
3. Drilling fluid properties.
4. Solid loading.
PS:
If only 50 % or less of the screen area is covered with mud, finer mesh screens is recommend.
Inspite that without changing screens, the operating ones can become partially blocked with time by cuttings
wedge in the open screens (blinded) or by sediments/ residue/ mud dried on the wire cloth(coated).
B. Centrifugal Device:
Depends on separating solids based on size and specific gravity of solids.
The centrifugal separator mechanically subjects the fluid to increased G forces and thus increases the settling
rate of particles by mean of this method both heavy coarse and light fine fractions are separated of mud.
Desired fractions of solids are then selected and return to the system. This recharging works well with both low
density(low gravity solids), and high gravity fluids.
FIGURE
Solids % D 50 microns
1.2 18
2.05 22.5
2.37 19
3.9 27
NB:
1. Cones processes 125 150 % of the flow line GPM.
2. Optimum pressure on the solid control equipment = M.wt X (distance between pumps of solid control
equipments 75ft and the equipment itself) X 0.0519.
NB: Volume of salt water corrected (Vwc) and specific gravity of water (Sw) is obtained from appropriate salt
table.
SOLIDS ANALYSIS:
Calculation of low-gravity solids and high-gravity solids from a retort analysis. Correct the
retort values and the specific gravity of the water phase by using the salt tables.
WHERE:
- Vlg = volume of low gravity solids
- Vss = volume % of suspended solids
- Vb = volume of high gravity solids
- Vw = water fraction corrected for presence of dissolved salt
- Po = density of oil
- Pm = density of mud (spgr)
- Plg = density of low gravity solids (LGS) = 2.6
- Pf = density of water phase corrected for dissolved salts
2. Substitute in equation to get volume of low- gravity solids and high-gravity solids.
[{Vw){Pf}+{Vss}{Pb}+{Vo}{Po}]-100{Pm}
Vg = ---------------------------------------------------------
{Pb Plg}
[{67.8}{1.111}+{24.2}{4.2}+{8}{0.84}] 100{1.8}
= ---------------------------------------------------------------
{4.2- 2.6}
= 2.3 % LGS
100{Pm}-[{Vw){Pf}+{Vss}{Plg}+{Vo}{Po}]
Vb = -----------------------------------------------------------
{Pb Plg}
100{1.8}-[{67.8}{1.111}+{24.2}{2.6}+{8}{0.84}
= --------------------------------------------------------------
{ 4.2-2.6}
= 21.9 % HGS (Barite)
2.3
= ------ X 100 = 9.5 %
24.2
21.9
= ------ X 100 = 90.5 %
24.2
9.5
= ------ X {2.6 x8.33}X [{24.2/100}X42]
100
= 20 pounds
Weight of high-gravity solids
90.5
= ------ X {2.4 x8.33}X [{24.2/100}X42]
100
= 322 pounds
Fluids concentration
Examples:
1 -fluid with 3% LGS, how much concentrate in ppb.
3 Fluid weight 9.2 PPG, how much ppb of LGS in un-weighted mud (LGS % = 7.5%)
for unweighted mud:
solids = solids % X [Mud weight weight of water (8.34)]
LGS % = 7.5 (% solids of retort) X ( 9.2 8.34 )
= 6.45 % ( % of corrected solids)
LGS ppb = [{6.45}/{100 }}X 910.728
= 58.7 ppb
4 On adding 5.5% solids to one bbl of mud free of solids, calculate volume increase
EXAMPLE:
Vt = 100 bbl
Wt = 12.5 PPG
V1 = 84 ( % or bbl because Vt = 100 )
Solution:
V2 + V3 = 16 %
V2 = {16 V3}
W2(LGS) = 21.7 PPG
W3(HGS) =35 PPG
100 X 12.5 = {84 X 8.34} + {16 V3} X 21.7 (wt of LGS) X {V3 X 35(wt of barite)}
13.3 V3 + 1047.76 = 1250
V3 = 202.24
V3 = 15.2 %
V2 (LGS) = 16 15.2 = 0.8 %
EXAMPLE:
IF Vt = 100
Mwt = 12.8 PPG
V1 = 72 (retort value)
V4 = 10 (retort value)
Solution:
EXAMPLE:
Mwt = 12.1 PPG
Water = 80 %
Solids = 20 %
CL = 141,000
Solution:
From Na CL salt table, salinity of 141.0 k, volume increase = 1.087
Brine volume = 80 X 1.087 = 86.9 %
Corrected solids = 100 86.9 = 13.1 %
From NaCL salt table, adjust density of water corresponding to 141.0 k of CL = 9.6 PPG
100 X 12.1 = {86.9 X 9.6} + { 13.1 V3 }X 21.7 + 35 X V3
V3 = 6.9 %
V2 = 13.1 (Total corrected solids) 6.9
V2 = 6.2 %
ALKALINITY AND PH :
ALKALINITY IS DEFINED AS THE AVAILABILITY OF H+ IN SOLUTION
PH = 16 PH = 7.0 PH = 814
ACIDIC NEUTRAL ALKALINE
IF
PH =12.0 or higher ======= Mud contaminate with OH group
1. If Mf = Pf or little higher :
That means mud contaminate with OH ions only
Expected to get Ca++ ions contaminate in mud , whenever no CO3 group to precipitate Ca++.
3. If MF = TWICE Pf:
Most of ions are CO3
High pH related to CO3 not OH which may causes a problem in lignosulphonate mud Leads no
response for rheological properties.
NB:
Mf is a matter of measuring CO3, HCO3 & CO2
Pf is a matter of measuring CO3 & OH group.
Pf end point is at PH = 8.3
Mf end point is at PH = 4.3
Example:
If PH = 9.0 Pf = 0.8 Mf = 1.6
That means high consumption of H+ ions of H2SO4 acid, take the same quantity of Pf to utilize the filtrate
to reach PH = 4.3, So all alkalinity in Pf was from CO3 group.
Rule of thumb:
CO2 AND H2S are acidic gases
At high PH you have free OH ions in mud
At high PH we minimize bacterial degradation
Dont treat carbonate to zero so as to have some carbonate to react w/ excess Ca ions in mud
Accepted carbonate in mud is between 500 2000 mg/l
A solids problem may look like a CO3 problem.
In case of CO2 treat with lime C<2O + Ca<2OH =(CaCO3 + H2O
In lime mud the influx of CO2& H2S, which are acidic gases gives incorrect Pm/Pf ratio
Solubility of Ca increase with low pH, causing flocculation of mud
Clay or shale becomes highly sensitive to mud in highly pH over 9.0, causing flocculation of mud as the
attraction forces between ions increases
Mf value sometimes tend to be higher than actual (false value),this is because some chemicals added to mud
(such as ,lignosulphonates , unical , resinex), buffer the pH of the fluid (fix it) ,so it takes more amount of
H2SO4 to reach pH 4.3.
High pH more than 11.0 may deactivate some polymers, best media pH is between 8.5(10.0.
Low pH less than 7.0 causes breakdown (burn) of polymers
Ligosulphonate becomes less affective and may cause sever foaming at pH below 8.0,so add caustic
Soda to adjust PH
In lime mud or excess lime Pm becomes higher than Pf as lime increases.
To adjust Pm/Pf ratio add lime or caustic soda .
Contaminants :
Na Cl :
Source :
1. salt domes .
2. rock salt beds .
3. evaporite formations .
4. salt H2O flow .
5. salty make up water.
Effects :
1. Increase apparent viscosity .
2. Increase yield point .
3. Decrease pH .
4. Cl- ion will increase in filtration and will decrease Pf .
5. Flocculation followed by aggregation of mud .
6. Wash of hole .
7. Chemical foam .
Treatment :
1. Dilution .
2. Add thinner to reduce apparent viscosity, YP, Gel strength .
3. Add caustic soda (Na OH) to increase and adjust pH .
4. Add organic thinner to reduce filtration .
5. Analyze salty make up water before adding to system otherwise it will act as if we get a salt water flow .
6. To make sure that there is no increase in mud weight .
7. To convert to salt saturated mud .
8. Any treatment should be done as soon as possible otherwise getting a hole wash or untreated mud may cause loose control which
might result in moving in salt body into hole getting a pipe stuck .
9. In case of foams, add defoamer (aluminum stearate defoamer) .
Ca SO4 :
Source :
1. Gypsum (Ca SO4 2H2O)
2. Anhydrite (Ca SO4 ) .
3. Cap rock of a salt dome .
4. Make up water .
Effects :
1. Cause flocculation and aggregation .
2. Increase apparent viscosity .
3. Increase YP & gel strength .
4. Increase filtrate .
5. Increase Ca++ ion in mud which cause flocculation . also increase SO4content in filtrate which increase hardness .
6. Increase thickening of mud .
Treatment :
1. Add soda ash (Na CO3)with low pH or Anhydrox (Ba CO3) or Na HCO3 with high pH .
Na2 CO3 + Ca SO4 = Ca CO3 +Na2 SO4 .
2. Add thinner to reduce viscosity and gel strength .
3. Work on thickening and filtration by adding either CMC , Lignosulfonate .
4. If large amounts of soda ash is added , the soluble sodium sulfate tends to build up and cause (ash gels)which are indicated by
High Progressive Gel Strength .
Also if HI pH is maintained this too may result in ash gels due to formation of Na2 SO4 .
So it is required to
a. dilute with H2O .
b. add lime for alkalinity .
5. Prepare pretreated mud with Q-broxine and caustic soda .
6. Convert to gypsum mud so as Ca SO4 will have no effect on mud
Ca (OH)2 Cement :
Contamination occurs during :
1. Cement squeeze operation .
2. Poor casing cement job .
3. Drilling out cement .
4. Wet (green) cement has a greater contamination effect than hard cement because of increased solubility .
NB : (Salinity + gas + oil) prevent cement to get hard. (weak cement job) .
Effects :
1. Increase apparent viscosity .
2. Increase YP & gel strength.
3. Increase pH .
4. Increase filtrate .
5. Increase Pf and hardness content of filtrate .
Treatment :
1. Reduce pH by adding sodium bicarbonate , this Na HCO3 will also treat the thickness of mud . Caused from the presence of
Ca++ ions and retain the dispersed defllocculated condition of mud .
NB : 100 lb. Of bicarbonate of soda / 2 cubic feet of hard cement .
100 lb. Of bicarbonate of soda / 1 cubic feet of soft cement .
This is done to prevent flocculation of clays .
1. If contamination is slight , Barafos is sometimes used as it will remove calcium ion and reduce pH .
NB : Be careful of bottom hole temperature .
2. Add organic thinner with little or no caustic soda to reduce the thickening of contaminated mud .
Other Divalent ions :
Source :
EG : a- Magnesium chloride .
b- Calcium chloride .
c- Magnesium sulfate .
1. In formation water
2. Sea water .
3. Evaporate formation .
Mg++ ion acts like Ca++ ion contamination .
NB : The magnesium can be precipitated from solution as magnesium hydroxide (Mg (OH)2) at a pH above 10 .
H2S Gas :
Source :
1. In formation fluids as a result of bacterial action or from sulfur compounds commonly found in the drilling fluid .
2. Thermal degradation of sulfur containing drilling fluid additives .(EG: Lignosulfonate) .
3. Chemical reaction with tool joint thread lubricants that contain sulfur .
Effects :
1. Toxic gas .
2. Corrosion of drill string .
3. Decrease pH .
4. H2S 2H+ + S-
H+ acidic ion cause corrosion , react with OH- ion in mud causing dehydration of mud and thus flocculation of bentonite and by
turn decrease pH and get polymer back to its acidic form and thus do not work .
S- cause flocculation of mud and might react with any H+ ion left to give back H2S .
Treatment :
1. Add caustic soda to keep pH above 10.5 .
2. Add zinc oxide , zinc carbonate
Zn O + H2S = ZnS + H2O .
3. Add lime .
Lime is reported as lb. /bbl and not ppm . Multiply lb./bbl lime tests constant to get lb./bbl treating agent needed .
At pH 10.5 all but 50 ppm of magnesium has been reacted .
Zinc oxide has less effect on rheological properties in non dispersed systems .
CO2 flocculate mud in case of bentonite mud as it will take OH- ion to give HCO3, also decrease pH .
To get rid of CO2 add lime Ca(OH)2 = Ca++ + 2OH- .
HCO3 + OH- = H2O + CO3 .
Ca++ + CO3-- = CaCO3 .
Chemicals Required to Remove Ionic Contaminations
Example:
Titration of the filtrate shows a calcium level of 650 mg/L. to remove all but approximately 100 mg/L, treat
550mg/L (650- 100 = 550) of calcium with soda ash.
Therefor, soda ash required is approximately
550 X 0.00093 = 0.51 lb./bbl
the higher the salinity the lower the pH, the higher the Ca contamination.
Ca can be
CHEMICAL TREATMENT GUIDE
Contamination To remove add to water base mud Amount to add (lb./bbl) to remove 1 PPM
ion contaminated ion
Calcium Soda ash to hold pH or raise it. 0.000927 lb./bbl
Gypsum (Ca++) SAPP to hold pH or reduce it 0.000971 lb./bbl
or Sodium bicarbonate to hold pH or 0.000735 lb./bbl
Anhydrite reduce it.
NOTE:
Lime is reported as lb./bbl and not PPM. Multiply lb./bbl lime tests constant to get lb./bbl treating
agent needed.
At pH of 10.5 all but 50 PPM of magnesium has been reacted
Zinc oxide has less effect on rheological properties in non-dispersed systems.
CO2 flocculate mud in case of bentonite mud as it will take OH- to give HCO3, also decrease pH.
To get rid of CO2 add lime Ca(OH)2. Ca+2 + 2 OH-
HCO3 + OH- = H2O + CO3
Ca+2 + CO3-- = CaCO3
TROUBLE SHOOTING GUIDE
Fluid loss Normal Normal- Normal Normal High Remove C++ by sodium bicarbonate
too high high rather than soda ash.
Normal
Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Add 100-150 PPM Ca to suppress the
yield of bent. This well allow more
Normal
bent. to be added to the mud for
better particle size distribution
without excessive viscosity.
NB: Gel PV, to break down gel, dilute (fresh water + caustic soda + spersene. Replace mud. The addition of
water should be slow.
CHEMICAL TEST (WBM)
Salinity:
CL : 1ml of filtrate + ph.ph if pink add 0.02 H2SO4 colorless.
1 ml of filtrate + 5-10 drops potassium chromate (yellow) # Ag NO3 (end point orange red ppt).
Hardness:
* Ca++
* Mg++
1 ml of filtrate + 2-5 drops Buffer solution (Ammonia) + Erichrom black indicator (pink).
# EDTA end point sky blue. Let volume of EDTA = B
++
Mg = (B-A) X 243.2
Alkalinity of Mud:
* Pm:
Alkalinity of Filtrate:
Pf:
1 ml of filtrate + 2 drops of ph.ph (pink).
# H2SO4 (N 50) end pint colorless
Mf:
Add 2 drops of Methyl orange (yellow orange).
# H2SO4 (N 50) end pint pale red.
NB: Very Important:
1. To increase pH add caustic soda.
2. To decrease pH add dilution.
3. To treat flocculation dilution + thinners.
4. To treat foams add defoamer.
5. To treat viscosity dilution + thinners.
6. To treat water loss add filtration control agents.
++
7. To treat Ca add soda ash.
8. To treat Mg++ add Ca CO3.
9. To treat CO3, HCO3, PO4 add lime.
Test MBT:
1. Add 2 ml of mud + 8 ml of deionized H2O + 15 ml of 3 % hydrogen peroxide + 0.5 ml of sulfuric acid.
2. Boil gently for 10 min.
3. Dilute to about 50 ml with distilled water.
4. Add Methylene blue solution about 0.5 ml and steer for about 30 sec.
5. While the solids are still suspended, remove one drop of liquid and place on a filter paper.
6. The end point is reached when the dye appears as a blue ring surrounding the dyed solids.
7. Shake or steer for two minutes and place another drop on the filter paper. If the blue ring is again evident,
the end point is reached. If not, continue as before until a drop taken after shaking two minutes shows the
blue dye.
ML of Methylene blue
8. Methylene blue capacity = .
ML of mud
9. Where :
Bentonite equivalent (lb./bbl mud) = 5 X Methylene blue capacity.
(Kg/m3 mud) = 14.25 X Methylene blue capacity.
NB: drilling mud frequently contains substances in addition to bentonite that adsorb Methylene blue, treatment
with hydrogen peroxide is intended to remove the effect of organic materials such as CMC, Polyacrylates,
Lignosulfonate and Lignite.
SHALE FACTOR:
Clay types have different cation exchange capacities (CEC) and consequently different adsorption capacities.
It was also shown that Na montmorillonite clay will undergo diagensis to illite with the increasing of temperature by the ionic
exchange of K ions instead of Na ions
In order for diagenesis to proceed, water must be flushed out from clays.
If exchange cations K are not available to exchange Na montimorillonite clay will lose its water, but will not convert to illite thus if
this type of clay is drilled with a water-based mud, the clay will hydrate and causes drilling problems.
The cation exchange capacity (CEC) will decrease as clays convert from montimorillonite type (with temperature and thus with depth
and pressure).
Pure montimorillonite clays show a CEC of 100 meq\100gm.
Pure illites (shows no swelling characteristics) have a CEC generally between 10&40 meq\100gm.
Kaolinites have a CEC of approximately 10 meq\100gm.
In general bentonite and montimorillonite have an affinity for water.
NB, the clay /shale zones will have an affinity for water in an amount proportional to the montimorillonite content.
PORE PRESSURE:
There Some Factors That Affects The Estimated Pore Pressure:
1. Mud weight and background gas relationship.
2. Gas cut mud.
3. Cutting character.
4. Hole condition.
5. Temperature.
6. Dex.
W1 W2 3.53 X W2 X D
Pressure reduction( P) = 14.7 [ ] In [ ]
W1 1000
D = depth of gas zone.
FORMATION PRESSURE :
All sedimentary rocks are porous to some degree. These void spaces within a rock grains are filled with fluids (liquid or gas or
combination of both). These fluids within pore spaces exhibit a sort of pressure known as PORE PRESSURE.
Pore pressures are equivalent to the average hydrostatic pressure exerted by the fluid contained in the pore spaces from water table (on
shore) and sea level (off shore).
OVERBURDEN PRESSURE :
Overburden is that pressure resulting from the combination between those pressures resulting from overburden weight of the rock
grins and pore pressure resulting from fluid content in pore spaces.
Po =Pf +Pc
Where Po = overburden pressure gradient (psi/ft)
Pf = fluid pressure gradient (psi/ft)
Pc = rock grains pressure gradient (psi/ft)
EG : Rock grain density = 2.6 gm/cm3
Pore fluid density =1.07 gm/cm3
Porosity =34%
2.65 * (66/100) = 1.75 gm/cm3
1.07* (34/100) = 0.36 gm/cm3
Average overburden density of this rock =1.75+0.36 =2.11gm/cm3
=2.11*8.34*0.519 =0.92 psi/ft
Normal overburden pressure varies from approximately 0.84 psi/ft near the surface to 1.0 psi/ft @20000 ft.
When a formation is deposited , the formation keeps some fluids in its pores (mostly water) until being exposed to another overlying
sedimentation which exerts a sort of compression pressure on underlying sediments causing escape of some underlying formation
fluids due to that compression force on its pore spaces , the amount of escaped fluids depends on degree of compaction of
rock(resulting from above compression force) also its permeability.
If the amount of escaped fluids off formation are equivalent to overburden pressure and the depth , also corresponding to equivalent
temperature and pressure at that depth. So the formation keeps a normal pressure .
Normal Formation Pressures :
# Marine basins = 0.465 psi/ft =9.0 PPG with salinity of 80000 mg / l CL.
#Island areas = 0.433 psi/ft = 8.34 PPG .
Since the abnormally pressured zones have not compacted normally with depth and hence its porosity is high ,together with
presence of high content of gas or fluid occupied within its pore spaces, so the velocity of sound waves traveling through these
formations is reduced .
I.e.: very high adsorptive function to sound waves ends thus very low reflective function to sound waves traveling through it. This
method is highly useful in detecting shallow gas sands, but more difficult to detect deeper gas.(need to have more geologic
information about area from nearby offset wells).
a- Conductivity Logs :
Abnormally pressured zones can be predicted by analyzing changes in shales conductivity recorded on conduction logs.
This is done by taking several points of shale conductivity Vs depth. Then draw the best straight line of shale conductivity. Any shift
from that line indicates an abnormal pressure zone .
Then calculate the ratio of shale conductivity observed to the normal conductivity of that shale, that was suppose to fall on guide line
if normal situation
Like that we can indicate the equivalent formation pressure and thus the equivalent fluid density to drill with. This varies from one
area to another.
EG : At depth 13000ft
Observed shale conductivity = 1670
Normal shale conductivity = 630
So the ratio of observed conductivity =1670 /630 = 2.65
DIGRAM
This 2.65 is corresponding to a formation pressure of :16.1 PPG in South Louisiana
12.9 PPG in Texas GULF Coast
12.1PPG in North Sea
13.5 PPG in South China Sea
TABLE
B- Sonic Logs :
Sonic logs measure transit time of sound for a fixed distance through formations(the same as the seismic logs information). Interval
transit time (micro seconds per foot) decreases as the formation porosity decrease because a density material transmits sound waves at
a higher velocity than a less dense material.
Porosity generally decreases at near linear rate as a function of depth in normally compacted shales.
A plot of shale travel time is normally near a straight line with graduated reduction in travel time as a function of depth .
Increased shale porosity (which usually indicates a change in compaction and abnormal pressure)would produce an increase in shale
travel time.
Plot a graph of shale transit time versus depth, any shift from normal compaction trend of shale indicates abnormal pressure zone .
EG : At depth 13000 ft
Observed transit time = 130 (micro sec/ft)
Normal transit time = 95 (micro sec/ft)
Difference = 35 (micro sec/ft)
Which is equivalent to a pore pressure of
15.8 PPG U.S Gulf Coast
14.75PPG South Texas Gulf Coast
14.25PPG West Texas
13.15PPG North Sea
13.6 PPG South China Sea
SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR SELECTING THE SHALE DATA PIONTS POINTS TO BE USED IN FORMATION
PRESSURE PREDICTION ARE :
1- Select clean shales in intervals of low spontaneous potential (SP) deflection and uniform conductivity or sonic readings
2- Shales selected for data points should be at least 20 ft thick with points obtained from the center of the section if possible
3- Shales stringers within massive sand sections tend to exhibit high unreliable readings
4- Avoid shale readings immediately above known gas sand. These readings will characteristically display high unreliable values
5- If available, the caliper survey should be scanned for excessive hole enlargement, excessive enlargement can create a skip in
signal on sonic logs and lead to erroneous data .
6- Avoid plotting silty or limey shales by inspecting the SP curve. Minimum SP values will result in more reliable data .
5 - SHALE DENSITY :
Shales which are normally pressured have undergone normal compaction and thus densities increase uniformly with depth, this
uniform increase allows shale density to be predicted.
Any significant reduction in shale density (due to improper compaction and occupying of more fluids than usual) indicates an
overpressured zone.
PS : The decrease in bottom pressure in deep wells is small as shown in previous example, But in shallow wells it is a major problem .
EG : Hole diameter = 12.25
Drilling rate = 500 ft/hr
Depth = 1,000 ft
Formation has 30 % porosity
Formation has 70 % gas saturation.
Formation pressure = 467 psi (9 PPG).
M.wt = 9.2 PPG
Pump rate = 450 GPM
Amount of gas entering the mud system =(12.25/ 24) *[ (3.14 * 500) / 60 ] * 0.3*0.7*7.48
= 10.7 GPM @ 467 psi.
Gas volume each minute at atmospheric pressure = 10.7*[467/14.7]= 340 GPM.
The resultant mud density = [450/(450+340)] * 9.2 = 5.2 PPG.
9 - DRILLING EXPONENT :
The rate at which a formation can be drilled is controlled by a number of drilling parameters which are :
a- Bit size .
b- WOB .
c- Tooth shape and distribution and tooth efficiency .
d- Drilling hydraulics .
e- Differential pressure .
f- Matrix strength .
g- Formation compaction .
h- RPM .
Since DXC is a function of those drilling parameters . So by mean of plotting a normal trend for DXC of the area.
So any deviation from that trend is an indication for abnormal formation.
DXC = { Log(R/60N) / Log(12W/1000B) } .
Corrected DXC = DXC *[ N. FBG/ECD]
R = rate of penetration (ft/hr)
N = rotary speed (RPM)
B = hole diameter
N. FBG =normal formation balance gradient (PPG)
ECD = effective circulating density (PPG)
W = weight on bit (1,000 lbs.)
For metric system :
DXC ={Log(R/18.29N) / Log (W/14.88B)} * (N. FBG / ECD)
R in m/hr
B in cm
N in RPM
N. FBG and ECD in g/cc
W in tones (1,000 kg)
CAUSES OF A KICK :
1- Insufficient mud density .
2- Swab and surge pressures.
When the pipe is tripped from the hole it acts like a piston so swab occurs causing bottom hole pressure reduction.
As the pipe moves upward, frictional forces between the pipe, mud and bore hole wall will cause a pressure reduction .
The maximum effect of this pressure reduction on mud density will be immediately below the bit. The maximum over pull pressure
reduction will occur at the bottom of the hole .
NB :
An open drillstring will allow some fluid to flow through the jets allowing some degree of pressure relief. But if the drillstring has a
float or down hole BOP swabbing pressure will be at a maximum .
As a rule of thumb , this pressure reduction can be at least the same as the annular pressure loss. Swab values will depend on pipe
pulling speeds and hole condition.
A safe weight to trip can be determined from the annular pressure losses using :
W trip < W- [annular pressure losses psi] / [0.0519*D]
Pressure reduction due to swabbing can be serious when drilling geopressured intervals, as the dropping of the BHCP/ECD may cause
the will to flow.
Large changes in mud density or effective mud density should avoided as these changes cause unexpected in magnitude which may
lead to severe hole problems.
KICK RECOGNITION :
1- Increase in flow rate.
2- Increase in pit volume.
3- Well flowing with pumps off.
4- Increase in chloride content of drilling fluid at flow line (above 100k mg/l).
5- Gas cutting.
6- Circulating pressure drop because of the unbalance between the hydrostatic column in the drill pipe and annuals after penetrating
an abnormal zone, it may take less pump pressure to circulate the fluid. Flow rate and pit volume increase would normally be
observed before a circulating pressure decrease.
7- Hole not taking proper quantity of fluid while tripping pipe out due to formation fluid invasion into bore hole.(swab).
8- Drag while tripping in .
WELL CONTROL AND KILL PROCEDURES
1- Record predetermined kill rate (SPM), and kill rate pressure[Other names :Slow Circulating Pressure](SCP) or Reduced
Circulating Pressure (RCP) ] .
A predetermined slow rate for circulation out a kick is recorded each tour. This is done to stand on any change in slow rate pressure
due to chock line friction or kill line friction. also to compensate for changes in depth or any fluid weight changes.
This slow rate is recommended to be of the normal rate or even less to prevent any excessive well bore pressure, when circulating
out a kick through chock lines or kill lines.
2- Position Kelly and tool joint , so that tool joint are clear of sealing elements .
3- Stop pumps and check for flow.
4- If flow is noted, close will in without delay.
5- Record shut-in drill pipe pressure (SIDP) and shut-in casing pressure (SICP) .
The drill pipe pressure gauge or pump pressure gauge is in reality a bottom hole pressure.
After a well kick , and when the pump is off and the well is shut-in the drill pipe is then a large gauge stem that reaches to the bottom
of the hole . So the drill pipe pressure gauge reads in a some how the bottom hole pressure as seen from the gauge stem.
PS :
If the drill pipe was empty the surface gauge would read bottom hole pressure. But the drill pipe is filled with the drilling fluid,
which is normally not contaminated so the gauge reading shows the difference between bottom hole pressure and the hydrostatic
pressure of mud column in the drill pipe.
The SIDP (or kick pressure)is the difference between the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the mud column in the drill pipe and the
bottom hole pressure exerted by formation (formation pressure).
Formation pressure = stand pipe gauge reading after stopping the pump (SIDP) +the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid column
inside the drill pipe .
NB :
Casing pressure will normally always be higher than drill pipe pressure , because kick gas or water well normally be lighter than the
mud and by turn cuts M.wt in annulus . This makes the mud column pressure in the annulus less than the full non contaminated
column of the mud in the drill pipe. So the formation pressure acting against the hydrostatic pressure of mud column in annulus will
be much easier than acting against the hydrostatic mud column inside the drill pipe and thus the annulus surface pressure will be
higher than the drill pipe pressure.
Shut-in drill pipe pressure can be determined by :
a- Read directly from gauge if there is no back pressure value in the string .
b-
If a back pressure value in the string then :
- Start pump slowly , continue until fluid moves or pump pressure increase suddenly .
- Watch casing pressure , stop pump when the annular pressure starts to increase.
- Read drill pipe pressure at this point.
- If casing pressure increase above its original pressure when closing the well this would indicate trapped pump pressure must be
subtracted from drill pipe pressure reading at the point when stopping circulation. This is the SIDP .
These procedures should be repeated until having the same value two consecutive times .
OR :
If predetermined slow rate and slow rate pressure have been recorded.
- Open chock and start pump slowly .
- Hold casing pressure at the same level as the SICP .
- Bring pump speed up to predetermined slow rate , keeping casing pressure constant.
- Read new circulating pressure at predetermined slow rate from stand pipe gauge (at this kick situation) .
- Then subtract predetermined circulation pressure at predetermined slow rate from the new circulating pressure in this kick
situation at the same predetermined slow rate.
The difference will be the amount of underbalance or SIDP .
6- Check BOPs and manifold for any leaks .
7- Check accumulator pressure.
8- Check flow line and check exhaust lines for flow .
9- Record volume gain and mark pits.
10- Fill up kill sheet .
11- Calculate well kill calculations .
a- Initial circulating pressure = slow circulation pressure + SIDP .
As previously mentioned a predetermined slow circulation rate (usually the normal drilling rate)and corresponding pressure loss
versus depth and variation in M.wt should recorded each tour . This recorded pressure plus the SIDP will equal the initial circulating
pressure (ICP) .
If no predetermined slow rate has been recorded the SICP can be used as a reference point .
Open the chock slightly and bring the pump up to a slow rate while maintaining the original SICP at all times .
When a satisfactory slow rate has been reached and the casing gauge still reads original pressure , the initial circulating pressure
can be read from the drill pipe gauge .
b- Calculate required M.wt increase =SIDP / (0.0519*depth)
EG :
M.wt =12 PPG
SIDP =260 psi
TVD =10,000 ft
M.wt increase =260 /(0.0519*10,000) = 0.5 PPG
c- Calculate required M.wt (kill M.wt) to equalize formation pressure
= required M.wt increase + original M.wt
So the new M.wt to equalize formation pressure =12 + 0.5 = 12.5 PPG.
d- Final circulation pressure (FCP) :
With the new M.wt at slow circulating rate = ICP-SIDP*(Mwt2 / Mwt1)
=SCP*(new M.wt / old M.wt)
e- Maximum allowable casing pressure :
So as at any time not to reach that value .
I.E : Always keeping casing pressure under maximum allowable casing pressure with a satisfactory value . Otherwise causing
changing to the casing if its pressure increases .
= (Fracture M.wt Present M.wt) * Casing depth * 0.0519 .
TYPES OF MUD
PARAMETERS NEEDED :
1- Density > 10.80 kg/m3 .
2- M.F viscosity 45-50 sec .
3- PV 15-20 cp. (14-20 m Pa.sec).
4- YP 20-25 lbs/ft2 (10 12 Pa) .
5- pH 9.5-10.5 .
6- API fluid loss < 10 cm3 .
7- K+ content 52 gm/l .
NB : If its required a low fluid loss mud directly from the start (e.g. : permeable formations closely below the casing show) addition of
fine particulate matter could be required to aid in filter cake build up , use of prehydrated bentonite (approximately 5lb./bbl or 14
kg/m3) or finally graded Calcium carbonate with a medium particle size of 25 micron , is then recommended .
Effect of Clays and Shales :
The polymer (Polyacrylomide) in Kcl-polymer mud is through to aid in shale stabilization. It is generally perceived that the polymer
(anionic polyelectrolyte) is adsorbed at the positive sites on the edges of clay crystal lattices. It seems likely that this adsorption occurs
multiple points along the chain of the elongated polymer molecules , thus linking particles together and form a jelly coating at the
surface of the drilled shale and clay particles and on the pore hole wall and thus slow down the rate of transport of water into the shale.
It was found that not all anionic polymers seem to be equally effective encapsultors only Polyacrylomide and biopolymers (XCD
polymer) have encapsulating properties .
Inspite of its inhibiting properties , mud shale interaction can not be prevented completely as a result of ion exchange with drilled
clays the K+ content of the mud will decrease .
And as in bentonite and gypsum based muds the mud properties which are affected by shales are:
a- Viscosity .
b- Density .
c- Plastering properties .
d- pH .
e- Water loss .
# The increase of water loss is due to :
It is well known that the fluid loss in this type of mud is controlled mainly by polymers. So as a result of depletion of these polymers
which adsorb onto drilled shale particles , together with entrance of clay properties into mud in a flocculated state, poor filtration
characteristics .
I.e. increased value fluid loss will result in a thicker mud cake.
# Still many operational problems related to mud shale interaction are reduced by using Kcl polymer muds .
EG : Balling problems will be less than during drilling with other mud types . If still occurs ,this an indication for insufficient
inhibition and should be treated by increasing Kcl level .
A- Tight Hole and Over pulls :
They are often experienced when drilling gumbo shales, because shale hydration is reduced , hole erosion is reduced as will as a result
the well bore will be in gauge , which is easily experienced as a tight hole . In a dispersed system rapid erosion would avoid this. This
can be avoided by continuos reaming before each connection .
B- Caving and Hole Enlargement :
In more brittle shales, sloughing resulting in Caving and hole enlargement is often a result of hydration along micro fractures,
permeable bedding planes and other lithological inhomogenities. The degree of further disintegration of cuttings depends on the shale
strength and hydration potential and may therefore be limited in a Kcl polymer mud .
Caving circulated out of the hole are often hard and dry with a surface which is clearly not affected by hydration .
Operational problems in sloughing shales are Over pulls and difficulties in hole cleaning. When using less inhibitive muds dispersion
of Caving may be the reason that sloughing remains unnoticed during drilling , because Caving circulated out cuttings size. An
excessive hole size over the unstable zone is often the only indication of shale sloughing in these muds .To avoid these problems its
necessary to adopt certain operational problems such as frequent check tripping to restore the hole gauge and to thoroughly clean the
hole prior to making trips and ream and clean prior to making drill pipe connection .
# K+ and Polymer may deplete rapidly while drilling reactive clays and shales and the level of these additives should mounted closely
to enable timely replenishment . The Cl- level of the mud remains virtually constant , however it therefore not possible to monitor K+
content in Kcl muds by relating to Cl- measurements. Both Kcl and Polyacrylomide (which is available as a liquid concentrate) can
be added directly into the active system (no hopper required).
Its good practices to start off with a slightly higher Kcl level than specified. EG:(40lb./bbl or 115kg/m3) when 35lb./bbl or 100 kg/m3
is specified. A more or less constant addition rate can be estimated from the observed rate of depletion.
In area when mud plant facilities are available Kcl is often supplied as concentrated brine (80-90 lb./bbl Kcl). Altranativly Kcl
supplied in big bags (1or1.5MT content).
# For Polyacrylomide additions in reactive shale a rule of thumb is 1 pail (approximately 25L polymer solution) for every single
drilled. Addition rate should be adjusted to maintain the excess polymer content at approximately 0.5 lb./bbl or 1.4 kg/m3 in the mud
at the flow line.
Addition of PPA can result in a thickening of mud in the active pit (say to a MF viscosity of 60-70 sec). This is perfectly accepted as
it should be realized that the concentration is automatically reduced when the mud enters the annulus where the polymer is adsorbed
onto the surface of cuttings and formation face .
The Polyacrylomide content may not depleted because restoring the level may cause excessive viscosity . Deficiency of polymer may
result in the build up of fine hydrated clay particles in the mud . Subsequent addition of polymer may then result in blocky structure of
flocculated particles with accompanied effect on the mud viscosity, which can only be restored by prolong shearing and circulating
.Physically this phenomenon is very similar to the (over the hump)effect in bentonite muds upon salt or Ca++ additions .
FACTS [% of K+]
3% (W) or less is enough to consolidate illitic shales.
20% (W) is required for gumbo shales of young age.
10%(W) 35 lb./bbl is desired to whenever the requirements dictated by formation properties are not known .
The properties of KCL POLYMER Mud are not affected by salt contamination other than increase in cl- content. Similar to other
non saturated mud, the mud should be saturated prior drilling through a salt layer.
The effect and treatment of Kcl poly mer mud when drilling different formations
Formation M.wt Vis WL MBT pH Alk CL Ca K Treatment
Clay + Shale + ++ + ++ - - -- Add K CL & polymer, dumb old partly,
replace by fresh mud @ MBT 25 bbl, solid
removal.
Sand + Silt + + + + Solid removal, dumb and replace by fresh
mud.
Chalky L. ST.
Parameters Needed :
1. pH 10-10.5 .
2. Viscosity 45 s .
3. YP 15 20
4. PV +/- 5 .
5. MBT 5 10 .
6. W.L as required .
7. Density as required .
Effects of Different drilled Formations :
1. Drilling clay or shales :
a. Increase MBT .
b. Cause flocculation followed by aggregation . Thus increase viscosity at beginning then viscosity will decrease .
c. Increase weight .
Treatment :
a. Dump and dilution with fresh water .
b. Add water loss reducer .
c. Solid removal .
d. Add dispersants if necessary .
2. Drilling sand + silt :
a. a. Increase weight .
b. Increase viscosity + PV .
c. Increase W.L .
Treatment :
a. Remove solids by solid control equipments .
b. Dilute by mean of fresh mud .
c. Add W.L. reducer and dispersants if necessary .
3. Drilling Cement :
a. Increase hardness .
b. Increase alkalinity pH, Pf, Mf, Pm .
c. Increase W.L .
d. Increase viscosity .
e. Decrease YP .
Treatments :
a. Treat with NaHCO3 in case of high pH , soda ash Na2CO3 in case of low pH .
b. Add W.L. reducer (RESINEX, POLYTRIX, and OR CMC- LV) .
c. Add thinner (SPERSENE) .
d. Add viscosifier to retain YP if necessary
e. Dump highly contaminated mud and add fresh water .
4. Drilling Anhydrite
a. Increase Ca+2 content .
b. Increase viscosity .
c. Increase W.L.
Treatment :
a. Add soda ash .
b. Thinner .
c. W.L. reducer .
d. Consider conversion to gypsum mud .
5. Drilling Salts
a. Decrease pH .
b. Increase then decreases viscosity .
c. Increase weight .
d. Increase W.L.
e. Foaming due to chloride increase .
Treatment :
a. Add thinner .
b. Dilution and dump sand trap every 4 connections .
c. Correct W.L.
d. Add defoamer [no foam, or AL Stearate(1kg/gallon diesel to be sprayed on surface of foamed mud in pits)] .
e. Use solid control equipments .
f. Consider converting to salt saturated mud .
6. Effects of CO2
Causes CO3 gelatin.
a. decrease pH .
b. decrease alkalinity of mud .
c. increase viscosity .
d. increase W.L.
Treatment :
a. If pH is not too low add caustic soda .
b. If pH is too low add lime .
c. If pH ok add thinner (Lignosulfonate + caustic soda) .
GENERAL TROUBLE SHOOTING IN WBM:
1. In case of increase of % of gas in system , which will affect the mud weight even with true balance increase surface area of mud ?
Putting on Desander to increase of gas from the mud .
2. In case that in active is contaminated with CO2 which will lead to CO3 gelation . This will result in foams . Add lime straight
away on system to get rid of CO3 and by turn foams (CO2 gas)
3. NaHCO3 + cement =(may result in ) come CO2 dissolved in mud , this only take place at low pH .
4. For quick treatment of Ca+2 contamination add NaHCO3 directly on settling + intermediate . I.E mud out .
5. In case of a gas kick while circulation through check use pH paper after hydrated with H2O. Put it in chock line ,if CO2 is present
the color will change from yellow to green which indicate acidic medium .
6. In case of bit balling
a. Batch (H2O + caustic soda + Spercene ) .
b. Drum drilling detergent .
c. Redicoat .
d. Nut plug to make friction surface under bit .
NB :The higher the salinity the lower the pH . The higher the Ca+2 contamination .
NB : Ca+2 can be treated by caustic soda , the ppt is Ca(OH)2 (lime) .
NB : Treating Ca+2 by mean of caustic soda . So required cut of X 0.1/100 = ppb of NaOH to treat out Ca+2
OIL BASE MUD
Introduction :
The most important feature of any drilling fluid is that there no interaction between the fluid and the drilled formation which if present
will affect the mechanical properties of the formation .
If a water based system is used the water will inter the formation causing change in its mechanical properties and thus cause instability
of this formation(this can be minimized by using a system like Kcl-polymer mud).
However the only way to prevent the water wetting of the pores of the rock is to contact the formation with a fluid thus will not wet
the rocks and thus will not enter the pores and cause a change in the mechanical properties of the rocks. These fluids having oil to be
the continuos phase of the drilling fluid .
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
NB : The non polar nature of the oil muds ensures that the system is in generally insensitive to the chemical contamination that affect
water base systems, such as contamination with salt, anhydrite, cement, carbon hydroxide, sulfides .
5. Coring fluid for oil producing zones :
When water muds a coring fluids , invasion or flushing may destroy the reliability of the data obtained from the core . The total
amount of core which is recoverable may be reduces when water mud is used . For these reasons oil muds is used as a coring fluid.
As oil muds have a low oil filtrate which allows cores to be cut with only slight invasion and flushing.
NB : The water in the oil mud which is squeezed into the core by the high pressure under core bit will slow upon distillation of the
core, as connate water. For this reason its desirable to prepare either oil fluid have a very low percentage of water or water free system
to avoid any damage to the core , but this is quite expensive .
6. Spotting to free differentially stuck pipe :
Because of lubricity property of oil and oil muds, it have been used to prevent and relieving all types of stuck pipe.
# Two things are always present when differential sticking occurs :
A permeable zone exposed in the open hole.
A mud with sufficient solids, and a sufficient high filtration rate under down hole conditions, to deposit a thick filter cake.
Therefore to relive differential sticking , it is necessary to effect some change in the cake already deposited . And to prevent
differential sticking it is necessary to prevent deposition of a thick filter cake.
Because of the ability of an oil mud to penetrate the water mud cake and because the inherent lubricity of oil muds they are quite
successful in freeing pipe that was differentially stick while using water mud. It is well known that oil muds have low filtration rate
and head thin cakes at elevated temperature and pressure .
7. Plastic flowing shales :
Gumbo shale is unique in that it contains low concentrations of hydratable clay(10% - 25%) and a large amount of relatively fresh
water (20% - 30%) .
When water base mud is used to drill this(gumbo) the shale immediately disperses into the mud. The mud becomes so thick that
drilling must proceeds at controlled rate or the mud will plug the annulus. Bit and collar balling , stuck pipe , also shaker screens
become plugged because of cutting are soft and gummy.
Oil muds overcome all gumbo drilling problems but only solid control problems .
NB : By incorporating a fairly highly concentration (10-15 lb../bbl) of Ca Cl2 into the water phase of an oil mud a dehydration of this
wet shale would occur and make it drill and act like firmer shale type . The mechanism of this dehydration appears to be osmotic
because of the difference in salt concentration in the shale and in the water phase of the oil mud.
8. Casing pack and packer fluids :
It was found that oil muds have a long term stability and non conduct nature which make them useful in casing packs and packer
fluids in completion and workover situations .
The requirements for a fluid that is to be placed in the casing tubing annulus are relatively simple. This fluid should be :
a- Provide density required to assist in maintaining the packer seal and prevent burst or collapse of pipe. There should be no
compacted settling of solids and slugging and top oil separation should be minimized .
b- To be non corrosive .
c- To be fluid enough to permit placement a small annulus, or a good clean displacement in a large annulus .
d- To be stable in down hole conditions of temperature and pressure .
e- Have a very low filtration rate to avoid significant loss of volume or change in composition.
f- Be sufficient gelled to prevent migration of fluids into the annulus .
g- Protected casing from corrosion by formation fluids .
It is not difficult to prepare an oil mud to meet these requirements . But if the fluid to be used in an open hole annulus , so to
migrate corrosion attack , or to facilitate recovery of the casing later, it must be meet much higher standards .
Mixing OBM :
Diesel H2O
+ +
Emulsifier (MUL or CON) Ca Cl2
+
Lime
1. Fill tank with required volume of diesel .
2. Add emulsifier (15 lb.,/bbl) and mix thoroughly .
3. Dissolve required salt in a separate tank in the required H2O. Add brine slowly under maximum shear to the diesel E MUL
mixture .
4. Simultaneously add the Lime and the E CON .
The mud color will darken with shear and time . Shear for maximum stability .
5. Add required E VIS (5lb./bbl) and shear until required rheology is achieved .
6. Add required E TON (8lb./bbl) and shear until required rheology is achieved .
7. Add all Barite if high densities are required a small dose of E WET (1-2 lb./bbl)is recommended .
8. Agitate and shear the system as large as possible to get the maximum stability .
Precautions :
A. Make on water addition while adding Barite, or vice versa.
I.E : Barite addition should never be made in the presence of free H2O .
B. Vigorous agitation while adding (high shear)is necessary when adding materials to give stability to the mud .
C. Do not increase mud weight when the when the mud has a higher percent water then that desired at the final weight.
D. When oil is added , E MUL + E VIS + E TON + E WET, should be added so that the overall concentration of these materials in
the mud is not reduced .
E. Determine the oil/water ratio and add proportionate amounts of oil and water. For example if O/W ratio is 75/25, then add the
volumes of diesel oil and volume of water per time period(hour) .
F. The amount of each oil mud product to be added in maintaining the mud is based on the total volume of new mud prepared .
The suspension additives can usually be omitted from new volume unless large volumes are prepared, or weight materials is
settling from the mud.
NB : This emulsion is generally adequate for bottom hole temperature up to 300 F0 , with respect to filtrate control , and have good
rheology if the proper O/W ratio is used and maintained based on final mud weight .
NB : The treatments required to maintain an oil mud will vary widely depending on several factors :
Drilling rate .
Type of formation .
Temperature.
Weight.
Type of solid control program being used.
Water contamination .
Extremely high bottom hole temperature .
Properties of Brine :
Mix brine slug pit or small tank .
# Preparing 100 bbl of OBM with O/W ratio 80/20
80 bbl diesel / 20 bbl H2O
Put 20 bbls of H2O over dead volume of tank (EG: dead volume = 10 bbls)
1. From drill program needed brine with 30% Ca Cl2 by wt .
2. From CaCl2 chart. 30%CaCl2 by wt 149.95 (ppb/H2O)
3. Ca Cl2 (ppb/H2O) * volume of H2O = 149.95*30 = 4498.5lb.
# Weight of one sack of CaCl2 = 110 lb.
# No of sacks to be added to 30 bbl of H2O = [4498.5/110] = 41 sx.
NB: Keep always an excess lime of 5ppb in the initial emulsion.
I.E : If dead volume in the mixing tank = 30 bbl. For mixing 100 bbl of OBM 0f O/W ratio 80/20.
5 lb./bbl lime * 130 (total volume) = 650 lb.
Total volume =30 bbl dead volume +80 bbl diesel +20 bbl brine.
Weight of one sack of lime = 55lb.
No of lime sacks =650 /55 = 12 sx.
NB : On adding E VIS (5 lb./bbl).
130 * 5 = 650 lb. /bbl.
Weight of on sack of E VIS = 55 lb.
No of E VIS sacks = 650 / 55 = 12 sx.
Add E VIS very slowly, add one sack from 10-15 min, and keep gun together with mixing agitator on all the time .
NB : Still the new emulsion will not give the maximum good performance except when handling at least one complete cycle as the
maximum shearing will be at the bit together with the help of bottom hole temperature .
NB : Brine activates in OBM are most commonly adjusted using common salt (sodium chloride and calcium chloride) sodium
chloride is most often used when salt sections and high activities are expected .
For lower activities calcium chloride is most commonly used .
In general for all adjustments to activities for sections calcium chloride is preferred because the greater versatility it offers .
Displacement procedures :
1. When ever possible displace the water base mud with OBM whilst in the casing.
2. If allowable , the OBM should have a density heavier than the water base fluid to be displaced.
3. Decrease the viscosity of the water base fluid if in casing dilution and treatment with a deflocculant (such as ferrochrome ,
lignosulphonate) FCl can be used . If the hole is open, heavier treatments with (FCl) will be necessary in general the weight
reduction from a large dilution can not be treated .
It is desirable the gel strength and yield point of the water based fluid be as low as possible to provide for the cleanest and
sharpest interface between the two fluids .
4. With about 20 bbls of OBM prepare a viscous spacer and pump this first .
5. Pump the OBM slowly (5 bbl/min) to produce the least inter merging of the two fluids .
6. Rotate the drill pipe at + , -,(60 RPM) while displacement. This will prevent the water based fluid from gelling and will also aid
in removing the water based fluid from all parts of the hole.
7. If the spacer has not been not contaminated it may be incorporated back into the OBM .
NB : If the changeover of fluid has taken place in the open hole the filter from the water based fluid may plug the shale shaker during
the first circulation . If this happens the screens should be with oil and brushed .
Also the OBM should be carefully observed for signs of water wet solids and treated with E WET if required.
Treatment
A. By mean solid removal equipments remove drilled solids as soon as they are generated .
1. Use small shaker screens (120 mesh if possible) it is recommended not to use small mesh screen for a long period.
2. Desilter .
3. Desander .
4. Mud cleaner .
5. Centrifuge .
B. If excessive solids do build up then the whole mud volume must be diluted .
Treatment :
1. the problem can be overcome addition of higher levels of emulsifiers (E MUL + E CON) which increase combination between
diesel and water , also make an oil film around wetted cuttings , thus retain stability of fluid and give rise to the basic filtration
control of the drilling fluid.
2. Add oil wetting agent to give the drilling fluid extra stability and surrounds (wet) the water wet particles resulting from wet
formations . Also oil wet the formation itself and thus decrease the invasion of water wet particles from getting into drilling fluid.
It also acts as a thinner and thus helps the dispersion and suspension of invaded water wet particles . thus retain good rheology to
drilling fluid .
Electrical stability :
The inert nature of the fluid is derived from the fact that the water present is tied up in the form of droplets , stabilized by a complex
layer of surfactants . The stability is affected by the size of the droplet which in turn is related to the concentration of emulsification
reagent and the shear imparted into the system. The smaller the droplet the greater the stability and resistance to coalescence of drops.
- The stability is measured by application of a DC voltage across two terminals immersed in the fluid to pass a certain current.
The stability is often measured in volts. A value of 400 volts is generally considered adequate , but higher is easily obtained and
characteristic of the strong emulsification system .
The emulsification stability can be increased by addition of E MUL and E CON either single or together in conjunction with mixing
under maximum shear conditions .
Filtration control :
The emulsified water droplets act as colloide sized solids that combines with the other solids in the fluid to form a very effective filter
cake .
The good filter cake and filtration control are highly affected by :
1. The strength of emulsion .
2. Type and nature of solids .
3. Viscosity of oil emulsion .
To obtain a measurable quantity of filtrate , this is done under high temperature(300 Fo) and high pressure (500 psi).
The HT HP fluid loss should be free of water or traces of emulsion and is usually low .
- The filtration rate will be lowered by addition of E CON and filtration reducer (E TON)
- However this product is used when required an extremely low filtration for low density fluids
Alkalinity :
The alkalinity of drilling oil fluids should be kept in the range of 2-4 cc. Is important to maintain this range , regardless of the other
parameters required due to ionic nature of the various electrolytes and because of different additives especially E CON emulsifier
which functions more effectively in that range .
This is maintained by adding lime .
Drilling different salts , KCl, Na CL, Mg Cl2, Ca Cl2 and encountering brine water flow :
Effects :
1. Decrease stability .
2. Salt is very hygroscopic and tends to coagulate the water droplets which in turn accelerates water wetting of barytes and certain
other mud constituents .
3. Salt also affect the oil mud emulsion chemistry .
4. Lower viscosity .
5. HT HP fluid loss may increase ,and water show up in the filtrate .
Treatment :
1. Add emulsifiers which ensure that the oil emulsion show a good resistance to salt contamination.
I.E : Higher levels of E MUL and E TON may be required and attention should be paid to removal of salt crystals by screening .
2. If a brine flow is encountered the O/W ratio should be restored by addition of diesel oil and further emulsifiers .
3. Lime additions may be required to counter the acidity of the brines .
Cementing / Cement Contamination :
Can only be a problem if lot of wet cement is drilled.
Effects :
1. Viscosity (PV & YP) increases .
2. Water wetting .
Treatment :
Addition of E MUL + E TON + E WET .
Cementing Procedures :
Cementing with an oil mud in the hole requires special precautions as the mixing oil mud and cement slurries can produce a
highly gelling un pumpable mass .
This problem necessitates a neat separation of these two systems , and that is done by an effective spacer which has two main
properties :
a. separate completely between OBM and cement .
b. Remove the oil film on the casing and convert the surface to a water wet state, and thus improving the cement bond .
The soccer can be mixed from fresh ,sea, or brine .
The viscosity can be adjusted to produce a turbulent flow if required .
The cement should be replaced at the maximum possible pump rate (regardless of whether turbulent floe can be achieved ).
Reciprocating and rotation of the casing will also significantly improve the displacement efficiency .
H2S contamination :
An oil base fluid is normally suited to accept invasion of H2S .
In water base fluids . Such invasion creates a problem due to hydrogen sulfide embrihelmentof steel work and drastically changes to
chemistry of the fluid due to reaction of alkalis .
In OBM the steel work is protected by the continuos oil phase and H2S dissolve in oil phase(to be removed by degaser) .
Side Effect :
1. Darkening of the mud .
2. Decrease alkalinity due to the acidic nature of H2S and its reaction with lime .
3. Possible decrease emulsion stability .
Treatment :
Addition of lime to maintain alkalinity above 2 cc .
CO2 Contamination : (acidic gas)
Effect :
1. Decrease in alkalinity .
2. Decrease emulsion stability .
3. Continuos intrusion will increase viscosity (YP & Gel strength) .
Treatment :
Addition of lime to maintain alkalinity in the optimum range .
Gas Cutting :
Effect :
1. Settling of barytes .
2. Weakening of the emulsion stability .
Treatment :
1. Addition of E MUL + E CON .
2. Addition of E TON .
3. Addition of E WET .
4. Replace by degaser .
NB : Overtreating with surf-cote can destroy viscosity beyond repair. Prior to treatment pilot testing is imperative .
Problem Indications Cause Treatment
1. Low Dull grainy appearance to 1. Low emulsifier. 1. Add CARBO-MUL. Add CARBO-TEC and lime if
emulsion mud. High HTHP fluid loss. CARBO-TEC system
stability Free H2O in HTHP filtrate. 2. Super-saturated 2. Dilute back with fresh H2O and add CARBO-MUL.
Barite settling out. Blinding with CaCl2.
of shaker screens. Extreme 3. Water flows 3. Add CARBO-MUL. Can also add CARBO-TEC and
cases can cause water wetting lime if CARBO-TEC system.
of solids 4. Mixing mud at 4. Maximize shear. Check electrolyte content(the higher
mixing plant the content, the harder the emulsion is to form)
2. Water Flocculation of barite on sand 1. inadequate 1. Add CARBO-MUL and SURF-COTE, and diesel
wetting of content test. Sticky cuttings. emulsifier
solids. Blinding of shaker screens. 2.Water-base mud 2. Same as 1.
Settling of barite. Dull, grainy contamination.
appearance of mud. Low ES. 3. Super-saturated 3. Dilute with H2O and add CARBO-MUL.
Free H2O in HTHP filtrate. with CaCl2.
3. H2O Weight drop, change in O/W Add diesel, CARBO-MUL HT, barite.
contamination ratio
High filtration High HTHP filtrate with 1. Low emulsifier 1. Add CARBO-MUL. Add CARBO-TEC and lime if a
increasing free H2O. low ES. content CARBO-TEC system
Fill on connections and trips. 2. Low concentration 2. Add CARBO-TROL A-9 and/or CARBO-TROL.
Sloughing shale. of fluid loss control
additives.
3. High bottom hole 3. Add more CARBO-MUL. Add CARBO-TEC and
temperature lime. Convert to CARBO-TEC system. Add more
CARBO-TROL A-9 and CARBO-TROL.
4. High High PV, high YP, increasing 1. Low emulsifier 1. Dilute with oil, maximize solid control equipment .
viscosity funnel viscosity. Increasing content
retort solids. Increase in water 2. Water 2. Add emulsifiers. If severe, also add SURF-COTE.
content. contamination.
3. Over treatment 3. Dilute with oil.
with emulsifiers,
especially CARBO-
TEC.
5. High solids Retort analysis, calculations 1. Reduce of shaker screens, dilute with diesel
8. Low Low stability, CO2 & H2S 1. Maintain 5-7 lb./bbl lime.
alkalinity intrusion
9. Sloughing Fill on connections and trips. 1. Drilling under- 1. Increase mud weight.
shale Torque and drag. Increase of balanced.
cuttings across shaker. 2. Excessive filtrate. 2. Add emulsifiers. Add CARBO-TROL A-9 and/or
CARBO-TROL.
3. Inadequate hole 3. Add CARBO-GEL to increase YP.
cleaning.
4. Activity too low 4. Adjust CaCl2 content of internal phase so match
formation activity.
10. Barite Low YP and gels. Settling of 1. Poor oil wetting of 1. Add emulsifiers and/or wetting agents. Slow addition
settling barite in heating cup or barite. of barite.
viscosity cup. 2. Inadequate 2. Add CARBO-GEL or viscosifing polymer.
suspension.
3. Low ES, high 3. Add emulsifier.(i.e.; CARBO-GEL, CARBO-VIS or
HTHP. water )
11. Drilled Shale cuttings absorbing 1. Increase salinity to 350000 PPM with CaCl2.
solids appear water by hydration forces
gummy
12. Un- Drop in ES, high Cl content in 1. Add H2O to dissolve Salt, then add CARBO-MUL +
dissolved H2O phase. CARBO-MUL HT + lime. New mud without salt in
CaCl2 or NaCl H2O phase may be blended.
13. Lost Pit volume decrease, loss of 1. Hydrostatic 1. Add mica or plug. Never add fibrous or Phenolic-
circulation returns. pressure is greater resin materials. If possible, reduce mud weight. Add
formation pressure MILFIBER, or calcium carbonate.
TABLE
B. Diesel M-Siderite plug :
Consideration concerning the pay zones , may require an acid soluble weighting material, a siderite (Fe CO3) .
The mixing order is as follows;
Diesel oil, Diesel M, I Dwate and E MUL +E CON .
In both system s, ensure that adequate mixing has taken place before either weighting agent is added .
In m3 :
E MUL Oil wetting agent Barite Slurry volume
(Lb.) (lbs.) (kg) (m3)
5 5 3025.24 1.52
Ca o m = (3)
3
Oil sample, cm
4000 (0.1 M EDTA cm3)
Ca o m =
2.0 cm3
If the test Eqn. 7 indicates that all of the chloride ions generated from CaCl2 , the following equations are used:
CaCl2o m = 1.57 (Clo m) (13)
Where
CaCl2o m = mg CaCl2 / L of mud.
CaCl2 salt = 3.5 X 10-4 (CaCl2 o m) (14)
Where
CaCl2 salt = lb. CaCl2 per bbl of mud.
100 (CaCl2 o m)
Wc = (15)
CaCl2 o m +NaClo m + 10000 (Vw)
Where
Wc = wt % CaCl2 in brine.
Vw = volume % retort water.
CaCl2 PPM = 10000 (Wc) (15a)
100 (NaClo m)
WN = (16)
CaCl2 o m +NaClo m + 10000 (Vw)
1. MUTUAL SOLUBILITY
Check figure 2 or Eqn 16b to determine the weight percent of sodium chloride, WN, that is totally soluble in the
CaCl2 /NaCl brine solution at 25 C (77F). if the calculated WN is not totally, the results a portion of the NaCl is
a solid in the oil base fluid.
Also, if the WN is not totally soluble. The results of the Eqn 15 and 16 are not correct. They must be
recalculated using a fraction of WN as the NaCl o m , until the ratio of WNmax / WN is greater than 0.95. the
following steps are used to determine more accurate salt solubilities .
Calculate the NaCl ratio to determine the accuracy of WN :
WN max
NaCl ratio = (16c)
WN
Where
NaCl ratio = the ratio of the maximum wt % NaCl to the calculated wt % NaCl in the brine.
If NaCl ratio is greater than 0.95 proceed to Eqn. 17. Otherwise, the value for Wc (Eqns. 15 & 15a), WN (Eqns.
16 & 16a). and WN max (Eqn. 16b) must be recalculated using the value NaClo m as a new value calculated by:
NaClo m n = NaCl ratio (NaClo m) (16d)
Where
NaClo m n = the new NaCl o m to be used in Eqns. 15 through 16b.
After substituting the new NaClo m n in Eqns. 15 through 16b, recalculate the NaCl ratio (Eqn. 16c) using the
new values. If NaCl ratio is still less than 0.95 the above procedure must be repeated, as shown in the example
on page 334.
Use only the soluble NaCl portion from the graph or equation iterations as the value of WN in future equations.
The remaining salt will be calculated as a solid in the following analysis:
PB = 0.99707 + 6.504 (10-3) (WN) + 7.923 (10-3) (Wc) + 8.334 (10-5) (WN) (Wc) + 4.395 (10-5) (WN)2 + 4.964 (10-5) (Wc)2 (17)
Where
PB = brine density, g/cm3.
NOTE:
The density of single -salt brine can be found using the values or equations found in the engineering data
chapter, section 4 (salt tables)
a. mg/L salt
weight percent units are based upon the density of the brine, as well as the salt content. The salt concentration ,
expressed as mg/L is:
CaCl2mg/L = 10000 (Wc) (PB) (18)
NaCl mg.L = 10000 (WN) (PB) (19)
**************************************FIGURE*******************************************
C) SOLID CALCULATIONS
As mentioned previously, the solids content, measured from the retort distillation procedure, must be corrected
for the salt content of the brine that remains in the retort assembly.
The corrected volume % brine is:
100 (VW)
VB = (20)
PB [ 100 (WN + Wc)
Where
VB = volume % brine
The corrected volume % solids are:
Vs = 100 (VO + VB) (21)
Where VS = volume percent % corrected solids.
VO = volume retorted oil.
The solids in CARBO-DRILL Systems consist of low density solids, usually drill solids, and high density
solids, generally MIL-BAR or DENSIMIX.
Where
VHDS = volume % high density solids.
PHDS = destiny of high solids, g/cm3
P LDS = density of low-density solids, g/cm3
100 (Vw)
WR = (27)
VO +Vw
Where
WR = water % in the ratio.
OR = 100 WR (27a)
Where
OR = oil % in the ratio.
The more accurate and useful ratio is the oil/brine ratio . the oil/brine ratio is calculated as follows:
100 (VB)
BR = (28)
VO +VB
Where
BR = brine % in the ratio.
OR = 100 BR (28a)
1. Changing Oil/Brine Ratio:
it may be necessary, at some time , to change the oil/brine ratio of the CARBO-DRILL System. The simplest
calculation to make is increasing the oil/brine ratio , since only oil is added.
To increase the oil/brine ratio with additions of oil:
RO [ VO + VB ] - VO
100
FO = X Volsys (29)
RB
Where
FO = volume of oil, bbl.
RO = required oil ratio.
RB = required brine ratio.
Volsys = system volume.
To decrease oil/brine ratio with the addition of brine:
RB [ VO + VB ] - VB
100
FB = X Volsys (30)
RO
Where
FB = volume of brine, bbl.
Addition of fresh water will increase the controlled activity of the system . if brine is not available , CaCl2 salt
should be added to the drilling fluid when decreasing the oil/water ratio with fresh water . the quantity of
calcium chloride necessary to maintain a constant activity when adding fresh water is as follows:
H2O, gal/bbl X FB
FW = (31)
42
HYDRAULICS:
GENERAL HYDRAULICS:
BIT HYDRAULICS :
44 X FLOW RATE
JET VELOCITY =
22 (A)2+(B)2+(C)2
448.8 X
7 (64)2
To calculate the neutral point : OR in other words the max WOB, so as the maximum WOB will represent
90 % by length of DC weight in mud , so as to keep neutral point within DC.
Max. WOB = length X weight X B.F X 0.9.
B.F = Bouncy Factor = 1 (M.wt /65.4).
Weight DC in air = 2.67 X (OD2 ID2).
0.9 = 90 % by length of weight DC.
NB: The increase of WOB will lead that neutral point will rise up, after deciding the length and weight of DC
versus maximum WOB to represent 90 % of DC weight (neutral point).
Leak off Test
This test is done to determine the maximum pressure the formation can stands, and thus determine the
maximum mud weight above which the formation will break down.(NB: differ from one area to another).
Leak off test only recommended for exploration wells, not important for production wells.
As the maximum mud weight for production areas are already known from exploration wells drilled before in
that area.
This is done as follows:
Drill cement, wash pocket and then drill 10 m or 30 ft of new hole, circulate for a few minutes.
Pull to shoe, circulate and condition mud. Make sure that the system is in balance and accurately measure
the mud weight, make sure that the hole is filled up. then close the pipe rams.
Pump mud slowly, using the cementing unit until the pressure builds up. measure the volume pumped. Use a
calibrated pressure gauge for pressure.
Pump or 1/8 bbls and wait for one minute or the time required for the pressure to stabilize.
Plot on a graph, the commulative mud volume pumped to the final static pressure. Repeat this for each
volume increment.
Continue the procedure until the plotted graph starts to bend off.
Keep well closed to verify that a constant pressure has indeed been obtained.
Bleed off at slow and constant rate, still plotting
volumes and pressures, and establish volume of mud lost in the formation.
Start circulation.
Leak off pressure
Maximum allowed M.wt(PPG) = = (PPG).
0.0519X [TVD(ft) X Test M.wt
Pressure
(psi)
Pumped volume
(bbl)
WEIGHT 7.3 10 12 14 16 18
(PPG)
OIL 65 58 54 49 51 44
(BBL)
ENVIRO-SPOT 6 6 6 6 6 6
55 gal Drum
WATER 28 26 22 21 11 10
(BBL)
Start with required volume of oil, add ENVIRO-SPOT, water and barite in that order
DRILL PIPE CORROSION
Corrosion is the destruction of metal by chemical or electrochemical action between the metal and its
environment.
I.E: Corrosion occurs as a result of interaction between iron steel of drill string and water base mud.
Four conditions must be met ,however , before wet corrosion:
1. Anode and cathode must exist.
2. The anode and cathode must be immersed in electrolytic medium.
3. A potential difference between anode and cathode exists.
4. There must be a coupling to complete the electrical circuit.
The anode and cathode exist on the drill pipe itself.
The drilling mud may serve as electrolytic medium.
The coupling is creating by the drill pipe steel .
The potential difference is due to the crystalline structure and different metal used in the drilling pipe alloy.
1. Oxygen:
Oxygen reacts with metal of drill string forming (Fe2O3 & Fe3O4), which accelerates corrosion on metal.
Oxygen acts to remove protective films on drill string which accelerate corrosion action and increase pitting
deposits ( reddish brown rust of Fe(OH)3 .
Oxygen scavengers, passivating inhibitors and filming inhibitor treatments are used to mitigate oxygen
corrosion attack.
2. H2S:
Fe + H2S FeS + 2H+ .
+
The increase of H atoms in mud will result in retaining acidic medium which will increase corrosion effect.
H2S, cause severe pitting embattlement and stress cracking also a black sulfide coating.
Treat with sulfide scavenger as ZnO. Also Film-forming inhibitors are used.
Keep pH between 8-9.
3. CO2:
CO2 is an acidic gas that results in pH reduction and thus increases corrosion effect and pitting attack.
CO2 + + H2O H2CO3 (Carbonic acid).
H2CO3 + Fe FeCO3 +H2.
I.E: FeCO3 deposits indicate CO2 attack.
Increase M.wt to stop gas influx .
Keep pH between 8-9.
Add filming amine
4. Bacteria:
the by-product of bacteria is CO2, H2S and SO4(leads to H2SO4).
Microiobacids are use to control bacterial effect in drilling environments.
5. Dissolved Salt:
As salt concentration increases, conductivity between charge poles raises, also electrical resistance of drilling
fluid decreases . also increase the solubility of corrosive by-products and thus increase corrosion effect.
6. Velocity of Drilling Fluid:
the higher the mud velocity the higher the rate of erosion of films around the drill string and thus the higher the
rate of corrosion (Treat with oil mud , amines).
7. Temperature:
Rule of thumb : Corrosive rate doubles with every 55 ft increase. As the increase of temperature increases the
solubility of corrosive gases(O2, H2S & CO2).
8. Pressure:
the increase of pressure causes an increase in trapping effect of gases in mud such as O2 and thus causes
increase in corrosion effect.
9. pH:
Corrosive is much slower in alkaline medium than in acidic medium.
So corrosive rate decreases as pH increases.
NB: The best medium of pH to minimize corrosion rate is a pH between 8.5-10.
10. Solids:
Increase of abrasive solids in mud accelerates removal of protective film around drill string due to increase of
friction action causing pipe washout.
Also removal of protective film helps corrosive elements attack to drill string steel and thus accelerate corrosion
rate.
See pages 7, 8, 9