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Ebbinghaus, Memory PDF
Ebbinghaus, Memory PDF
CO
Columbia
teachers College
Educational IReprints
'
Wo. 3
MEMORY
A CONTRIBUTION TO EXPERIMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
BY
HERMANN EBBINGHAUS
PRIVAT DOCENT IN PHILOSOPHY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN
(1885)
De subjecto vetustissimo
novissimam promovemus scienttam"
TRANSLATED BY
AND
CLARA E. BUSSENIUS
PUBLISHED BY
flfolkgr, Ctttmbte Ihmir rmti;
NEW YORK CITY
1913
Lb
i
06,3
602497
TRANSLATORS' INTRODUCTION
The publication by Ebbinghaus of the results of his experi-
mental investigation of memory (1885) marks the application of
"
precise scientific method to the study of the higher mental pro-
cesses." By his invention of nonsense syllables as the material to
be thus employed Ebbinghaus signalised the growing independ-
ence of experimental psychology from physics and physiology.
For educational psychology his work is of especial importance
because the field in which he worked was that of the ideational
translation.
The wish to acknowledge their indebtedness to
translators
Professors EdwardL. Thorndike, Robert S. Woodworth, and
E. W. Bagster-Collins of Columbia University, to Professor
Walter Dill Scott of Northwestern University and to Mrs. H. A.
Ruger for assistance in revising manuscript and proof.
in
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
In the realm of mental phenomena, experiment and measure- i
gation. I may therefore ask those who are not already convinced
a priori of the impossibility of such an attempt to postpone
their decision about its practicability.
The author will be pardoned the publication of preliminary
results in view of the difficulty of the subject investigated and
the time-consuming character of the tests. Justice demands
that themany defects due to incompleteness shall not be raised
as objections against such results. The tests were all made upon
myself and have primarily only individual significance. Naturally
they will not reflect exclusively mere idiosyncrasies of my mental
organisation; if the absolute values found are throughout only
individual, yet many a relation of general validity will be found
in the relation of these numbers to each other or in the relations
of the relations. But where this is the case and where it is
not, I can hope to decide only after finishing the further and
comparative experiments with which I am occupied.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
I.
Preface .
THE
3. Deficiencies
Memory
POSSIBILITY OF ENLARGING
in
.......
our Knowledge
OUR KNOWLEDGE
concerning
MEMORY
4
II.
5.
6.
for
The
Memory Contents .....
The Introduction of Numerical Measurements
7. Constant Averages . . . . . 12
8. The Law of Errors 15
9. Resume . . . . . . . . 19
"
10. The Probable Error 30
III. THE METHOD OF INVESTIGATION . . . . . . 22
Section n. Series of Nonsense Syllables 23
12. Advantages of the Material . . . .
23
13. Establishment of the Most Constant Experi-
mental Conditions Possible . . . . 24
Sources of Error 26
"
14.
15.
16.
Measurement of Work Required
Periods of the Tests
... 30
33
IV. THE UTILITY OF THE AVERAGES OBTAINED . . . .
34
Section Grouping of the Results of the Tests
17. . .
34
"
18. Grouping of the Results of the Separate Series 41
Section 19.
.......
V. RAPIDITY OF LEARNING SERIES OF SYLLABLES AS A FUNCTION
OF THEIR LENGTH
Tests Belonging to the Later Period . .
\/
46
46
20. Tests Belonging to the Earlier Period . . 49
VI. RETENTION AS
21.
of Meaningful Material ....
Increase in Rapidity of Learning in the Case
.
.
.
.
.
52
54
58
25. The Effect of a Decided Increase
Number of Repetitions .... in the
59
vii
viii Table of Contents
Chapter Page
VII. RETENTION AND OBLIVISCENCE AS A FUNCTION OF THE TIME 62
Section 26. Explanations of Retention and Obliviscence . 62
"
27. Methods of Investigation of Actual Conditions 65
"
"
28. Results
29.
30.
Discussion of Results
Control Tests
..... 67
76
79
... .
. .
84
85
87
IRRETENTION AS A FUNCTION
THE MEMBERS OF THE SERIES .....
OF THE ORDER OF SUCCESSION OF
90
Section 35. Association
36.
.....
according to Temporal Sequence
and its Explanation
Methods of Investigation of Actual Behavior
90
95
37. Results. Associations of Indirect Sequence .
99
38.
39.
40.
Discussion of Results
Reverse Associations .
......no
Experiments with Exclusion of Knowledge
. . .
. 101
106
and yet not be able to recall the color of their hair or of their
eyes.
Under ordinary circumstances, indeed, frequent repetitions are
of a
indispensable in order to make possible the reproduction
given content. Vocabularies, discourses, and poems of any length
cannot be learned by a single repetition even with the greatest
concentration of attention on the part of an individual of very
great ability. By a sufficient number of repetitions their final
") / Left to itself every mental content gradually loses its capacity
/ for being revived, or at least suffers^ loss_in this regard under
\ the influence of time. Facts crammed at examination time soon
vanish, if they were not sufficiently grounded by other study
and later subjected to a sufficient review. But even a thing so
early and deeply founded as one's mother tongue is noticeably
impaired if not used for several years.
certainty the moment when the goal is reached i.e., when the
r Memory
l
ary and reproduction, which, according to general
retention
"~afike.j
The individual values come out somewhat differently
because a certain number or" those causes do not always join
the combination with exactly the same values (e. g., there are
little errors in the adjustment and reading of the instruments,
x
The numbers representing the births of boys and girls
respectively, as
derived from the total number of births, are said to
group themselves in
very close correspondence with the law of errors. But in this case it is
for this very reason probable that
they arise from a homogeneous combi-
nation of physiological causes
aiming so to speak at the creation of a well
determined relation. (See Lexis, Zur Theorie der Massenerscheinungen
in der menschlichen
Gesellschaft, p. 64 and elsewhere )
Possibility of Enlarging Our Knowledge of Memory 19
Section p. Resume
Two fundamental difficulties arise in the way of the applica-
tion of the so-called Natural Science Method to the examination
of psychical processes:
(1) The constant flux and caprice of mental events do not
admit of the establishment of stable experimental conditions.
(2) Psychical processes offer no means for measurement or i
enumeration.
In the case of the special field of memory (learning, retention, f
the mean value which is just as often exceeded by- the separate
values as not reached by them, and which, therefore, between
its positive and negative limits, includes just half of all the
Number of
Within the^ limits separate measured
A PP.E.
-E. 54
.
* 89.5
i P.E. 134
iP.E. 264
P.E. 500
H P.E.
2 P.E.
688
823
2$ P.E. 908
3 P.E. 957
4 P.E. 993
Possibility of Enlarging Our Knowledge of Memory 2 1
If. this
conformity exists in a sufficient degree, then the mere
statement of the probable error suffices to characterise the
arrangement of all the observed values, and at the same time its
quantity gives a serviceable measure for the compactness of the
distribution around the central value i.e., for its exactness and
trustworthiness.
As we have spoken of the probable error of the separate . ,
At
the beginning a few rules were observed to prevent, in
the construction of the syllables, too immediate repetition of
similar sounds, but these were not strictly adhered to. Later
they were abandoned and the matter left to chance. The syllables
used each time were carefully laid aside till the whole number
had been used, then they were mixed together and used again.
The aim of the tests carried on with these syllable series was,
by means of repeated audible perusal of the separate series, to
so impress them that immediately afterwards they could volun-
tarily just be reproduced. This aim was considered attained
1
The vowel sounds employed were a, e, i, o, u, a, 6, ii, au, ei, eu. For
the beginning of the syllables the following consonants were employed :
b, d, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, r, s, (= sz), t, w
and in addition ch, sch,
soft s, and the French j (19 altogether) for the end of the syllables f, k,
;
although the part that each of these senses plays is well limited
and always similar in kind, a certain complication of the results
must still be anticipated because of their combined action. Again,
to particularise, the homogeneity of the series of syllables falls
2. The
rejidingjind the recitation of the series took place_at^
a ^onstanl_rate, that of 150 strokes per minute. clockwork A
metronome placed at some distance was at first used to regulate
the rate; but very soon the
ticking of a watch was substituted,
that being much simpler and less
disturbing to the attention.
The mechanism of escapement of most watches swings 300 times
per minute.
.
goes without saying that care was taken to keep away all outer
disturbances in order to make possible the attainment of this
aim. The smaller distractions caused by carrying on the test in
various surroundings were also avoided as far as that could
be done.
6. There was no attempt to connect the nonsense syllables by
the invention of special associations of the mnemotechnik
learning was carried on solely by the influence of the mere repe-
titions upon the natural memory. As I do not possess the least
practical knowledge of the mnemotechnical devices, the fulfill-
ment of no difficulty to me.
this condition offered
7. Finally and chiefly, care was taken that the objective condi-
tions of life during the period of the tests were so controlled
as to eliminate too great changes or irregularities. Of course,
since the tests extended over many months, this was possible |
only to a limited extent. But, even so, the attempt was made
to conduct, under as similar conditions of life as possible, those
tests the results of which were to be directly compared. In
particular the activity immediately preceding the test was kept
as constant in character as was possible. Since the mental as
well as the physical condition of man is subject to an evident
periodicity of 24 hours, it was taken for granted that like experi-
mental conditions are obtainable only at like times of day^.
possible reproduction are not always the same, and the most that
can be assumed is that in the case of these different series these
conditions always oscillate about the same degree of inner/
surety. This is clearly seen if the learning and repeating of
the series is continued after that first spontaneous reproduction
of the series has been attained. As
a general thing the capacity
of large groups.
Of the other source of error, I can only say that it may occur
and that, when it does, it is a source of great danger. I mean
the secret influence of theories and opinions which are in the
process of formation. An investigation usually starts out with
definite presuppositions as to what the results will be. But if
this is not the case at the start, such presuppositions form gradu-
a8 Memory
of it. All I can say is, we must expect something of the sort
from our general knowledge of human nature, and in any investi-
gations in which the inner attitude is of very great importance,
as for example in experiments on sense perception, we must
cisly maintained, each syllable would take 0.4 second and when ;
Series of 16 syllables,
for the most part read
3a Memory
pressions are due entirely to the repetitions, they are the thing ]
nate A, B, and C.
1
Described in 14.
CHAPTER IV
half was distributed above and below these limits. In detail the
1
Of course, the exactness obtained here cannot stand comparison with
physical measurements, but it can very well be compared with physiolog-
ical ones, which would naturally be the first to be thought of in this con-
nection. To the most exact of physiological measurements belong the last
determinations of the speed of nervous transmission made by Helmhqltz
and Baxt. One record of these researches published as an illustration
of their accuracy (Mon. Ber. d. Berl. Akad. 1870, S. 191) after proper cal-
culation gives a mean value of 4.268 with the probable error of observa-
tion, o.ioi. The interval it includes amounts, therefore, to 5 per cent of
the mean value. All former determinations are much more inaccurate.
In the case of the most accurate test-series of the first measurements made
by Helmholtz, that interval amounts to about 50 per cent of the mean
value (Arch. f. Anat. u.. Physiol. 1850, S. 340). 'Even Physics, in the case
of its pioneer investigations, has often been obliged to put up with a less
degree of accuracy in its numerical results. In the case of his first deter-
minations of the mechanical equivalent of heat Joule found the number
838, with a probable error of observation of 97. (Phil. Mag., 1843, p.
435 ff.)
The Utility of the Averages Obtained 37
Memory
Within the
limits
The Utility of the Averages Obtained 39
Within the
limits
40 Memory
Within the
The Utility of the Averages Obtained 41
MO c-
140
220
210
zoo
790 1
m a
twenty minute duration of the tests did not exert any influence.
can only be said that the supposed influence of the latter
It
160
ISO
the longer the series is. That is, the memorisation not only
requires more time taken by itself, because each repetition lasts
i
longer, but it also requires more time relatively because an in-
creased number of repetitions becomes necessary. Six verses
of a poem require for learning not only three times as much
time as two but considerably more than that.
I did not investigate especially this relation of dependence,
which of course becomes evident also in the first possible repro-
duction of series of nonsense syllables, but incidentally I ob-
tained a few numerical values for it which are worth putting
down, although they do not show particularly interesting
relations.
The series in question comprised (in the case of the tests of
the year 1883-84), 12, 16, 24, or 36 syllables each, and
9, 6, 3, or 2 series were each time com-
bined into a test.
t -U^iAv *!
12 16.6 1.1
16 ,' 30.0 0.4
24 I 44.0 1.7
36
'
55.0 2.8
not claim, however, that the above numbers, thus obtained by division,
form the correct average for the numbers belonging to the separate series,
i.e., that the latter group themselves according to the
law of errors. But
the numbers are to be considered as averages for groups of series, and, for
the sake of a better comparison with others a condition which in the
nature of the case could not be everywhere the same is made the same
by division. The probable error, the measure of their_ accuracy, has not
been calculated from the numbers for the separate series but from those
for the groups of series.
48 Memory
JO
rig.6-
^o
JO
it-fir/Mmiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiilinil
'
10 40
obtained from only one person they have meaning only as related
to him. The question arises whether they are for this individual
of a general significance i.e., whether, by repetition of the tests
at another time, they could be expected to show approximately
the same amount and grouping.
A series of results from the earlier period furnishes the de-
sired possibility of a control in this direction. They, again,
have been obtained incidentally (consequently uninfluenced by
expectations and suppositions) and from tests made under dif-
ferent conditions than those mentioned. These earlier tests
occurred at an earlier hour of the day and the learning was
continued until the separate series could be recited twice in
succession without mistake. A test comprised
Number of
syllables
in a series
50 Memory
The
smaller curve of Fig. 6 exhibits graphically the arrange-
ment of these numbers. As may be seen, the number of repeti-
tions necessary for learning equally long series was a little larger
in the earlier period than in the later one. Because of its uni-
formity this relation is to be attributed to differences in the
experimental conditions, to inaccuracies in the calculations, and
perhaps also to the increased training of the later period. The
older numbers fall very close to the position of the later ones,
Meaningful Material
In order to keep in mind the similarities and differences be-
tween sense and nonsense material, I occasionally made tests
"
with the English original of Byron's Don Juan." These
results do not properly belong here since I did not vary the
learned separately and then inserted. If that had been done, the times
would have been much shorter and nothing could have been said about
Rapidity of Learning Series of Syllables 51
If it is born in mind
that each stanza contains 80 syllables
great when homogenous series are repeated with the same degree
of attention twice or thrice as many times as are others? Or
does it increase less and less with each and every constant increase
in the jmmber of repetitions? Or what does happen?
this question is its answer would be
a good one;
Evidently
of theoretical as well as practical interest and importance. But
with the resources hitherto at hand it could not be answered,
nor even investigated. Even its meaning will not be quite clear
" " " "
so long as the words inner stability and
depth of impression
denote something indefinite and figurative rather than something
clear and objectively defined.
in section I define the
Applying the principles developed 5,
vjl
deeper impression of it which results, I have formulated the
1
jMK ; problem as follows: If homogeneous series are impressed to
'
A different extents as a result of different numbers of repetitions,
and then 24 hours later are learned to the point of the first
possible reproduction by heart, how are the resulting savings in
work related to each other and to the corresponding number of
former repetitions?
Each double test consisted in this, that the separate series each
for itself were first read attentively a given number of times
(after frequently repeated readings they were recited by heart
instead of read), and that 24 hours later I relearned up to the
point of first possible reproduction the series thus impressed
and then in part forgotten. The first reading was repeated 8,
16, 24, 32, 42, 53, or 64 times.
An increase of the readings used for the first learning beyond
64 repetitions proved impracticable, at least for six series of this
length. For with this number each test requires about of ^
an hour, and toward the end of this time exhaustion, headache,
aftd other symptoms were often felt which would have com-
x =8
556 Memory
repetitions to be made
at a given time, in order that errorless
Repetitions
Retention as a Function of the Number of Repetitions 61
probably have become evident even within the limits withhl which
we found a proportionality, whereas now it is hidden on account
of its small amount and the wide limits of error.
CHAPTER VII
62
Retention and Obliviscence as a Function
of the Time 63
lated layers are pushed to one side, then, of course, that which
was hidden beneath must appear, after whatever lapse of time,
in its original and still existent vividness. 1
|
tion comes in here. Older ideas are repressed and forced to sink
4
after a long time. But one should not imagine the repressed
ideas in their time of obscuration to be pale images, but rather
"
to be tendencies, dispositions," to recreate the image contents
forced to sink down. If these dispositions are somehow sup-
ported and strengthened, it may happen at any one moment that
1
This the opinion of Aristotle and is still authoritative for many
is
people. Lately, for instance, Delboeuf has taken it up again, and has
used it as a complement to his " theorie generate de la sensibilite." In
his article, Le sommeil et les reves (Rev. Philos. IX, p. 153 f.), he says:
"
Nous voyons maintenant que tout acte de sentiment, de pensee ou de
volition en vertu d'une loi universelle imprime en nous une trace plus
ou moins profonde, mais indelebile, generalement gravee sur une infinite
de traits anterieurs, surchargee plus tard d'une autre infinite de linea-
ments de toute nature, mais dont 1'ecriture est neanmoins indefiniment
susceptible de reparaitre vive et nette au jour." (We see now that by
a general law every act of feeling, thought or will leaves a more or less
deep but indelible impress upon our mind, that such a tracing is usually
graven upon an infinite number of previous traces and later is itself over-
laid with innumerable others but nevertheless is still capable of vivid
and clear reappearance.) It is true that he proceeds: "neanmoins . . .
il y a
quelque verite dans 1'opinion qui veut que la memoire non seulement
se fatigue mais s'oblitere" (nevertheless . .there is some truth
.
in the opinion that memory not only becomes fatigued but that it dis-
appears"), but he explains this by the theory that one memory might
"
hinder another from appearing. Si un souvenir rre chasse pas I'autre
on peut du moins pretendre qu'un souvenir empeche 1'autre et qu'ainsi
pour la substance cerebrale, chez 1'individu, il y a un maximum de
saturation." (If one recollection does not actually drive out another,
it may at least be maintained that one recollection hinders the other and
that thus the brain of each individual is saturated.)
The curious theory of Bain and others that each idea is lodged in
a separate ganglion cell, an hypothesis impossible both psychologically
and physiologically, is also rooted to a certain extent in Aristotle's view.
"Herbart and his adherents. See, for instance, Waitz, Lehrbuch der
Psychologic Sect. 16.
64 Memory
ditions. -
In the later hours of the day mental vigor and receptivity;
are less. The series learned in the morning and then relearned
at a later hour, asidefrom other influences, require more work
for relearning than they would if the relearning were done at
a time of mental vigor equal to that of the original learning.
Therefore, in order to become comparable, the numerical values
found for relearning must suffer a diminution which, at least
in the case of the 8 hour interval, is so considerable that it
cannot be neglected. It must be ascertained how much longer
it takes to learn at the time of
day, B, series which were learned
" "
in a seconds at the time of day, A. The actual determina-
tion of this quantity presupposes more tests than I, up to the
L
Retention and Obliviscence as a Function of the Time 69
III. 525 minutes. 12 tests. The learning at the time A, the relearnine
at the time C. The different influence of the two times of day is calculated
as follows: eight series of 13 syllables each required, with 38 tests at time
C, 1173 seconds (P.E. m A
10); similar series with 92 tests at time required
m
1027 seconds (P.E. =8). The first number is approximately 12 per cent,
of its own value larger than the second; therefore I have subtracted that
much from the numerical values found for the time C.
L
7o Memory
B
L
Retention and Obliviscence as a Function of the Time 71
L
Memory
C
L
Retention and Obliviscence as a Function of the Time 73
L
74 Memory
The average of the total 26 savings of work, stated in per cents, is 25.4
(P.E.m=1.3).
A
L
Retention and Obliviscence as a Function of the Time 75
L
76 Memory
Retention and Obliviscence as a Function of tlie Time 77
squares,
=1.84
78 Memory
t
Retention and Obliviscence as a Function of the Time 79
L
8o Memory
L
CHAPTER VIII
the period after the recital this inner similarity ceases. The series
are gradually forgotten, but as is sufficiently well known the
series which have been learned twice fade away much more
x
slowly than those which have been learned but once. If the re-
learning is performed a second, a third or a greater number of
times, the series are more deeply engraved and fade out less
easily and finally, as one would anticipate, they become pos-
sessions of the soul as constantly available as other image-series
which may be meaningful and useful.
I have attempted to obtain numerical data on the relation of
dependence which exists between the permanence of retention
of a series and the number of times it has been brought, by
means of renewed learning, to a just possible reproduction. The
relation quite similar to that described in Chapter VI as exist-
is
ing between the surety of the series and the number of its repe-
titions. In the present case, however, the repetitions do not take
place all at once, but at separate times and in ever decreasing
ff
82 Memory
number of series was first learned and then, at the same hour
on successive days,it was relearned to the
point of first possible
reproduction. In the case of the series of syllables, the number
of days was six in the case of Byron's stanzas, it was only four.
;
I
Retention as a Function of Repeated
Learning
I
Memory
Number of
syllables in
one series
Retention as a Function of Repeated
Learning 85
>
the former advance much faster and the latter noticeably more j
slowly. It cannot, therefore,
be said in any exact sense of the;
words that the more frequently a series needs to be
repeatedi
to-day in order to be learned by heart the more repetitions will
be saved in its reproduction after 24 hours. The relation in
force seems to be much more complicated and its exact deter-
mination would require more extensive investigations.
The relation of repetitions for learning and for repeating
English stanzas needs no amplification. These were learned by
heart on the first day with less than half of the repetitions neces-
sary for the shortest of the syllable series. They acquired ,
We will now take into consideration the results for the suc-
cessive days taken as a whole. On each day the average number
of repetitions necessary for the committing of a given series
is less than on the preceding day. With the longer series, in
whose case the first output of energy is great, the decrease in j
the amount of work each time necessary to reach the first pos- j
sary for the different series approach each other more and more.
With the series of 24 and 36 syllables this is apparent even from
the second day ;from the fourth day on, the numbers ^all abso-
lutely together. And by the fifth day they have approached very
closely to the number of repetitions still necessary, in accordance '/
concluding table of Section 31, but were reckoned in, this ap-
proach would be somewhat faster. (In the case of the English
stanzas it generally takes place only under these conditions.)
86 Memory
Number of
syllable's of
each series
Retention as a Function of Repeated Learning 89
attention. \Yc found above (p. 60) that six i2-syllable series,
which had been learned at a given time with an average of 410
Explanation
I shall now discuss a group of investigations made for the
a, from the very first moment of the perception and during its
continuance, is subjected to inhibition by other ideas present in
consciousness. While a, already partially withdrawn from full
consciousness, is more and more inhibited, b comes up. The
latter, at first uninhibited, fuses with the retiring a. c follows
and, itself uninhibited, is united with the fast dimming b and the
still more obscured a. In a similar fashion d follows and unites
varying degrees with a, b, and c. Thus there originates
itself in
contrary, that c was the one initially reproduced, then its effect
on d and the succeeding members is similar to that revealed by
a i.e., the series c, d, . runs off gradually in con-
formity with its order, b and a, however, experience an alto-
gether different influence. With their separate conscious resi-
dues, the uninhibited c had fused; its effect upon a and b was
therefore wjthout loss of power and without delay, but this
effect was limited to bringing back the conscious residues of a
and b bound up with it, only a part of b and a still smaller part
of a being recalled to consciousness. This, then, is what happens
if the process of recall begins anywhere at the middle of a known
. . .
I(i5).I(2) 1(4),1(6) . I (16), and the re-
. .
By
Skipping 1 Syllable
By Skipping 2 Syllables
By Skipping 3 Syllables
$\l !$ I(9) I(13) I(2) I(6) I(10) I(14) I(3) I(7) I ^ 11 ) KW> K4) K8) 1(12) 1(16)
11(1) 11(5) ............ 11(2) 11(6) ............ 11(3) 11(7) ............ 11(4) 11(8)...... 11(16)
VI(5) ............ VI(2) VI(6) ......... "... VI(3) VI(7) ............ VI(4) VI(8) ......
By Skipping 7 Syllables
1(1) 1(9) 11(1) 11(9) III(l) 111(9) IV(1) IV(9) V(l) V(9) VI(1) VI(9) 1(2) 1(10) 11(2) 11(10)
111(2)111(10) IV(2)IV(10) V(2) V(10) VI(2)VI(10) 1(3) 1(11) 11(3) 11(11) 111(3)111(11) 1V(3)IV(11)
six series were learned in the original order and then 24 hours
later in the derived and the times required were compared. On
account of the limitation of the series to those described above
the results are, under certain circumstances, open to a serious
objection. Let it be supposed that the result is that the derived
series are actually learned with a certain saving of time, then
this saving not necessarily due to the supposed cause, an asso-
is
Number of
intermediate
syllables skipped
in the forma-
tion of the
Retention as a Function of Order of Succession
107
(p. 47) that the number of syllables which I can repeat without
error after a single reading is about seven. One can, with a
certain justification, look upon this number as a measure of the
ideas of this sort which I can grasp in a single unitary conscious
act. As we just now saw, associations are formed of noticeable
strength over more than seven intervening members, therefore
between the beginning and end of a nine-syllable series. And
on account of the size of the numbers obtained and the nature
of their gradation, it seems probable that, even with a larger
number of syllables, connections would be formed between their
extremes. If, however, associations are built between members
too far separated to be held together in a single conscious act,
it is no longer possible to explain the presence of those asso-
sented,! have been able for the time being to investigate only
a few and these by means of only a small number of experiments.
As a result of the frequent repetition of a series a, b, c, d
. certain connections ab, ac, ad, bd, etc. are
formed. The idea a, whenever and however it returns to con-
sciousness, has certain tendencies of different strength to bring
also with it to consciousness the ideas b, c, d. Are now these
connections and tendencies reciprocal? That is, if at any time
r and not a is the idea by some chance revived, does this have,
then comes the actual movement and with it also the actual
sensed feeling.
The conception of Herbart, which we learned to know above
(p. 94), holds the middle course between these two views. The
idea c, which appears in the course of a series, fuses with the
ideas b and a, which have precededit and which are yet present
this in noticeably shorter time than was the case in the previous
16 64
Number of seconds required for learning the six derived series
after 24 hours (including the recital) :
1178 1157
1216 982
1216 1198
950 1148
1358 995
1019 1017
1191 1183
1230 1196
A
120 Memory
Sum of series (II, IV, VI) minus Sum of series (I, III, V)
=*33 (P.E.m =*23).
With six later tests of the same sort (p. 103, i) :
Sum of (II, IV, VI) minus Sum of (I, III, V) =42 (P.E. m
==29).
With ten experiments with series which had been repeated
the day before 16 times each (p. 55) :
(1) The results in the case of learning derived series which had been re-
peated 16 times on the day previous in their original form were as follows:
A
Sum of
(I, HI, V)
122 Memory
see the smaller expenditure of time for the learning of series II,
IV, VI, and it was only because I thought something of this
sort that I changed the method of derivation of the transformed
series. I cannot, therefore, exclude the possibility that, merely
on the basis of this hidden presupposition and in a manner
rapid learning of the derived series, II, IV, VI, was in part
due to their manner of derivation.
"
name, a person could usually tell whether they agreed with the
one now sought for but not yet found, or not. As a result of
the frequent repetition of the syllables i, 3, 5 previously con-
nected with the syllables 2, 4, 6, the latter were placed in a
similar slightly pronounced condition of excitation, lying between
conscious appearance on the one side and simple non-appearance
on the And this excitation has, as it now appears from
other.
our tests,a result altogether similar to that of actual return
to consciousness. Inner connections are established between suc-
3, 5 . .and 2, 4, 6
. .are frequently asso-
. .
tition of other members with which the first had been frequently^
connected.
This way of viewing the matter is a consequence of the as-
sumption (which became necessary above, p. 109) of the forma-
tion of associative connections over more intervening members
than could be comprehended in one clearly conscious act. These
connections would be very fruitful in the explanation of many
but on ac-
surprising phenomena of memory and recollection,
count of the uncertainty of their experiential basis I refrain for
LB Ebbinghaus, Hermann
1063 Memory
E213