3-Bridge Watchkeeping - The Nautical Institute PDF
3-Bridge Watchkeeping - The Nautical Institute PDF
3-Bridge Watchkeeping - The Nautical Institute PDF
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
A PRACTICAL GUIDE
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers, except for the
quotation of brief passages in reviews.
Although great care has been taken with the writing and production of this volume, neither
The Nautical Institute nor the authors can accept any responsibility for errors, omissions or
their consequences.
This book has been prepared to address the subject of bridge watchkeeping. This should
not, however, be taken to mean that this document deals comprehensively with all of the
concerns which will need to be addressed or even, where a particular matter is addressed,
that this document sets out the only definitive view for all situations.
The opinions expressed are those of the authors only and are not necessarily to be taken as
the policies or views of any organisation with which they have any connection.
Readers should make themselves aware of any local, national or international changes to
bylaws, legislation, statutory and administrative requirements that have been introduced
which might affect any decisions taken on board.
Printed in England by
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ISBN 1870077 17 2
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Acknowledgements
Resulting from this the Institute has developed a Bridge Operations Programme
involving the book Bridge Team Management, three videos on Bridge Watchkeeping,
Passage Planning and The Master Pilot Relationship, two Briefing documents contained in
this volume and ultimately this practical guide to Bridge Watchkeeping.
At each stage the Institute has sought to involve seagoing members in the development of
the programme and Council is grateful to the Isle of Man Branch for monitoring the
progress of this volume and maintaining the right balance for its purpose. The assistance of
the advisory group, listed separately, was both necessary and much appreciated.
Particular gratitude is due to Captain D.G.T. Greenhaigh MNI, Managing Director of Celtic
Pacific, Isle of Man, for making available their premises for meetings. Much valuable work
in preparing this volume was contributed by Captain H.H.Francis MNI and the assistance of
the West Wales Training and Enterprise Council is appreciated. The icons used on the cover
of material relating to the Bridge Operations programme were designed by Mr Simon
Rooney.
We are particularly grateful to Captain K.P.Slade FNI, Command Examiner to The Nautical
Institute, for sharing his bridge orders and to Mr F.S.Greenfield MNI, Marine & Safety
Manager, P & 0 Cruises, UK Ltd, for providing information relating to log book entries.
The text has been the subject of considerable professional debate and many changes have
been made in the preparation of this guide. Our warmest thanks are given to Mr Tony
Hepworth MNI ofJavafame Computer Services who prepared this text for printing.
C.J.Parker
T.C.Rooney
A message from the Secretary General of the IMO introducing The Nautical
Institute Bridge Operations Programme
"Whenever a ship puts to sea, the Master and navigating officers have a duty both in public
and commercial law to navigate competently at all times. Upon their actions depend the
successful outcome of the voyage, safety at sea and protection of the marine environment.
"Watchkeeping officers, through their diligence and professionalism, provide a
highly valued service to society. This contribution is recognised by the IMO and I wish to
pay tribute to the world's seafarers and those organisations which are working with us to
enhance safe ship operations."
W. A. O'Neil
5 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
FOREWORD
It is surprising that there are so few books on watchkeeping. Part of the reason is the
expectation that all the skills will be learnt on the job, without the need for written support.
However, studies undertaken by The Nautical Institute and information provided in our
confidential marine accident reporting scheme (MARS), indicate that training can no longer
be taken for granted and that practical assistance is needed to convey the attributes and
skills necessary to become a competent watchkeeper.
Bridge Watchkeeping is part of a programme of videos and training guides which The
Nautical Institute is helping to produce with the aim of improving and updating
navigational and watchkeeping skills. Further details are given in Annex 7.
This study guide has brought together a team of experienced masters and officers to pass on
the experience they have gained over many years of seafaring. The guide will help trainees
and junior officers to improve bridge watchkeeping performance. I wish all those following
the course of study success in becoming well organised, confident and efficient
watchkeepers.
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this study guide on Bridge Watchkeeping. It has been prepared in response to a
demand for practical guidance for the officer of the watch (OOW).
It is designed to pass on practical advice by senior officers in the hope that their guidance
will help to prevent many of the mistakes which they have had to leam from bitter
experience.
This guide is designed for self-study. The aim and objectives are listed below. By
working carefully and methodically through this guide OOWs should have a better
appreciation of their watchkeeping duties and how they can support the Master and become
an efficient and responsible member of the bridge team.
Objectives
On successful completion of the guide the OOW should be able to describe, state or list the
duties of a watchkeeping officer and the practices necessary to:-
Conduct a safe navigational watch
Hand over and accept a watch
Carry out the tasks required during each stage of a sea passage
Monitor the equipment which should be available for use during each
stage of a passage
Prevent the errors which can occur when carrying out tasks or using
equipment
Implement reliable methods of error checking
Support the Master, and the pilot when carried
Call for assistance
Work as a member of the bridge team
7 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
It should be possible, with further watchkeeping experience/ for the OOW who
follows the guidance in this book, to be able to carry out those duties safely and
confidently.
Assumptions
This self-study guide assumes that OOWs have undertaken basic training in chart work and
in the use of radar and navigation equipment. It is also assumed that they have studied and
understand the provisions of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea
(COLREGS).
Guide to studying
Each chapter contains some element of the overall objectives and details of
the tasks that combine to ensure a safe navigational watch. This is in the context of
the guidance provided by the International Maritime Organization (IMO)
Resolutions (see Annex 2) and the International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) Bridge
Procedure Guide.
Use the space provided in the text to write the answers to the SAQs in your hand writing.
When it comes to revision, the answers will form part of the learning process. Do not store
the answers mentally but write them down and then check with the text in case some
important details have been overlooked. Writing the answers in the space provided
reinforces the lessons to be learned.
In the text the SAQs are not numbered in sequence because when checking the answer to
one question the answer to the next question could be seen. In the pages at the back of the
book the answers are, however, in sequential order. Some of the questions require
information which can only be found on board the ship.
1.
.
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will be aware of the reasons for testing the
gear and checking that it is tested properly. You will be introduced to the concept of
'error chains' and the need to understand shipboard operations, in order to
communicate effectively both onboard and with the shore. A final section reminds
you of your role in updating navigational information.
Supplementary activities might include the loading of stores, security, crew changes, shore
gangs carrying out maintenance, surveyors carrying out classification or statutory surveys
and specialists servicing equipment.
9 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
An example of an extract from Master's Standing Orders is given on pages 11
to 13. The OOW has a duty to carry out these orders to the best of his or her ability.
The OOW must comply with the Master's orders to ensure that the Master can
properly direct the activities to be carried out on board.
"The officer of the watch is the Master's representative and his primary
responsibility at all times is the safe navigation of the ship. He should at all times
comply with the applicable regulations for preventing collisions at sea."
Failure to ensure that all equipment is tested and in working order can lead to
critical situations. For example, on one occasion a failure to test the whistle
prevented a pilot from communicating urgently, to another vessel in a fairway, that
he was turning to starboard. On another occasion, the omission to put out the
binoculars in the wheelhouse prevented an important landmark from being
identified.
Most errors can be corrected in time, but the aim of good watchkeeping practice
must be to ensure that the cause of an error chain is avoided (see Chapter 12).
Most ships require check lists to be used. Standing Orders generally state that the
designated officer will verify each item and sign the list before handing it to the
Master prior to sailing.
For the whole period of his watch the OOW is responsible for the safety of the Ship
until such time as he is formally relieved by another officer or the Master, and until
that time he shall remain at his place of duty. The OOW shall be guided by the
contents of international regulations and guidelines, but paying particular attention
to the following: -
PARAMOUNT CLAUSE
THE SAFETY OF THE SHIP AND ITS PERSONNEL IS ALWAYS TO BE
THE PRIME CONSIDERATION, TAKING PRECEDENCE OVER ANY
OTHER. NO CONSIDERATION OF PROGRAMME, CONVENIENCE OR
PREVIOUS INSTRUCTIONS JUSTIFIES TAKING ANY RISK WHICH
MAY PLACE THE SHIP IN DANGER.
1 The first and foremost duty of the OOW is the keeping of a GOOD LOOKOUT,
using all means available, visual, audible and electronic.
6 Watchkeepers are to use all means and opportunities in order to establish the
ship's position. All stellar positions obtained are to be entered in the Deck
Log Book, also the times of crossing significant depth contours, e.g. the
200m line. The positions of all course alterations are to be logged. Officers
are to familiarise themselves with the full operations, scope and limitations of
bridge navigational equipment, especially electronic. This means studying the
manufacturer's
11 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
operational manuals provided.
7 Only one chart at a time is to be on the chart table/ this being the largest scale available
for the area being navigated. Time spent in the chartroom is to be limited to essential
navigational duties.
8 At sea, gyro and magnetic compasses are to be compared frequently and an azimuth
bearing is to be taken after every major course alteration, or at least once per watch.
9 All incoming radio or VHF warnings are to be drawn to the attention of the Master
(navigational, weather forecasts, etc.).
10 Officers are to read the Company Regulations and carry out the duties prescribed
therein. Officers are also to comply with all State regulations and are to be
conversant with all current 'M' Notices, Statutory Instruments and Coast Guard
requirements.
11 All OOWs are to familiarise themselves with the section on tropical storms contained
in the Mariners Handbook (pages 95-99) and to call the Master immediately if any of
the precursory signs of a tropical depression are observed. In any event, the Master is
to be notified immediately of any fall in barometric pressure of 3mb or more in any
period of less than four hours. The practice of logging weather details at the end of
each watch is to be continued in port.
13 AT ANCHORAGE. Use any or all of the navigational aids to monitor the vessel's
position and the relative positions of other ships. Shore transit bearings are to be used
whenever possible as the quickest means of detecting a dragging anchor.
14 Most anchorages, however sheltered, can become untenable in a very short space of
time in sudden bad weather. It is therefore of the utmost importance that at the first
signs of deteriorating weather the main engine is put on immediate notice and the
Master and Bosun called.
15 IN PORT. For the whole period of his watch the OOW is responsible for the safety of
the ship and the correct stowage and operation of cargo work, in that order, and he
should ensure that:-
a) Gangways are fitted with a properly rigged safety net, well lit, and a Shore Leave
Board fitted. The Master/Chief Officer are to be consulted for expiration of shore
leave. No deck officer or crew member is to go
A good officer, when faced with any unusual circumstance, will apply
COMMON SENSE AND THE GOOD PRACTICE OF SEAMEN to the
situation and act accordingly. If you find yourself thinking about calling the
Master then the time has clearly come to do so.
All officers are to sign and date these orders at the commencement of each
voyage.
R.U.Sure
Master
Chief Officer Second Officer Third Officer
13 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
PRE-DEPARTURE CHECK LIST BRIDGE AND
NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT M.V Golden Rule
checked and verified
1. Gyro and repeaters switched on and synchronized
2. Magnetic compass and gyro repeater headings checked
3. Echo sounder checked
4. Speed/distance recorder checked
5. Electronic navigation aids checked
6. Clocks synchronized (including engine room)
7. Plotter recorder ready for use
8. Engine revolution indicator checked
9. Primary and emergency navigation lights tested and checked
10. Propeller and rudder checked clear of obstruction
11. "Not under command" and anchor lights and shapes checked
12. Steering gear tested both in primary and secondary systems
(both motors to be running when manoeuvring)
13. Auto-pilot and change-over arrangements tested
(SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 19-2)
14. Main engines ready and telegraphs tested
15. Bridge communications equipment (internal, external and
portable) tested
16. Signalling lamps tested
17. Whistle tested (if allowed by the Port's Regulations)
18. Bridge window wipers/clear view screens tested
19. Deck power available
20. Arrangements for pilot embarkation/disembarkation inc. overside lighting,
heaving line, pilot ladder, lifebuoy, etc checked
21. Binoculars available
22. Charts and navigational publications, i.e. Notices to Mariners,
etc., corrected up to date and courses plotted on the chart
23. Latest weather reports and navigational warnings received
and available
24. Passage plan prepared. Almanac, Tide Tables, etc., confirmed
available on board
25. Engine movement recorder checked
26. Anchors cleared away and ready for use
27. Mooring winches and capstans in good working order
28. Crew checked on board
29. Crew at their stations for leaving harbour
30. Documents, Certificates and Log Book checked
31. Security checked, stowaways and unauthorised personnel
searched for
On completion of the pre-departure checks this form is to be signed by the
responsible officer and handed to the Master.
Port ............................................................ Signed........................................
Date ............................................
15 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Communications are a significant part of bridge operations
17 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
The OOW should switch on all relevant navigational equipment, calibrate instruments/ set
up radars and check that all items are working properly. The OOW can then fill in the pilot
boarding card which will include:-
Port and date
The dimensions of the ship
Type of propulsion and manoeuvring speeds
Turning data
Draught
Any equipment or machinery defects
The latest compass error
The manoeuvring data relating to the ship should be prominently displayed on the bridge.
Prior to sailing it is usually necessary to contact the harbour Vessel Traffic Service (VTS)
on VHF. The VTS will need to know the anticipated sailing time at least 30 minutes before
sailing so that they can advise inbound or passing traffic to keep clear whilst the ship is
manoeuvring off its berth. The pilot will usually seek clearance to proceed at the time of
sailing and the ship must not "let go" until verification has been received that the ship will
not cause a hazard due to the movements of other ships in the channel or in the vicinity.
Summary
The OOW has an essential role to play in ensuring that, from a
navigational point of view, the ship is in all respects ready to proceed to sea
and should:-
Check that all equipment is operational
Verify that all equipment is properly tuned, calibrated and checked
Record all defects
Prepare all recording systems and ensure that books and logs are to hand with adequate
resources of paper
Update the passage plan with respect to time dependent factors
Ensure up-to-date weather information is available
Ensure latest navigational warnings are available
Obtain all relevant VHF working channels to be used during the planned departure
Ensure the watertight integrity of the ship can be controlled
Contact the shore VTS sufficiently in advance of the sailing time to enable them to
manage the traffic safely
Ensure all communication equipment is functional
Ensure the gangway is taken in and stowed securely
Complete the pilot boarding card to the Master's satisfaction
Ensure the ship is flying the correct flags
Ensure the ship is generally ready for sea. Any unusual items should be reported to the
Master immediately, such as an unclosed hatch, lighters and barges still attached
alongside, a gangway net still in place, any loose items on deck, pipes, wires or
telephones still connected to the shore, or any other item which might be affected by the
movement of the ship.
Chapter 1 SAQs
SAQ 20. From which sources do you obtain information about your OOW duties?
SAQ 73. What is positive reporting and why is it necessary for the testing of equipment
before the ship sails?
SAQ 41. What must the Navigating Officer do to ensure that the ship's passage plan is
updated prior to sailing?
SAQ 92. What reports are expected from the engine room to the bridge prior to sailing?
19 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Learning how to take compass bearings an essential bridge watchkeeping
skill
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will be aware of your responsibilities when
navigating with a pilot on board. You will read how to monitor the progress of the
ship and the status of the bridge equipment. The concept of 'situational awareness'
will be introduced and you will recognise that in order to monitor progress it is
necessary to plan ahead.
It is important that you are able to complete and update the pilot card accurately. A
typical pilot card is shown on page 22.
The manoeuvring data should be prominently displayed on the bridge. This gives
turning circles, stopping distances and other information in different load conditions.
Unmooring
Many activities will be taking place and the OOW must make sure that the duties
that are assigned to him or her are carried out. These will usually be:-
Assisting with communications
Handling the telegraph
Operating the bridge engine controls
Recording key information in the 'bell book' or 'manoeuvring book'
Switching on the appropriate navigation lights
Switching off deck lights
Monitoring helm orders
Monitoring engine movements and rudder angles
If the OOW has been assigned to the telegraph it is essential to stand near the
telegraph until critical manoeuvres are completed. The OOW must be attentive to the
orders of the pilot and always repeat the order and confirm the engines are responding
properly. In this way the pilot knows his order is understood.
21 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
PILOT BOARDING CARD
SHIP'S PARTICULARS
Length overall: 215 m Breadth: 32 m
Anchor chain: Port 11 shackles Starboard 12 shackles
Bulbous bow: Yes / No (1 shackle = 27.5 m / 15 fathoms)
Bow Thruster: Yes / No Stern Thruster: Yes / No
Power:............................. Power:..............................
45.30 (fwd)
40.4m 188.6 m
The main and valuable role of the OOW during pilotage is to monitor the
instruments and progress of the vessel and provide backup to the Master and/or
pilot.
By monitoring the courses steered, the helm movements, and noting the
passing of buoys or position off conspicuous points of land, the OOW will be able
to assess if a mistake is made by the pilot. Buoys and floating beacons can be out of
place and the ship's position should be verified independently whenever possible.
Master/pilot relationship
Pilots are engaged for a variety of reasons, depending upon circumstances, which
include pilotage based upon local knowledge, liaison with shore authorities, ship handling
and bridge support.
The duty of the pilot is to direct the navigation of the ship. The pilot liaises with the
VTS and other vessels in the vicinity, and advises on the use of tugs, of anchors, moorings
and towing lines.
23 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
characteristics. The Master and officer of the watch shall co-operate closely with the pilot
and maintain an accurate check of the ship's position and movement.
Situational awareness
Closely linked to monitoring is the concept of 'situational awareness'. This is the
ability to know where the ship is in relation to the fairway, land and dangers to navigation,
and the proximity of other traffic. This awareness is most easily acquired by looking outside
and comparing what is seen with the chart or the radar.
It is often felt, particularly by inexperienced officers, that the radar picture gives the
best situational awareness, and that the radar can be compared with the chart without
looking outside. The danger with this practice is that the radar picture may be disorientated,
the range scale mistaken, and small targets undetected.
Situational awareness, from which the progress of the vessel can be assessed,
requires three monitoring activities:-
Planning ahead
The pilot will have a clear understanding of the time it will take to reach the pilot
boat depending upon speed, current, visibility, availability and so on. He will have
discussed his plan with the Master and the Master or pilot should brief the OOW on details
of the intended passage.
Many other people on board will also want to know the ship's navigational plan:-
The engineers will want to plan for "Full Away"
The Officer forward will want to secure anchors
The Master will want to make the approach to the pilot boat and plan the
next course
The appropriate crew members will want to know when and on which
side to to rig the pilot ladder
The OOW will be expected to make certain that those who need to know are kept
informed of progress. To do this it is necessary to plan ahead:-
Distances to the pilot boat should be noted on the chart
At key points the distance to the pilot boat can be verified
The estimated time of arrival can then be updated
The OOW has an essential role to play in monitoring progress in such a way that any
error is detected in time to prevent an incident.
Summary
Have the pilot boarding card ready
Have the sequence of charts in order
Verify the pilots instructions
Monitor the ship's manoeuvring
Check the compasses regularly and on each significant change of
heading
Record essential information
Do not wander about the bridge if ordered to work the telegraph until
manoeuvring is completed
Be attentive
Monitor the steering
Monitor under keel clearance
Monitor the weather
Keep tidal information up to date
Develop situational awareness
Positively identify significant navigational marks and features by eye
Use the radar intelligently
Fix the ship regularly to monitor the pilot in coastal waters
Assess risk of collision and advise the pilot
If doubts about intentions exist call the Master
Keep ETA at the pilot boat updated
Call the Master and other hands as appropriate
Be particularly vigilant in confined waters
Keep the VTS informed of progress as required
Ensure the correct lights, flags and shapes are being displayed.
25 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 2 SAQs
SAQ 33. List the main items to be updated on the pilot card.
SAQ 84. Why is it necessary to contact the port VTS station prior to sailing?
SAQ 19. How would you monitor the navigation of the pilot?
SAQ 67. How would you, conveniently, check the compass error in pilotage waters?
SAQ 50. How would you know what VHF channels to monitor when leaving port?
Tracks are drawn on a chart area and you are asked to bring the ship in from sea.
Purpose
The aim of the exercise is to make you aware of situations which can develop and
which, if left unattended, may quickly deteriorate into critical situations.
The exercise emphasises the need to plan ahead, to be vigilant, to apply good
seamanship and to be able to respond in such a way that the passage is completed safely.
27 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
EXERCISE: WATCHKEEPING IN PILOTAGE WATERS. WHAT TASKS SHOULD THE OOW HAVE PERFORMED?
Start conditions:- Day; Wind South West Force 3; Tide Half an hour before High Water; Visibility 1.0 mile
A location in pilotage An event in pilotage waters A possible incident? A possible cause(s) of the Incident could have been
waters incident? avoided by:
Q 18. Three miles from the Rendezvous with pilot Unable to distinguish light Racon temporarily
pilot station cutter to embark pilot vessel from cutter extinguished
Q 43. Two miles from the Too late or too early at the Pilot cutter not available Pilot cutter not given ETA
pilot station pilot station
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Q77. At the pilot station Ship going ahead at 4 knots, Pilot cutter closing on Pilot cutter not advised of
heading 270 opposite side to pilot ladder heading and speed for
disembarking
Q29. At the pilot station Embarking the pilot Injury to pilot Pilot ladder improperly
rigged
Q53. Between the pilot Turning to 270T Vessel overshoots turn and is 1. Helmsman not
station and WP1 in danger of running accustomed to steering
aground 2. Turn not planned
3. Gyro wander
-29-
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Q35. Alter course at WP1 Passing close to light vessel Set down on light vessel Ship at slow speed in tidal
stream
Q88. Between WP1 and WP2 Abeam of Bl Very close to Bl 1. Bl out of position
2. Ship drifted to right of
track
Q61. Between WP1 and WP2 A vessel injunction Passage Collision risk ignored 1. Target presence
approaches from before the undetected
-30-
Q 6. Between WP2 and WP3 Approaching WP3 Closing WP3 very quickly 1. Engine speed too fast
2. Flood tide rate increases
Q97. Between WP2 and Searching for on radar WP3 lost 1. Sea clutter
WP3 2. Fall off in radar
performance
Q71. Between WP3 and the Securing bow and stern Crew not available to secure Crew not warned in time
berth tugs tugs
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Purpose
On studying this case study you will be aware of the dangers and risks to
human life which can occur if the pilot ladder is rigged incorrectly. Information and
guidance is given to demonstrate the correct way of supervising the required
boarding arrangements for pilots.
Introduction
The following case study is taken from the confidential Marine Accident Reporting Scheme
(MARS) carried out by The Nautical Institute and published monthly in the Institute's
Journal SEAWAYS. Annex 5 contains practical guidance on boarding arrangements for
pilots.
CASE STUDY
Whilst disembarking from an outward bound vessel a pilot fell from the pilot ladder
and spent eight minutes in the sea before he could be rescued by the pilot launch. The
evidence from the pilot and crew of the launch suggests the fall was caused by slackness in
the ladder taking up when the pilot's weight on the ladder became effective.
After leaving the berth the Third Mate (3/O) left the bridge to supervise rigging the
pilot ladder on the starboard side. The crew were busy securing containers on deck, so the
3/O rigged the ladder on his own. He said that, after rigging the ladder, he tested it by
putting his weight on it; he was, however, of light build. He did not know where the
manropes for the starboard ladder were stowed and he did not get the manropes from the
port side.
When he later escorted the pilot from the bridge the 3/O did not take a torch or a
hand-held VHF radio to communicate with the bridge. The pilot did not have a torch either.
Illumination of the ladder was provided by a gangway light facing forward and a
searchlight from the bridge, although the ship's side was very well lit, the deck area was
partly shadowed by the adjacent stow of containers. The pilot did not make a thorough
security check of the ladder due to the inadequate lighting on deck. He requested manropes
and was offered a totally inadequate heaving line which he refused. He was wearing a
lifejacket of old design which did not have an automatic light.
31 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Pilot boarding is a hazardous operation which must be properly supervised at all
times.
The inboard end of the ladder was permanently secured with shackles through
thimbles on the end of each set of side ropes. Rope lashings were then used to seize
the side ropes in order to adjust the ladder length. Access over the side was through
an opening in the bulwark set inboard 400/500 mm from the sheer strake. The
opening in the bulwark was not full depth but stopped 200/300 mm above deck
level. The ladder, when hanging over the side, passed from the securing eye pads on
the deck up over the lip of the bulwark opening, then down at approximately 45 to
the point where it crossed the sheer strake and then vertically down the ship's side.
There were three places at which the ladder treads could foul:-
On the underside of the bulwark plating immediately above the securing
lashings
On the top lip in the bulwark access
On the inboard side and top of the sheer strake
The investigators concluded that, for whatever reason, there was slack
somewhere inboard of the point where the ladder passed over the sheer strake. As
the pilot's weight, and movement of the ladder caused by his descent, shook the
fouled ladder free, the combination of a falling ladder followed by a sudden jerk
loosened his hand hold sufficiently to throw him clear.
Poor lighting to the deck area at the top of the ladder possibly prevented the
correct lashing of the ladder when it was adjusted for length at the initial
rigging. It also prevented proper inspection of the ladder prior to
disembarkation
Neither the 3/O nor the pilot carried a torch to supplement the ship's fixed
illumination
No man ropes were used, these would have provided additional support when
the ladder slipped
33 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
If the pilot had not been wearing a lifejacket he would almost certainly have spent
longer in the water. It allowed the crew of the pilot launch to see him, in spite of the
lifejacket not being fitted with a light. The retrieval was achieved with considerable
difficulty due to inadequate emergency lighting aboard the pilot launch and the fact that the
life buoy and light from the ship were dropped too far from the man in the water to be of
any use and the bad weather prevailing at the time of the accident.
SAQ 82. List the correct way of rigging a pilot ladder (see Annex 5).
SAQ 56. Who should be in attendance when a pilot is on the ladder, and
why?
SAQ 87. What safety equipment must be provided at the pilot ladder?
SAQ 44. What provision must the OOW make for boarding and disembarking pilots in the
dark?
SAQ 64. Why must the pilot ladder be rigged so that it does not touch the water?
SAQ 37. Approaching the pilot vessel in fog, the Master of the pilot vessel says "I can see
you on the radar now 135 at 2 miles". Where would you look to find the pilot vessel and
why?
35 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you should be able to understand how to
organise yourself effectively. You will be shown how to take charge of a watch. The
concept of control is introduced. Your responsibilities for safe navigation and
collision avoidance are discussed so that you will understand how to set your
priorities and how to manage your time. The need to maintain a proper lookout is
examined and a final section will remind you that at times, when there is a
potentially dangerous situation arising, you should call for assistance.
Before going below he will either write down his instructions in the night
order book or in day time tell the OOW when he expects to be called unless there is
a need for his presence on the bridge.
Typically, for an inexperienced junior OOW, the Master may require calling if
any ship has a closest point of approach (CPA) of less than 2 miles, and half an hour
before the next alteration of course.
For an OOW with some experience this might be for a CPA of less than 1
mile and 15 minutes before an alter course.
It takes time for the Master to know the capabilities of his officers and it is up
to the OOW to demonstrate competence to him.
The elements of control can be described as:- steady state, deviation, feedback,
correction and steady state.
The same principle exists within the steering system of the ship. Similarly, the
Master keeps control on board by setting a standard through his orders. If he finds they
have not been complied with he will want to know why and correct the situation.
37 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
What has control go to do with watchkeeping? When in charge of a watch there are
two equally important functions which must be controlled:-
The safe navigation of the ship at all times
Collision avoidance
In navigation, the ship is being controlled against the intended track. In collision
avoidance the ship is being controlled in response to other traffic in accordance with the
collision regulations (COLREGS).
How should the OOW organise the navigation of the ship? The international
convention states:-
"The largest scale chart on board, suitable for the area and corrected
with the latest available information, should be used. Fixes should be taken
at frequent intervals; whenever circumstances allow, fixing should be carried
out by more than one method. The OOW should identify positively all
relevant navigation marks."
The OOW should always aim to fix the ship at regular intervals. It is then easy to
project the previous fix interval forward on the chart with dividers to establish the estimated
position where the ship should be when recording the fix next time.
The need to fix the ship at "frequent intervals" requires further explanation. A fix
should be taken whenever the vessel alters course and at regular intervals thereafter.
The fix interval should be such that the vessel can not be set appreciably off track or
into danger by the anticipated effects of tidal stream, wind or currents in the period between
successive fixes.
Typically, having discharged the pilot in an estuary, the fix interval may be 15
minutes or less. When the ship reaches open water the fix interval may increase to half an
hour.
A number of critical situations can arise such as having to avoid a fleet of fishing
vessels or the ship may have to alter course to starboard for a succession of ships which
means that there is a risk of running aground in shallow water.
As vessels approach one another on a collision course, there are three phases which
can be identified: an early period when the target is detected but when action to avoid
collision can be deferred; a critical period when action must be taken; and a terminal
period when it is too late to prevent impact.
The beginning and end of each period relate to a range of the values which are
determined by the relative speed of approach of the two vessels concerned. The table below
shows some typical relative speeds and the times to their collision point.
If, however, there is a terminal period of one mile and a relative approach speed of 20
knots, then the critical period for the same fishing vessel first identified at 4 miles will be 12
minutes 3 minutes = 9 minutes.
It is possible for ships to draw up their own limits to the terminal period which will be
based upon their ability to manoeuvre. The limitation of the critical period will depend on
such factors as obstructed vision and blind arcs, but above all the ability to detect a small
vessel in reasonable time.
- 39 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Review
An OOW in coastal waters can become very busy. If the work load increases
and there is a worry that a dangerous situation might develop call the Master.
It is a fact that "the more busy we become the less we tend to plan ahead."
This means that in dense traffic the OOW may become so preoccupied solving
immediate problems on the bridge that situational awareness is lost or the OOW
may fail to notice a new collision risk developing.
Learning to recognise this point of overload takes time and that is why,
initially, the Master sets out to control the behaviour of inexperienced personnel by
requiring to be told about any ship within a specified CPA.
With experience the Master will leave you to make your own decisions on
watch.
There are of course other routines which have to be carried out on watch such
as record keeping, taking compass errors and testing the automatic pilot. These will
be dealt with in the next chapter.
Summary
Plan ahead before taking over the watch
Check the track, compass errors and courses
Check the compass error at least once a watch
Make keeping a lookout the priority
Assess risk of collision and take action if necessary
Fix the ship at regular intervals, if practicable
Fix more frequently in confined waters
Call the Master before a potentially dangerous situation becomes
critical
Observe changes in the weather
Study the chart and expect to find new landmarks before they are seen
Maintain situational awareness, particularly if the ship has to deviate
widely to avoid traffic
Be prepared to use the engines, if necessary, to ensure adequate sea
room
Be prepared to call a lookout to the bridge if necessary
Be prepared to call a helmsman to the bridge if necessary
"The OOW must ensure that at all times the ship is never put into a
situation of uncontrollable risk."
SAQ 13. You are aiming to make good a track of 090T. The ship is allowing 7 drift to
port for a current from the starboard bow, and a Leeway Angle of 3 for a wind on the port
side. The Gyro Error is 2 low and the Compass Error 4 W. What is the Gyro Course and
Compass Course to steer?
SAQ 47. a) What do you mean by a fix interval, b) Your ship is doing 12 knots. There is a
current across the track of three knots towards the danger and a wind blowing in the same
direction adding 1 knot of drift. The track is parallel to a sand bank at 1 mile. What should
be the fix interval?
SAQ 76. Which should take priority navigation or collision avoidance? Why?
41 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
SAQ 90. You are OOW on a 20 knot container ship and you detect a small target at 4 miles
approaching at 5 knots with a terminal period of 1 mile. Calculate the critical period .
SAQ 51. Why would you not trust the radar to give you warning of small vessels in coastal
waters?
SAQ 79. Give some examples of when you would call the Master for
assistance.
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will be aware that routine activities on the
bridge must be secondary to keeping a vigilant look out. Out of sight of land,
navigational accuracy depends upon instruments and you must ensure that
monitoring them deep sea has a higher priority. The value of maintaining traditional
celestial navigation is discussed and you are encouraged to use spare time to
practise this skill and to prepare for more busy coastal passages.
Out of sight of land the principal threat to a ship at sea is the risk of collision from
other ships. For this reason the watch must be organised around the need to maintain a
vigilant look out. All other duties will be secondary.
"Every vessel shall at all times maintain a proper look out by sight and hearing as
well as by all available means appropriate in the prevailing circumstances and conditions
so as to make a full appraisal of the situation and the risk of collision".
What is a proper look out? An analysis of reports received by The Nautical Institute
over the past 20 years indicates that in open waters the predominant cause of collision was
failure to maintain a proper lookout. In some cases the ships, fishing vessels or yachts were
not seen or even detected at all and in other cases they were detected too late to avoid a
close-quarters situation.
Experienced watchkeepers are constantly seeking to verify the situation, and part of
the reason for this is that it is not possible to predict, with certainty, what other vessels are
going to do based upon past observations.
When conducting a visual lookout, the eye is most likely to detect new targets when
they break the line of the horizon. Targets can also be obscured
43 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
in blind arcs caused by window frames and cargo gear. The OOW will need to
move position on the bridge frequently to obtain a clear view of the
surrounding sea.
The following table provides a comparison between the merits of visual and
radar observation which can be used when deciding lookout priorities. It must not be
forgotten that the OOW also has to be vigilant concerning activities onboard and the
effect of weather on the ship, crew and equipment.
Table
ADVANTAGES OF THE EYE ADVANTAGES OF RADAR
Reliable Generally reliable
Sensitive to colour Does not get tired
Can assess heading Accurate range information
Can identify small targets Stable bearing platform
Can see light configurations Simplifies the overview
Can assess ship types Can penetrate fog
Can identify conspicuous marks Better penetration in rain and snow
Can identify flashing lights Useful for predictive collision avoidance
Has better discrimination Predictive navigation (parallel index)
Can see changing weather patterns Can have longer range (height of aerial)
Can see effect of sea on vessel Can have low down port approach aerial to
Not affected by blind arcs (if observer moves) minimise clutter
LIMITATIONS OF THE EYE LIMITATIONS OF RADAR
Poor at assessing distance (worse at night) Misses small targets
Subject to night adaptation Can miss substantial targets in clutter
Degradation through glare (worse with age) Can de-tune
Gets tired searching Prone to inherent and input errors
Binoculars needed for early identification Targets need transponders for positive
(particularly on high speed vessels) identification
Is prone to interference
Cannot discriminate as well as the eye
Cannot identify ship types or operations
Cannot assess aspect immediately
Bearings less accurate than compass
In restricted visibility the reverse process is more effective where the target will be
identified first on radar and then looked for by eye to check its heading and collision threat.
Thirdly, the radar itself, particularly in rain, may not be able to detect
significant targets.
To minimise the risk of error, the OOW should check the radar with the visual
scene regularly.
Such crew members should have good eyesight and be able to communicate
with the OOW. Sometimes they have eyesight problems and this should be quietly
tested by noting when lights are seen.
The OOW must ensure that the safety of the ship is not put at risk through the
inability of the lookout to keep a vigilant watch.
Lookouts should be encouraged to relate what they see to the radar. On many
ships lookouts are encouraged to keep a visual and radar watch.
Whenever the lookout is sent below for any reason like calling the watch or
calling hands to stations, the OOW must ensure that a visual watch is maintained.
The course will be checked at each watch change and during each watch. After any
significant course alteration the OOW must check the compass error. The gyro must be
checked against the magnetic compass regularly and a compass error obtained by external
observation. The error must be properly recorded.
45 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Position will generally be obtained from the Global Positioning System (GPS)
which has proved to be very reliable. Because of this officers tend to trust it
implicitly and that can lead to problems because:-
Future waypoints may have been wrongly put into the processor, e.g. in
error by 10 or 10'.
The level of integration varies, but a fault may develop in any of the
connecting circuits
The set itself may be faulty or break down
Many companies whose ships are fitted with Satellite Navigation (SatNav)
have a statement in their instructions that watch keeping officers must take at least
one sight per day.
At noon it is reassuring to check the SatNav with the latitude obtained from
celestial observation.
The OOW must learn to carry out other bridge duties without becoming
distracted from the main purpose of maintaining an effective lookout.
On no account must the OOW ever leave the bridge without a relief.
The use of television and radio entertainment on the bridge must be strongly
discouraged in spite of the excuse that they are being used to obtain weather
forecasts. The fact is that a number of serious accidents involving loss of life have
occurred for this reason.
Similarly, radar guard rings may not always be actuated by other vessels and
must not be relied upon to the detriment of keeping a proper lookout.
There is a requirement to monitor VHP Channel 16 and the digital selective calling
channel 70. Similarly, the ship must monitor NAVTEX on 518 kHz and the distress
frequency of 2187.5 kHz and the radio telephony frequency of 2182 kHz.
Summary
When on ocean passages keeping a look out must have priority
Check the instruments being used to navigate the ship regularly and
monitor the position each watch
Practice celestial navigation regularly
Monitor radio communications for routine messages and ensure that
emergency channels are operational and being monitored
Use any spare time productively to plan ahead for the next phase of the voyage
Always post a look out if a bridge task is likely to preoccupy your time
Learn to break off tasks at frequent intervals so that it becomes a habit
Avoid entertainment on the bridge. It may provide a fatal distraction
Monitor changes in the weather and regularly observe the barometer
Keep records up to date
47 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 5 SAQs
SAQ 15. List the items to be checked and monitored each watch.
SAQ 32. What advantages does the eye have over the radar?
SAQ 59. When would you instruct a lookout to assist you on the bridge?
SAQ 22. When would you call the Master, out of sight of land?
SAQ 75. List the information required by the Master at noon each day.
49 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 6 MAKING A LANDFALL AND
PREPARING FOR ARRIVAL
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will be aware of the need to identify the
coastline positively when making a landfall. At this time there is, invariably, an
element of doubt and the risk of placing the ship in danger if predictions are wrong.
As the ship approaches port there will be other duties to perform which emphasise
the value of planning.
Approaching land
All Masters will expect to be called prior to making a landfall. It is important that
they are present on the bridge as they are probably the most experienced navigators onboard
and will therefore be best able to assess the situation correctly.
The OOW will also have to be more aware of traffic and the possibility of fishing
vessels operating in the area. There is a need to keep a particularly good lookout for small
vessels during this phase of navigation.
In poor visibility, approaching land can be hazardous and the radar(s) will be the
principal navigational instrument to confirm the ship's position. A lookout should be posted.
Usually ships do obtain sights and at least one position line will have been
established, for example the latitude at noon. The estimated position will usually be within
twenty miles of the ship's actual position.
GPS will ensure that the ship has an accurate position and landfall should be a matter
of routine. The fact remains that the instrument may have an error or the OOW may
misread it. It is not until there is a positive confirmation of the land that the Master will feel
comfortable.
So there are two uncertainties when making a landfall. Firstly, the ship's
position, and secondly the identification of the land. It is to reduce these
uncertainties that good navigational practices must be developed.
Prudent navigation
The OOW should try always to obtain a fix in the ocean and monitor the GPS.
Nobody knows for certain when the last fix will be taken prior to making a landfall,
particularly in bad weather.
Useful information can be obtained from the depth contour on the chart. The depth
recorder should be on and checked against the chart. If there is a significant difference from
that anticipated, inform the Master immediately.
Extra care should be taken to identify any light by its exact characteristics and to
verify the ship's position on the position line by calculating the distance at the time it
appears.
Radar identification of headlands is less certain and it is still prudent to sight lights
and lighthouses visually whenever possible. In most landfall locations they have been
conveniently provided.
This may seem old-fashioned, but on making a radar landfall the OOW cannot be
certain initially whether the echo is the coastline or a ridge inland. Doubt will remain until
the ship is close enough to verify the shoreline.
Example
The extract overleaf is taken from Nories Tables.
To find out the distance at which a light can be seen for the first time, two entries are
needed.
51 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
First, find the height of the light. Secondly, note down your own height of eye.
For example, the height of the light, taken from the chart, is 56 metres. Your height of
eye is 21 metres.
The Chief Engineer will need notice to prepare the engines for manoeuvring
and to make sure the necessary auxiliaries are available and working.
The Officer forward will need to prepare the anchors and ensure that the
mooring ropes and wires are on deck and the mooring drums operational.
The pilot ladder and gangway will need to be prepared. The Master will need
to be informed in time to take charge of the ship when approaching the pilot.
53 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
On many ships, preparation for cargo work will also be taking place.
Prior to taking on board the pilot the OOW should complete the pilot boarding
card, using the corrected draught worked out by the Chief Officer which will vary
from the departure draught due to:-
Consumption of bunkers
Consumption of water
Redistribution of oil and water in the tanks
Ballasting and de-ballasting
It is important for pilots to know the trim of the vessel because it affects the
manoeuvring characteristics.
SAQ 86. What should you tell the Master when he comes to the bridge, prior to making a
landfall at night?
SAQ 17. What preparations would you take when making a landfall in poor visibility?
SAQ 55. Why is it important to establish correctly in advance which "side to" when
berthing?
- 55 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
SAQ 31. Where would you expect to find VHF calling channels for a pilot station
and a port VTS?
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will know how to support the Master when
approaching an anchorage and whilst anchoring the ship. Once the ship is 'brought
up' on the anchor cable you will almost certainly be left on the bridge to keep an
anchor watch. The final section will make you aware of hazardous situations which
can occur and how to respond.
Anchoring
There are four main approaches to anchoring which require different planning
in each case. They are:-
A request to anchor in a designated position
A need to anchor in a waiting area
A need to anchor in the shelter of land
The need to anchor in a river which may be tidal
Taking note of the increased effect of tidal currents as the ship slows down the
Master will control the speed of the ship and its progress along the track. This can
be very difficult if there is a strong cross wind and the ship is in ballast.
Where possible the Master will approach the anchorage head to the prevailing
forces of wind and/or tide, as this provides the best method of control and assists in
slowing down the ship.
The Master will need to be kept informed of the distance to the anchorage so
the points at which speed reductions are to be made should be marked on the chart.
Pre-determined cross bearings and radar ranges will help the OOW to determine
exactly when the critical points in the approach are reached so that the OOW can
keep the Master fully informed of progress.
57 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
The OOW has an essential role in assisting the Master with his planned
approach, giving the course and distance to go to the anchoring position using
information from the chart, the compass and radar. The OOW may work the
telegraph or remote engine controls and may be given the task of navigating the
vessel in accordance with the plan.
At the appropriate point the order will be given to let go. The OOW must
verify the position independently with bearings of other navigational marks to fix
the position of the ship in case it is accidentally out of position or the anchor is lost.
From this position the swinging circle can be drawn on the chart, depending upon
the number of shackles used.
When the ship is brought up and the anchor bars put in place, the Master will
decide the level of readiness for the engines and pass on this instruction before
going below. The OOW must then fix the ship again to verify that the anchor is
holding, that there is room to swing and to ensure that the ship is within the
swinging circle.
He should always approach the 'hole' coming up astern of other vessels and in
a tight anchorage will have to over-run the position he wishes to occupy so that
when he lets go of the anchor and comes back on the chain he ends up where he
wants to be.
Instead of aligning the ship to the shore the Master will choose his anchorage
in relation to the other ships, from which he will ask the officer of the watch for
bearings and distances.
Once the anchor has been let go the OOW must fix the ship in relation to the
shore for the reasons given above.
When choosing an anchorage the Master will be aware of how the direction of
the wind will veer or back and will select an anchor so that if a second anchor has to
be let go it will not cause a foul hawse.
The distance off land is the critical factor when letting go in these situations
and the OOW should monitor this carefully.
In stormy weather the engines will be kept in readiness in case the anchor(s)
drags. The Engineers must be told the severity of the situation so that they do not
start some maintenance which will prevent the engines from being used in an
emergency.
For a vessel at anchor, fix the ship at the time of letting go and inscribe the swinging circle on the
chart. Then monitor the anchor bearings either by radar ranges ahead or astern or by beam bearings
The anchor watch must be so organised as to monitor any drag which might
occur before the ship gains momentum.
If drag does occur call the Master at once. Consider laying out more cable,
using the engines or letting go a second anchor.
59 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Anchoring in a tidal river
When anchoring in a strong current and narrow channel the critical time is
when the ship stops in the water, as it is then without steerage and a 'kick ahead' on
the engines may cause a sheer.
It is most important, therefore, that the anchors are lowered to the water in
advance so that when the brake is released the anchor cable will run free at very
short notice.
Frequently, in rivers, there is not enough room for the ship to turn on a long
anchor chain when, for example, the tide changes and it has to be held short. To
compensate for this the engines may be needed at certain critical times to prevent
too much drag on the anchor.
As the current reaches its faster ebbs and flows it may be necessary for the
OOW to use the engines.
Accurate position fixing and the use of a cross bearing to ascertain if there is
any drag is essential.
There are four types of threat which can all have damaging consequences:-
Own ship turning one way and a neighbouring ship turning the other way as
the tide changes creating a possibility of contact between the vessels
However, anchor bearings should be checked at least every hour and more
frequently in conditions of strong currents, wind and waves.
A useful technique is to use the radar range ring on a conspicuous point ahead
or astern of the vessel and this should be checked at similar intervals.
If the ship appears to be dragging her anchors call the Master immediately.
When in an anchorage where other vessels may be in close proximity there is
little time available if something does go wrong.
During an anchor watch vigilance is still important and the aim is to detect
any threat early. All vessels are moving slowly and are less able to
Be prepared to monitor the activities of the crew if they are working over the side.
Other routines
The OOW must ensure that the ship is properly lit at night, that she exhibits the
correct lights and sounds signals in fog.
Often the ship will be waiting for orders or working cargo. Attentive monitoring of
the VHF or Satellite Communications (SatComs) will be required.
In many places piracy and illicit boarding is a major problem. The monitoring of all
approaching craft and a vigilant inspection of the ship's side is the primary protection the
ship has against this threat. Precautions for securing the accommodation should be taken.
If unauthorised persons are seen boarding it is suggested that the OOW sounds
the general alarm, blows the whistle and takes precautions to lock out the boarders.
Summary
Anchoring demands teamwork
Verify the plan with the Master
Support the Master during the approach with bearings or distances
Monitor the speed of approach
61 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Monitor the course and approach bearings
Keep a lookout for other vessels moving
Fix the ship when the anchor is let go and continue to monitor the
position
Maintain a vigilant anchor watch
Check anchor bearings and/or radar distances regularly
Assess any threat early
Be prepared to use the engines to prevent dragging
Be prepared to warn other vessels
Be prepared to apply evasive manoeuvres
Monitor shore based communications
Monitor the movement of small boats
Protect the security of the vessel
Call the Master as soon as a potentially dangerous situation is identified
Monitor the situation of the crew, particularly if they are working over
the side
SAQ 68. How can the OOW best assist the Master when approaching an anchorage?
SAQ 34. What is the purpose of lowering the anchor out of the hawse pipe when
approaching an anchoring position?
SAQ 48. What is the maximum speed through the water that your ship can anchor without
risking breaking the cable?
SAQ 93. What various options are available to a ship at anchor when faced with a threat of
collision from an oncoming ship?
SAQ 65. Apart from navigational safety/ what else should you do on anchor watch?
63 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
SAQ 12. List the duties of the OOW at anchor, as laid down in the International
Convention Resolution, Annex 2, Article 27.
65 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
There is more uncertainty about the movements of target vessels in fog. For
example, they may be vessels fishing or not under command. It is, therefore, very
important that the OOW takes EARLY action to avoid a close quarters situation.
Rain and snow are two conditions which not only reduce visibility but
significantly reduce the ability of the radar to detect targets. If two radars are fitted
the S band radar should be operational as well as the X band radar,
Masters need to know in advance about the onset of any condition which is
likely to reduce visibility. This is to avoid being confronted with a "hidden target" at
short range as the ship enters rain, fog, snow or even a sand storm. The OOW
therefore has a duty to keep a vigilant lookout for fog and to scan the radar at long
range for deteriorating weather conditions. If any changes are observed, call the
Master.
The Master will use his judgement in accordance with the COLREGS to
proceed at a safe speed and will usually want to be on the bridge in reduced
visibility. However, everybody needs rest after prolonged periods and the OOW
should ensure that in these circumstances approaching vessels are given a wide
berth.
Vessels such as ferries and naval craft are much more manoeuvrable than
many vessels and respond more immediately to engine and helm movements.
However, for most fully laden vessels this is not so.
Summary
Observe the weather and call the Master when visibility deteriorates
Monitor traffic in the area, and comply with the provisions of Rule 19
Observe the other provisions of the COLREGS
Post a lookout
Put the engines to standby inform the engineers if appropriate
Be prepared to use a helmsman if a critical situation is developing
Work the automatic plotting aids (ARPA) systematically
If no automatic plotting facility exists, prepare to plot selected targets
manually
Be prepared to close watertight doors I
Be prepared to reduce speed, stop, or turn out of danger
If possible, consult the Master before any critical evasive manoeuvres
are required
SAQ 46. If the Master and yourself are using the same ARPA what should you check?
SAQ 38. Besides the collision risk, what else should you be monitoring on watch in
reduced visibility?
67 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 9 TAKING OVER THE WATCH
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will appreciate the need, when changing
the watch, to verify that the ship is proceeding according to plan, that all risks have
been recognised and that the equipment is functioning normally.
The ship is navigated to meet the requirements of the passage plan, avoid other traffic
and follow as closely as possible the track laid down on the chart. The Master will require to
be informed of progress and his instructions are recorded in the Night Order book,
annotation on the chart or passed on verbally during the day.
If the OOW receives verbal instructions to call the Master at a given time, which may
go over into another officer's watch, it is good practice to make a note of the call time at the
appropriate position on the track on the chart to remind the next OOW.
"The relieving officer of the watch should ensure that members of his watch are
fully capable of performing their duties, particularly as regards their adjustment to night
vision.
The relieving officer of the watch should not take over the watch until his vision is
fully adjusted to the light conditions and he has personally satisfied himself regarding:
If at the time the officer of the watch is to be relieved a manoeuvre or other action
to avoid any hazard is taking place, the relief of the officer should be deferred until such
action has been completed."
Summary
Always be fit for bridge duty
Arrive early and in time to adjust to the bridge situation
Read, understand and sign the Master's night orders
Never sign orders you do not fully understand always seek advice
Do not take over the watch until your eyes have become adjusted to
night vision
Never take over a watch until all manoeuvring has been completed and
the ship is safely on course
Check on the watch complement and make sure the lookout is posted
and a helmsman is near and ready if required
69 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 9 SAQs
SAQ 21. What conditions must be satisfied by the OOW before taking over a bridge
watch?
SAQ 78. As the relieving OOW/ there is an instruction in the bridge orders you do not
fully understand. What should you do?
SAQ 95. As the relieving OOW should you sign the Master's bridge orders before fully
understanding the instructions?
SAQ 30. At the time of relief, a bridge manoeuvre is taking place. What is the action of the
relieving officer in these circumstances?
SAQ 5. The Master has left instructions for an alteration of course at the time of the watch
change-over. Traffic in the area prevents this course alteration from taking place. What
action should the relieving officer take?
NOTES:
71 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 10 CALLING THE MASTER
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will know when you must call the Master,
the reasons for keeping the Master informed, and. why you should seek his advice
before dangerous situations arise.
The OOW, by calling the Master early, will be able to learn from the
experience of the Master when he comes to the bridge. The OOW has a duty to call
the Master early and this must be the guiding principle at all times.
Some examples of situations where the Master will expect to be called are listed
below, but each Master will define his own requirements:-
The Master will always prefer to be called early, before the ship is in a dangerous
situation. This often requires judgement on behalf of the OOW and to help resolve this
issue the Master will often request to be called whenever a vessel is to approach within a
specified CPA.
73 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
If the call is made during the hours of darkness, the Master will require a little time
to become accustomed to the conditions. The OOW must take this into account and allow
for this period when deciding to call the Master. It may be necessary to obtain the
services of the helmsman and additional lookouts. These watchkeeping tasks should
be completed by the OOW immediately they are required. The OOW should not
delay or await the arrival of the Master on the bridge. Under no circumstances is the
OOW allowed to leave the bridge.
Rough weather
The ship, in rough weather, is exposed to considerable danger and the OOW must
keep a seaman like eye on crew working on deck, enforcing prohibition if it is too
dangerous to go on deck, advising the Master accordingly. It is important to check deck
cargo and their lashings, the security of fixtures and fittings, and the general safety of the
vessel with respect to sea damage and water ingress.
Large ships in heavy seas have, on occasions, had their bow plates badly damaged
without anybody being aware of it.
The Master should be informed of significant changes of sea state. On small ships, of
course, he will feel it. As a general rule, if the revolutions drop by more than 15% call the
Master and be prepared to slow down the engines to reduce the possibility of damage, or
alter course to reduce the possibility of damage
When doing rounds after a watch, never go on an exposed deck alone in rough
weather. At night, take a torch to assess any possible damage. Use the aldis and deck lights
to check hatches and equipment forward from the bridge.
Summary
The Master will expect the OOW to:-
Comply with his orders
Inform him about progress
Call him when any unusual situation arises
Call him in accordance with instructions
Call him whenever critical situations arise
Call him as early as possible
Be prepared to brief him on his arrival by pointing out the most critical situations first
SAQ 74. What is stated in the Nautical Briefing Annex 1 relating to the issuing of standing
orders by the Master of every ship?
SAQ 36. The Nautical Briefing, Annex 1, mentions a frequent difficulty experienced by
Masters. What is this difficulty?
SAQ 11. The OOW has decided to call the Master. What will be in the mind of the OOW
prior to communicating with the Master?
SAQ 52. What should the Master expect from the OOW on arriving on the bridge?
- 75 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 11 RESPONDING TO EMERGENCIES
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will understand the difference between a problem
and an emergency, and what action each requires. You will learn about your part, as
OOW, in the ship's emergency organisation and the responses required to various
situations. The special case of Man Overboard is considered.
Introduction
The difference between a problem and an emergency is the level of urgency required
to take action. An emergency requires immediate action:-
To save life or prevent injury
To avoid damage to the ship and cargo
To avoid pollution
To assist another vessel in distress
A problem on the other hand is an incident or occur ence which requires the attention
of the OOW, but is not urgent and can be solved during the normal working of the watch.
With unmanned machinery spaces, the bridge may be the only manned centre on
board at night and although work will be carried out in the engine room during the day, the
command and control centres are probably not being used.
The OOW is likely to be the first person to know when something has gone wrong.
The OOW must therefore know what to do to anticipate and respond to emergencies and
know who is the duty engineer and how he can be contacted.
No two emergencies are the same. For example, a scavenge fire in a generator which
leads to a blackout in the ocean is an emergency for the engineers and the ship's fire
fighting team.
If the blackout occurs in a narrow channel with other traffic in the vicinity the first
requirement is to raise the alarm internally, call the Master, then to signal to other ships that
you are "Not under command". If necessary, call an anchor party to safeguard the ship from
running aground. Not only was there a fire in the engine room, but the whole ship was at
risk.
A ship with an emergency organisation will have a tried and tested response to
emergencies which makes the best use of resources on board. The emergency organisation
will consist of:-
A chain of command
Selected crew members for specific response
Special duties for selected personnel
Equipment availability
Type of response
Flexibility through training and drills
Within this framework the OOW will have a key role to play:-
Being the first point of contact to raise the alarm
Keeping a vigilant lookout to ensure the ship does not get into difficulties
whilst the command function is preoccupied with the emergency
Communicating i.e. relaying telephone and walkie-talkie messages as
appropriate
Ensuring the ship carries the correct lights and signals to describe its
condition
When the ship's crew is fully engaged in responding to the emergency the OOW
must keep an undistracted lookout to ensure the ship itself does not get into danger.
Man overboard
"It must be emphasised that in the event of a man overboard, the actions taken by
the OOW are likely to make the difference between life and death."
Conclusions
The OOW has a duty to be prepared for emergencies. To initiate appropriate action,
call for assistance, monitor the safety of the ship and take the decisions which will enable
the most effective recovery of a man overboard.
The knowledge and ability to respond come from training, practice, and
preparedness. No two ships will be the same and every OOW must be fully familiar with
their own ship.
Summary
The OOW must know:-
How to sound the general alarm
79 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
The dimensions of the ship
How to show appropriate lights and signals
How to illuminate all parts of the bridge
How to use the communication equipment
How to control the engines
How to close watertight doors
How to transfer the steering gear into manual
How to seek assistance
How to log times
How to record the ships position at a moments notice
How to think through critical situations in advance and to ask "What
would I do if a particular emergency occurred?"
SAQ 85. What would you do if you were observing a ship on radar on a collision course
when the gyro compass failure alarm sounded?
SAQ 23. You are approaching an alter course position in the company of several ships and
suddenly the steering gear fails and the ship starts swinging to port. What would you do?
SAQ 66. You are alone on the bridge at night with a pilot in an estuary and the ship has a
blackout. What would you do?
SAQ 2. You are told by the pilot to stop the engines from slow ahead when manoeuvring
in a basin. The engine does not stop. What are you going to do?
81 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
SAQ 94. What would you do if you heard MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY or PAN
PAN PAN on the VHF?
SAQ 57. What effect will the general alarm have on all the crew?
SAQ 70. What action would you take in the event of a man overboard?
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will be aware of errors which can occur
and, which if they go undetected, could lead to a serious incident. You will also
understand more about human errors and how you should conduct your activities
on watch to minimise the effect of mistakes. Finally you will understand that good
watchkeeping requires good habits which should be practised at all times.
There are thus many combinations and ways in which errors can occur, both technical
and human.
83 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Similarly, it is possible to make 'rule-based mistakes' by:-
Making a quick decision without considering the rules
Not noticing when a rule does not work
Misapplying an established rule
Tending to shortcut rules
Making errors from ambiguous information
Suffering from stress and fatigue
85 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Routines to prevent undetected errors
Routines are useful to provide a means of verifying the status of equipment and the
safety of the vessel. No individual can maintain a state of constant alertness for more than
periods of about half an hour. The OOW, therefore, should develop the technique of
allowing routines to pick up undetected errors so that full concentration can be given to
resolving collision risks, solving problems, navigating and maintaining the integrity of the
whole watch system.
Routines must be appropriate for the conditions which exist. For example position
fixing in coastal waters must be such that the ship cannot be put into danger between each fix.
Fixing in coastal waters will therefore be more frequent than deep sea. Routines must not be
followed to the exclusion of common sense and awareness of a developing situation which
must take precedence. They are, however, useful in providing a means of picking up
undetected errors and an example is given below.
ROUTINES
Maintain a situational awareness at all times
at short intervals
look out visually --- consider ship's position
check radar display --- reset alarms if fitted
at intervals not exceeding 1 hour
check compass
check engine revolutions
check heading
check general ship status
during each watch
calibrate instruments
verify compass input & alignment
verify the compass error and record it in the deviation book
check the radar performance
check auto /hand steering transfer
observe the weather and read weather reports
at watch handover
check the track/heading
read any standing orders
become familiar with the traffic situation
consider the weather
on leaving, write up the log
carry out a visual inspection of the ship
at daily intervals
obtain time checks and synchronise clocks
update draught and trim
update charts and publications
test alarms
test navigational lights and whistle
test radio equipment distress auto alarms
alternate the steering system
NOTE: ALL ROUTINES MUST BE APPROPRIATE TO THE PREVAILING
CIRCUMSTANCES AND ARE SECONDARY TO THE APPLICATION OF GOOD
SEAMANSHIP.
Taking precautions or self checking must become the normal working practice
of all OOW's as follows:-
Check workings after first results have been obtained
Formulate approximate results before working out detailed calculations
Plan ahead for example estimate, at the time of taking over the watch,
the position in which the ship will be at the end of the watch
Check the distances between fixes to verify that the speed of the vessel
is as expected
Adopt practices which are self-checking for example taking more
than two position lines with each fix
Check a parallel index with a position fix to verify that the range chosen
was not in error
Do not rely on one method of fixing when additional methods are
available
Use the echo sounder to verify the expected depth of water when
approaching land, to augment other navigational information
Verify the compass bearing of an approaching vessel, either visually or
on radar, at least three times
Use check lists
Monitor that any action taken is having the desired effect
Error chains
Accidents seldom happen as a result of a single event. They are almost always the
result of a series of acts or omissions which lead to confusion and loss of situational
awareness. The aim of error management, therefore, is to adopt practices which minimise
the risk of a one man error having disastrous consequences.
87 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Finally it is relevant to discuss the relationship between the OOW and the
Master. The Master will want to encourage the OOW to think ahead, check
workings, and verify information at the change of a watch.
Keeping alert
Every watchkeeper soon seams that time passes quickly during a busy, active coastal
watch where there is plenty to occupy the mind.
However, deep sea there is less stimulus and the body responds by becoming less
active. To counteract this effect every OOW must make a positive effort to keep alert.
Movement is the most helpful stimulus. Pacing up and down the bridge keeps the
body exercised and alert whilst also enabling the OOW to keep an all round look out and all
the equipment monitored.
Increasingly, ships are being fitted with watch alarms which require a positive setting
by the OOW at regular intervals. The more sophisticated alarms are movement sensitive and
reset themselves whenever there is movement on the bridge. This is a good design feature.
If this chapter has demonstrated the principles for good watchkeeping behavior then
it will have served its purpose.
Summary
Be aware of what can go wrong
Be aware of human mistakes
Understand how errors occur
Discipline yourself each watch to:-
Plan ahead
Set up safe routines
Check yourself
Check and monitor others
Start each watch by adopting the above principles
Avoid becoming too preoccupied with a particular instrument,
particularly radar
Maintain an outward vision and 'situational awareness'
Be prepared to admit a mistake, learn from the incident and work out
a way to avoid repeating it in future
Keep alert during ocean passages by moving around the bridge
SAQ 16. What are the main types of error that humans are prone to make?
SAQ 39. What error avoidance methods can be applied to prevent equipment errors?
SAQ 4. Why is the keeping of records necessary as a strategy for error avoidance?
SAQ 54. What could you do if you suspected that an error had been made on the chart?
89 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
SAQ 91. Would you expect to have your errors corrected? If so, why?
The rules are produced in the languages of all maritime nations to provide the
framework in which to make decisions. They have to be known in detail and their
application practised so that when a difficult situation arises the correct action can be taken.
A number of text books, computer based training material and videos have been
developed specifically for this purpose and references are provided in Annex 7.
What follows are a number of notes relating to the steering and sailing rules which continue
to cause difficulties because OOWs, by their action or inaction, lose their ability to
CONTROL THE SITUATION.
91 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
The rules referring to this are:
1. Those to be followed by vessels in sight of one another (Rules 11-17).
These divide each encounter into "the vessel which must give way" and
"the vessel which should maintain its course and speed"
2. Those for vessels in fog or reduced visibility (Rule 19) where a vessel
shall take avoiding action irrespective of the intentions of the other
vessel
3. The responsibilities between vessels such that a power driven vessel will
keep out of the way of others unable to do so (Rule 18)
4. Navigation in narrow channels and separation schemes (Rules 9 and 10).
Additionally, the rules provide valuable guidance on safe speed (Rule 6)/ how
to assess risk of collision (Rule 7) and practical advice on action to avoid collision
(Rule 8).
Some notes on collision avoidance
The rules are designed to establish a code of conduct for ships at sea so that
lights and signals are identifiable manoeuvres to avoid collision conform to a
predictable pattern; and vessels are navigated in such a way that reasonable safety
precautions are taken.
The rules apply on the high seas and all waters connected to them used by seagoing
vessels. Port and river authorities frequently add special requirements for safe
navigation such as rules of conduct in a tidal river where priority of access to a
bridge arch is given to the vessel proceeding with the current. Detailed instructions
are provided in Pilot Books, Harbour By-Laws and special notices. They should be
studied in advance of arrival and be available for reference in the chart area.
Fig. A
This is generally not possible at night when the horizon is not visible and due to the
variation in the intensity of ships lights, the brighter ones will appear closer.
A useful way of assessing the CPA from changes in compass bearing is given here:
Closest Point of Approach
Change in range
(estimated)
5 to 3 NM Twice the amount of the bearing change gives CPA in cables
3 to 2 NM The amount of bearing change gives CPA in cables
2 to 1 NM Half the amount of the bearing change gives CPA in cables
For example, if a vessel is observed bearing 045 at 3NM and then 047 at 2 NM, the
bearing has changed by 2 therefore the CPA is 2 cables.
From a major study carried out into casualties in European waters from 1978-1982
the average number of incidents per year were:-119 vessels involved in end on collisions
66 vessels involved in crossing situations
26 vessels involved in overtaking situations
COLREG Rule 14
Head-on situation
(a) When two power-driven vessels are meeting on reciprocal or nearly reciprocal
courses so as to involve risk of collision each shall alter her course to starboard so that
each shall pass on the port side of the other.
(b) Such a situation shall be deemed to exist when a vessel sees the other ahead or
nearly ahead and by night she could see the masthead lights of the other in a line or
nearly in a line and/or both sidelights and by day she observes the corresponding aspect
of the other vessel.
93 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
(c) When a vessel is in any doubt as to whether such a situation exists she shall
assume that it does exist and act accordingly.
In order to reduce the effects of random errors when plotting, several observations
must be taken at regular intervals. This is clearly illustrated in the following example by
A.N. Cockcroft from the book listed in (Annex 7).
Consider a target ten degrees on the starboard bow on a steady bearing. If bearings
are taken at a distance of 12 miles and again at 10 miles, and an error of -1 is made in the
first bearing followed by an error of +1 in the second bearing, the target would appear to
be on a parallel and opposite course, and might be expected to pass clear to starboard with a
nearest approach of over 2 miles. A reversal of these errors would make the target appear to
be crossing, and passing clear to port at a distance of over 2 miles.
When two power-driven vessels are crossing so as to involve risk of collision, the vessel
which has the other on her own starboard side shall keep out of the way and shall, if the
circumstances of the case admit, avoid crossing ahead of the other vessel.
Crossing situations
Crossing situations are relatively straightforward, and yet still contribute to a large
percentage of collisions. Giving way in good time to vessels on the starboard side, by
making a substantial alteration of course, will avoid a close quarters situation. The stand-on
vessel has more difficulty. Vessels crossing from port to starboard need careful watching to
make sure they give way in time. If they do not do so, the stand-on vessel must take action
before getting too close.
In the event that a 'give way' vessel fails to do so, the 'stand on' vessel has to consider
the time available to undertake an evasive manoeuvre. It will depend upon the time and
distance it takes to turn own ship with the time available to CPA. A long, deep, heavy
vessel will require more time to turn than a short, shallow-draught, twin screw, variable
pitch propeller vessel. For this reason officers operating highly manoeuvrable vessels
should never 'embarrass' less manoeuvrable vessels by standing on until the last moment.
Good seamanship demands that the give way vessel should do so before the stand on vessel
needs to consider taking evasive action.
Problems can arise when rounding a headland. Courses should be plotted sufficiently
far off to allow room for giving way to other traffic. Crossing Traffic Separation Schemes
(TSS) can present a dilemma. When giving way to several ships on the starboard side, it
may be necessary to consider other forms of action to prevent going against the general
flow of traffic.
95 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
COLREG Rule 13
Overtaking
(a) Notwithstanding anything contained in the Rules of Part B, Sections I and II,
any vessel overtaking any other vessel shall keep out of the way of the vessel being
overtaken.
(b) A vessel shall be deemed to be overtaking when coming up with another vessel
from a direction more than 22.5 degrees abaft her beam, that is, in such a position with
reference to the vessel she is overtaking, that at night she would be able to see only the
stemlight of that vessel but neither of her sidelights.
(c) When a vessel is in any doubt as to whether she is overtaking another, she shall
assume that this is the case and act accordingly.
(d) Any subsequent alteration of the bearing between the two vessels shall not make
the overtaking vessel a crossing vessel within the meaning of these Rules or relieve her of
the duty of keeping clear of the overtaken vessel until she is finally past and clear.
Overtaking situations
The overtaking vessel is obliged by the COLREGS to keep out of the way of the
overtaken vessel until finally clear. The overtaken vessel, however, should continuously
monitor the situation and be ready to act if something goes wrong. It may also be necessary
for the overtaken vessel to keep out of the way of other traffic. When she is being overtaken
on the starboard side this will mean either a reduction of speed or a course alteration to port.
If the vessels are on converging courses, little confusion arises when the overtaking vessel
is on the overtaken vessel's port side, as irrespective of how the overtaking vessel views the
situation, she is obliged to keep out of the way. It is when she is 'coming up' on the
starboard side that some doubt could arise as to whether she was crossing or overtaking.
COLREG 13 states that if the overtaking vessel is more than 2 points abaft the beam she
shall keep out of the way. Here again, para (c) forms the basis of decision making in
uncertain circumstances, that is if there is ANY DOUBT the overtaking ship should keep
out of the way.
Overtaking in a narrow channel requires a good deal of care. Firstly, the intention to
overtake must be communicated to the other vessel. When this has been agreed, sufficient
distance must be allowed between the two vessels to prevent interaction.
Rule 6 states:-
Every vessel shall at all times proceed at a safe speed so that she can take proper
and effective action to avoid collision and be stopped within a distance appropriate to the
prevailing circumstances and conditions.
In determining a safe speed the following factors shall be among those taken into
account:
(a) By all vessels:-
(i) the state of visibility;
(ii) the traffic density, including concentrations of fishing vessels
or any other vessels;
(iii) the manoeuvrability of the vessel with special reference to
stopping distance and turning ability in the prevailing
conditions;
(iv) at night the presence of background light such as from shore
lights or from back scatter of her own lights;
(v) the state of wind, sea and current, and the proximity of
navigational hazards;
(vi) the draught in relation to the available depth of water.
Rule 19 states:-
(a) This Rule applies to vessels not in sight of one another when navigating in or
near an area of restricted visibility.
97 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
(b) Every vessel shall proceed at a safe speed adapted to the prevailing
circumstances and conditions of restricted visibility. A power-driven vessel
shall have her engines ready for immediate manoeuvre.
(c) Every vessel shall have due regard to the prevailing circumstances and
conditions of restricted visibility when complying with the Rules of Section I
of this Part.
(d) A vessel which detects by radar alone the presence of another vessel shall
determine if a close-quarters situation is developing and/or risk of collision
exists. If so, she shall take avoiding action in ample time, provided that when
such action consists of an alteration of course, so far as possible the
following shall be avoided:
(i) an alteration of course to port for a vessel forward of the
beam, other than for a vessel being overtaken;
(ii) an alteration of course towards a vessel abeam or abaft the
beam.
(e) Except where it has been determined that a risk of collision does not exist,
every vessel which hears apparently forward of her beam the fog signal of
another vessel, or which cannot avoid a close-quarters situation with another
vessel forward of her beam, shall reduce her speed to the minimum at which
she can be kept on her course. She shall, if necessary, take all her way off
and in any event navigate with extreme caution until danger of collision is
over.
Rule 19 was added to the COLREGS at the last revision and recognises that, in
restricted visibility, radar will be used for collision avoidance. As discussed earlier in this
chapter, when vessels are in sight of one another in clear visibility there are duties placed
on both vessels. The stand on vessel should maintain its course and speed whilst the give
way vessel must avoid a close quarters situation.
In restricted visibility, when carrying out collision avoidance from radar information,
the rules state that every vessel shall take avoiding action in ample time. This means that
there is no stand on vessel and an OOW must take an initiative in every situation where
there is risk of collision. Because the OOW cannot predict what the other vessel is going to
do in restricted visibility there is more uncertainty and therefore a greater need to take
avoiding action early.
It must also be remembered that the only information the other vessel receives
following a change of course or speed is the change in the echo on the other vessel's radar.
It is therefore necessary to convey an intention by making a bold alteration of course or a
significant reduction in speed.
Limitations
The presence of other vessels and/or lack of sea room may impose limitations on the
manoeuvres which can be made, but it must be emphasised that small changes of course
and/or speed are unlikely to be detected.
99 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
The use of VHF for collision avoidance
The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea make no mention of
the use of VHF for collision avoidance. The rules have been designed to enable decisions to
be made without communication. The first requirement therefore is to know the rules and
understand how to apply them.
The use of VHF can cause confusion and uncertainty. The unwanted effects can
increase the risk of collision for three reasons. Firstly, there is no way positively to identify
the receiving ship. Secondly, even if communication is established there is no guarantee the
message will be understood and thirdly, time spent making contact and communicating
could be better used avoiding a close-quarters situation earlier. The advice of The Nautical
Institute Council is NOT to use VHF for collision avoidance unless required by local
regulations.
There are, of course, occasions when the use of VHF is helpful. For example, where
ships are operating in pilotage waters and there is direct identification with other ships;
then, messages can be passed from pilot to pilot in a common language with certainty.
However, as a general rule, if there is no positive identification of the other ship do not use
VHF for collision avoidance.
Summary
Know your obligations in clear weather
Know your obligations in reduced visibility
Know your obligations when meeting hampered vessels
Know your obligations in narrow channels
Know your obligations in a traffic separation scheme
Apply the principles of good seamanship
Call the Master as early as possible if you believe a critical situation is
developing
Ensure an effective lookout. If necessary post an additional lookout
Avoid the use of VHF for establishing risk of collision unless prescribed
for use by the coastal authorities.
SAQ 1. You are the OOW of a vessel constrained by her draught in a traffic separation
scheme in fog, and the Master has left the bridge temporarily. An unidentified vessel is
approaching so as to incur risk of collision and a potentially dangerous situation is
developing. What would you do?
SAQ 42. You are the OOW of a power driven vessel. Of which vessels must you keep out
of the way?
SAQ 80. You are OOW of a vessel in fog and you notice a vessel approaching on a
collision course 40 on the port bow. What would you do?
SAQ 60. You are on a 20 knot ship. At what distance would you expect to see the
masthead light of a small sailing vessel ahead? If the vessel was stationary, how long
would it take to travel that distance?
SAQ 72. What are the dangers of using VHF for collision avoidance?
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will have an understanding of why it is
necessary to maintain accurate records. The log book in particular will be
discussed and practical advice on filling in record hooks is given.
The sort of detail to be entered into log books the state of the sea, the course and
compass error are items which are quickly forgotten. Indeed it is desirable that they are
forgotten once recorded because it would be impossible to retain all the information for
accurate recall several years later.
If there is collision or cargo damage at sea, the ship's log will be scrutinised in detail,
as it describes the ship's activities and is a window into the efficiency of the bridge team.
The ship's log is always consulted when there are claims by the charterers that the
ship did not meet the speed standards originally contracted. Alternatively, the charterers
may be paying for fuel and will make a claim against the shipowner if the fuel consumption
is more than was stated in the charter party.
Maritime arbitrators deciding these cases can cite numerous incidents where the
ship's log has recorded adverse weather force 4 and above for distances as long as Suez to
Rotterdam!
In narrow waters time of departure will be followed with entries like:-1015 Cleared
breakwater; 1100 No4 Lt Buoy abeam to starboard; 1125 No 1 Lt Buoy 032T x 2 miles
Pilot away; 1140 Ram head 071 T x 6 miles set course 023T Full away.
Thereafter, accurate alter course times, positions and new courses will need to be
recorded. For further advice consult the Master and company guidelines. See Annex 9.
The log should then record any unusual event, for example 1115 entered fog, called
Master, radars on, engines on standby, COLREGS observed. Similarly, entries for rain,
heavy seas, and ice should be made.
The bell book or movement book should include when the ship is underway and
ceases to be underway, the name of the pilot, the name of the tugs, when they made fast and
let go, all engine movements, mooring status, use of anchors and any other unusual
occurrences like a sudden squall, shipping water, navigating in reduced visibility, reduced
speed in heavy weather and ship movement.
Many ships now have data loggers which will only keep a record of engine
movements. Invariably the paper record runs out at a critical period so the OOW should
always have a note book to jot down the movements until after manoeuvring is complete
and the recorder paper can be changed.
Lawyers have observed how many collisions occur when there was no paper in the
course recorder! Whilst this may have been "a deliberate accident", each watch the paper
should be inspected and particularly when the bridge gear is checked prior to sailing. The
same advice applies to the depth recorder.
A record of the times the radar is operational should be kept. This will provide added
evidence in the case of an incident and will also be useful for meeting the requirements for
planned maintenance.
Some ships are now being fitted with 'black boxes' which record times, speed, rudder,
the radar picture and voice communications. This considerably simplifies the OOW task of
recording.
When entering data the OOW should be guided by the following:-
The aim of collecting this data is to recreate an accurate "picture" of what happened.
The compass error should be checked each watch and on every new course. The
purpose of the record is to establish trends in deviation on various courses in different
positions.
Should the gyro(s) fail, this information will be used to set courses by the magnetic
compass. It is noteworthy that many modern coasters only have magnetic compasses.
The ship may be a designated meteorological observing ship. Filling in the weather
log requires time because instruments have to be read and observations made. This is of
secondary importance to any threatening situation and must be left to the end of the watch
if necessary.
Some ships have a variety of status reports to be recorded each watch, such as hold
temperatures and humidity. Others have heated tanks and temperature dependent cargoes
which need to be recorded each watch. Often this has to be done on deck, after the watch,
or by phoning the control room.
It is evident that more and more record keeping requirements are being put on ships,
whilst their watchkeeping manning is diminishing. Record keeping can occupy a
considerable time. The OOW must plan for this, aiming to do it little and often whilst never
allowing it to become a distraction from the main task which is to ensure the safe
conduct of the vessel.
Summary
Have the log book open in a convenient position and fill it in little and
often
In critical situations note times and priorities in a note book, to be
entered into the log at the end of the watch
Write neatly and correct properly. Do not rub out or erase
Ensure all logs and data loggers have paper and ink
Keep the compass error book up to date
Postpone the general record keeping until after critical situations or
until relieved
SAQ 49. Faced with heavy traffic and difficult navigation, how would you write up the
log?
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will appreciate that whilst an automated
bridge will assist in carrying out routine functions, you need to understand the
design capabilities and limitations of the system, to monitor it effectively, and to
plan ahead to verify that the ship is not subject to systems induced errors.
Levels of automation
Until recently, developments have taken place to improve the performance of
specialised items of bridge equipment. For example, target plotting on radar has been done
by computers and the new radars provide daylight viewing.
Similarly, improvements have been made in the design of autopilots, some with
predictive systems incorporated. Navigational systems based upon GPS include route
planning with way points and a computational capability to show distance off track, new
course to steer and distances to go to alter course positions.
Engine room control and monitoring equipment has been put on the bridge of many
ships and the OOW can monitor speed, consumption, temperatures and many other
parameters.
Some ships on dedicated short runs have the chart interfaced on the radar. There are
other systems where the radar is superimposed on the chart.
The next major development is likely to be the Electronic Chart Display and
Information System (ECDIS) which will be stored in the bridge computer.
After that it is likely that navigational systems will be developed in three dimensions
with the information from the depth recorder or sonar making sure that the ship's under keel
clearance is monitored at all times whilst GPS maintains position accuracy at sea.
With reduced manning, there has been a tendency to put communication equipment
on the bridge including VHF, SatComs and GMDSS equipment, together with fax and
telex.
As with all highly automated equipment there are two distinct phases. First, when the
equipment is fully functional and secondly when there is a fault.
Aim
The primary aim of the OOW must be to ensure the ship reaches its destination in a
safe and timely manner. In do so doing, the ship should never be put into a situation of
uncontrollable risk.
Means
This study guide is based on the understanding that the OOW has a proper knowledge
of navigation, of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea and has
some bridge experience. Where this is not so, additional references are supplied in Annex 7.
From this background the guide demonstrates HOW to become more proficient
through the application of four principles and WHY they are necessary. They can be
summarised as follows:-
1. Checking
equipment
errors
yourself
others
2. Monitoring
the movement of instruments in response to commands
the navigation of the pilot
the activities of the Master when he is in control of the ship
the weather and the sea state
the activities of the crew
3. Controlling
safe navigation
collision avoidance
the threat, by deciding priorities
the response, by calling for assistance when needed
4. Recording
log books
record books
error books
"Bridge watchkeeping is the single most important activity conducted at sea. Upon the
watchkeeper's diligence rests the security of the ship and all who sail on board.
Project Co-ordinator
Supplement to
SEAWAYS
The Journal of The Nautical Institute
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
The Nautical Institute Council
FOREWORD
THE AIM of bridge watchkeeping is to ensure the safe, timely departure, transit and arrival of ships. It is the
underlying discipline of the nautical profession. Nobody else but ourselves has this responsibility and it is up to us
to make sure that a ship is never put into a situation of uncontrollable risk. Bridge watchkeeping when it is well
organised and properly conducted can give the impression that it is simply a matter of routine. This, however,
belies the depth of knowledge, training, management, and command skills which go towards effective practices.
Like all human endeavour, the intention to set good bridge watchkeeping standards has to start at the topthat
is the chairman of the company or the commander-in-chief. If they are in the shipping business they must give
support to the process which most protects their assets. It is foolhardy and irresponsible not to.
Secondly, the marine managers have an obligation to formulate viable policies to provide competent personnel
and adequate navigational support to their ships. Thirdly, the masters and commanding officers have to take the
initiative to ensure that bridge watchkeeping practices and procedures are maintained in accordance with their
requirements.
There is no alternative to this chain of command, for it must be remembered that a ship is more than private
property. The actions or inactions of those on board affect other people. In this sense the ship is most definitely
acting in the public interest. The stranding which leads to pollution or the collision which causes loss of life and
damage to cargo, are matters of public concern. Every maritime casualty shames our profession and we must find
a positive response to reverse the decline in standards which members have identified to be taking place at sea
today.
It is for this reason that the Council of The Nautical Institute has provided their nautical briefing, to reaffirm the
essential nature of good watchkeeping practices. In so doing, it has produced a document directed to senior ships'
staff but for discussion in the board room and the officers' mess.
There can be no doubt that the predominant response from flag States, port States and management to the
impact of marine accidents has been towards more legislation, inspection and penalties. However, I must
emphasise that bad practices cannot be improved by regulations alone.
The process starts at the other end with a commitment to improving professionalism both ashore and afloat by
providing support and motivation, which we all know demands considerable energy. It is then necessary to correct
bad practices and give recognition to good performance. The expanded aim must now be 'to encourage pride in
the safe and timely departure, transit and arrival of ships' and this is something to which we can all contribute.
Captain P. Boyle, FNI, President, The Nautical Institute; April 1993.
General requirements
1. Parties shall direct the attention of shipowners, ship operators, masters and watchkeeping
personnel to the following principles which shall be observed to ensure that a safe navigational
watch is maintained at all times.
The effective implementation of safe navigational be conducted, the way charts and nautical publications are
practices requires a co-ordinated approach between the to be kept up to date, the procedures to be followed for
company and those on board. This is established through ensuring that essential navigational equipment is available,
formal communication, company instructions and master's calibrated and supported with manuals in the language of
standing orders, and informal support through the officers who have to use them. Additionally the company
superintendence and briefings. will require the proper keeping of records and this must be
This section is further reinforced by the IMO Guidelines specified to include log books, masters standing orders,
for the Management of Safe Ship Operation and Pollution supplementary orders, and the provision of essential
Prevention which requires companies to provide a safety navigational warnings and information.
and environmental policy. It is the company's responsibility to ensure that all
Specifically as part of this, the navigational policy must personnel are properly trained for the tasks they are
specify: expected to perform and a reporting system should be used
(i) Responsibilities for navigation and the allocation of to identify training needs.
watchkeeping duties. It is usual for a company's instructions to lay down the
(ii) The bridge procedures to be followed (which may practices and procedures which are to be followed
embrace the provisions of The Bridge Procedure throughout the fleet and it should be common practice to
Guide121 issued by the International Chamber of supply general standing orders so that masters need only
Shipping). amend them in writing to suit the particular circumstances of
(iii) Bridge administration. the ship and the voyage.
The company has the responsibility to provide competent When considering bridge manning, companies must
personnel who can communicate with each other and speak ensure that bridge design, equipment, systems, personnel,
maritime English for bridge watchkeeping duties. There will procedures and ergonomics are properly evaluated131.
remain doubts unless the company specifies the way
passage planning is to
Masters' responsibilities
2. The master of every ship is bound to ensure that watchkeeping arrangements are adequate for
maintaining a safe navigational watch. Under the master's general direction, the officers of the watch
are responsible for navigating the ship safely during their periods of duty when they will be
particularly concerned with avoiding collision and stranding.
3. The basic principles, including but not limited to the following, shall be taken into account on all ships.
To implement the provisions of this section the master of each navigating officer prior to the commencement of the
every ship is required to issue standing orders in writing to be voyage.
formally acknowledged and signed by Time has to be made available to see each navigating
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 114
officer and discuss the provisions of the standing orders in used as they can lead to confusion and differences of
detail to ensure that they are properly understood and will be opinion.
acted upon. There is a clear requirement for all newly-joined Instead clear statements amplifying relevant parts of the
officers to be made familiar with the bridge equipment, standing orders should be used and special requirements
company instructions and master's standing orders before spelt out precisely e.g. 'Call me when the vessel crosses
being permitted to take a watch. A frequent difficulty is the 150 metre line', 'Call me if any ship is to pass with a CPA
convincing the officer about the need to call the master of less than 2 miles'.
when required. This may require firm follow-up action. This approach will remove any inherent difference of
Standing orders should cover: opinion in the written orders. Masters should at all times
(i) A general statement that the safety of the ship must take encourage watchkeepers to call them if assistance is
precedence. No consideration of programme needed or when they have doubts about intentions or
convenience or previous instructions justify taking any developing situations.
risk which may place the ship in danger. Once the written orders have been discussed, masters
(ii) Measures to be taken before sailing and arrival: can then introduce a number of measures to monitor
Testing the gear, advising the engineroom. compliance. These should include positive reporting
(iii) Activities and routines to be followed at sea: concerning the availability and listing of equipment; accurate
General navigational standards expected. and up-to-date record keeping which can be verified;
Taking over the watch. briefings concerning the passage plan and expected
Checking instruments. navigational problems and concerns.
Keeping logs and records. At sea, the marking of estimated positions on the chart
provide an opportunity for the master to enter into a dialogue
Use of check lists. with the watchkeeping officer concerning allowances and
Use of navigational equipment. errors. The exercise also encourages watchkeeping officers
Keeping an effective lookout. to think ahead, and provides an opportunity to give
When to call the master. encouragement for accurate navigation.
Changing from hand to automatic steering. Similarly with collision avoidance, the master can discuss
Use of engines. particular situations or provide scenarios to evaluate
Emergencies. 'whatever would happen if . . . ?' This technique can be used
Compliance with the ColRegs. to prepare for emergencies and encourage defensive
What to do in reduced visibility. navigational and collision avoidance practices to minimise
Standards of navigation to be followed. risk.
Clear instructions on use of VHF and that it should not Checklists should be used where appropriate and the
normally be used for collision avoidance. procedures for their use be included in masters standing
Use of up-to-date charts and publications and orders. They can be useful when, for example, carrying out
withdrawal of obsolete publications. pre-sailing tests or setting up instrumentation. The aviation
Special communication requirements. industry uses the double-check method whereby one officer
(iv) Activities and routines to be followed at anchor: reads out the item to be checked and the second officer
Checking the position. gives the status. Which ever system is used, the appropriate
Ensuring appropriate navigation lights, shapes and officer should sign the check-list and be accountable to the
sound signals. master when complete, and when deficiences are found.
Being prepared to warn other ships passing too Examples of check lists are given in the /CS Bridge
closely. Procedure Guide.
Establish the position of the anchor at the time it was The master's management responsibilities
let go and the swing circle. Less easy to define but implied in this section is the
Tell the master if a ship anchors too closely and requirement for masters to plan ahead, delegate, control the
be prepared to move. navigation of the vessel, lead and motivate all bridge
(v) Activities and routines to be followed in port: personnel, optimise the use of resources, encourage team
Provide safe access. work, and support training.
Keep ship alongside and mooring ropes firm. Management can be broken down into four concepts:'5'
Call assistance if needed. 1 Clarity of purpose.
Maintain security. 2 Delegation of authority.
(vi) Activities and routines to be followed when taking or 3 Motivation.
disembarking a pilot: 4 Economy of effort.
Provision of pilot gear. Economics demand a cost effective passage time but
Those who must be in attendance. safety demands that corners should not be cut. Clarity of
Information to be given to the pilot. purpose implies preparing for the future and obtaining the
Navigation with the pilot on board. best information available to enable decisions to be made
In addition to these general items, specific sections will so that a proper appraisal can be made without
need to be added for special circumstances.141 At night the compromising safety standards.
master must write in the night order book specifically what Delegation is by no means straightforward. Some
he expects of the watchkeeping officer(s). These orders confusion exists in traditional roles and relationships on
must be signed by each officer when going on watch. board and they can vary from ship to ship. The master
Statements like 'when in doubt call me' or 'call me if any
vessel approaches too closely' should never be
115 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
is responsible for the safe navigation of the vessel and he back-up bridge personnel in fog, or where there is high
delegates authority to the officer of the watch who may traffic density. Although planning is exacting, being prepared
delegate part of that authority to a lookout. In delegating saves time and effort in the long term.
authority to an officer the master must satisfy himself that Putting management into practical questions can also
the tasks and resources have been assigned to that person help create clarity of purpose.
and that a means of monitoring performance are also put in The present: Have I got the right information coming
place. forward so that I can plan ahead and harmonise activities
Motivation is not only difficult to define but depends upon on board?
personality, conditions, communications and rewards. It is The future: Have I anticipated and planned for the future
necessary to be realistic in what can be achieved in a given so that I can optimise the resources at my disposal?
situation. However, some general guidance can be given. In Relationship with the company: Are my actions supporting
the first instance it is the company's management which is the company's objectives? Do I need clarification on
responsible for creating the conditions which will encourage specific issues?
motivation in seagoing personnel. The master is then able to Relationships with the crew: Does everybody know the
apply his energy to this all important aspect of ship ships' itinerary? Are all crew members informed of
management without having to resort to apologetic progress? Do all on board know what is expected of
compromise. them?
Secondly, it is always easier to motivate people by To improve management performance The Nautical
involving them when planning ahead rather than only Institute administers a series of management modules to be
complaining if jobs have not been done properly. followed through distance learning. Each module is laid out
Economy of effort implies that the master uses the in such a way that the purpose is explained and individuals
resources available to the best advantage. Typically 80 per are asked to relate the new skills acquired to their own work
cent of a voyage will be in areas of low activity and 20 per situation. Relevant modules are 'Setting Objectives and
cent in areas of high activity. These ratios are reversed for Planning; Controlling;
vessels in the coastal trades. Voyage planning must
Delegating; and Leading and Motivating Staff'16'.
therefore take into account the need for
Watch arrangements
4. (a) The composition of the watch shall at all times be adequate and appropriate to the prevailing
circumstances and conditions and shall take into account the need for maintaining a proper
lookout.
(b) When deciding the composition of the watch on the bridge which may include appropriate
deck ratings, the following factors, inter alia, shall be taken into account:
(i) At no time shall the bridge be left unattended;
(ii) Weather conditions, visibility and whether there is daylight or darkness;
(iii) Proximity of navigational hazards which may make it necessary for the officer in charge of the
watch to carry out additional navigational duties;
(iv) Use and operational condition of navigational aids such as radar or electronic position-
indicating devices and any other equipment affecting the safe navigation of the ship;
(v) Whether the ship is fitted with automatic steering;
(vi) Any unusual demands on the navigational watch that may arise as a result of special
operational circumstances.
This clear unambiguous section needs little further put upon crew for maintenance, hatch cleaning, tank
comment and provides practical guidelines for the master washing and so on. However, the overriding principle must
to decide on appropriate bridge manning. apply that the safe navigation of the vessel must have
It is appreciated that there are many other demands precedence over other routine operations.
Navigational equipment
7 (a) The officer of the watch shall make the most effective use of all navigational equipment at his
disposal.
(b) When using radar, the officer of the watch shall bear in mind the necessity to comply at all times
with the provisions on the use of radar contained in the applicable regulations for preventing
collision at sea.
(c) In cases of need the officer of the watch shall not hesitate to use the helm, engines and sound
signalling apparatus.
The fix interval should be such that the vessel can not be set
Passage planning is to be the subject of a further Nautical appreciably off track or into danger by the anticipated effects of
Briefing and so a few notes only are included. The plan tidal stream, wind or currents in the period between successive
needs to be drawn up from berth to berth, including pilotage fixes. As the ship approaches confined waters the fix interval
waters, and prior to sailing will need to be updated from the becomes shorter. When appropriate navigational marks have
latest navigational warnings. been identified pilotage techniques should be used.
A well prepared plan can help to remove doubts about the A routine which requires considerable attention is the
most appropriate action to take. For example, how far is it changing of charts, the transfer of position and the relationship
possible to deviate from the track without exceeding the between scale and navigational instruments in use.
safety margins? What is the initial course to steer allowing for
set and drift? In the event of an emergency or a black out, Checking
how far can the ship drift safely before dropping the anchor? Although not specifically stated in the Principles, checking is an
What is the best time to arrive at the next port? On what VHF essential part of navigational practice. The /CS Guide states that
channel is the next pilot station? 'in order to achieve a sound and efficient bridge organisation
Whatever the situation it must be made explicitly clear to procedures should be established to minimise the risk that an
all watchkeepers that the keeping of the planned schedule is error made by one person will have disastrous and inevitable
of secondary importance to the safe navigation of the ship. consequences.' It must become normal practice to check one's
own workings and the workings of others.
Monitoring Checking starts with training and when trainees do something
The bridge watchkeeper has the responsibility to ensure wrong, they should be asked to resubmit the correct working.
the safe conduct of the ship along the planned track. This is This enables the exercise to end on a positive note and also
achieved through monitoring and directing the navigation of provides an occasion to demonstrate the value of checking.
the ship in relation to the availability of safe water and the The officer laying off tracks on the chart should expect to have
movement of other vessels. them checked; the master who makes an unscheduled alteration
Track control in confined waters can be achieved through of course should expect to be checked and queried; the pilot's
pilotage techniques which include the use of headmarks, helm orders need to be verified and checked; engine movements
transits and radar parallel index methods. need to be checked against revolutions; and instrument errors
The use of parallel index techniques enable cross-track need to be checked regularly and the results recorded to
error to be monitored from the radar work station. This ascertain trends.
technique has particular value in times of reduced visibility, Radar can become detuned and the heading marker can
but needs to be practised and applied where appropriate become misaligned. Instruments like radar which rely on a
radar conspicuous targets are available. variety of sensors for input will also be affected by gyro errors,
Whenever a master or officer of the watch detects that the log errors and calibration errors. Radio navigation aids will be
vessel is deviating from the track it is essential to question affected by propagation errors and may be affected by a
the possible cause. This is most likely to be due to set, wind disruption in power supplies.
and current, but it may be due to an instrument error, When fixing the ship, additional errors can occur through the
degradation of the radar, misalignment of the heading wrong identification of a landmark and through making a mistake
marker or other related cause. when transposing radar or
The need to confirm the ship's position frequently is a 117 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
statement which needs further examination. A fix should be
taken whenever the vessel completes a turn on to a new
track and at regular intervals thereafter.
bearing information onto the chart. Whenever possible three be available to back up all electronic equipment.
bearings should be used and a range and bearing taken Implicit in the use of GPS is the mapping arrangement
from the radar should be confirmed by at least an extra used by the satellite and the position of the land as provided
bearing or an extra range. on the chart. It is essential to verify the ship's position
Whenever there is any doubt, additional information against a known land datum before using Satnav in
should be sought from the depth recorder and other aids. conjunction with supporting methods for coastal navigation.
Many strandings could have been averted if information from Navigational systems are sometimes linked to a system
the depth recorder had been available. of way points through the automatic pilot. It is essential that
the co-ordinates of way points are double checked and that
Increasingly the Global Positioning System (GPS) is being the track between way points is checked from the chart.
adopted as the primary navigational source on board. This Alteration of course must in all circumstances be positively
system has global coverage 24 hours a day with a position accepted by the watchkeeping officer, who must verify that
update approximately every second and a claimed accuracy the alteration is safe and that there are no other ships likely
of 100 metres. By using differential GPS involving a land- to be affected in the vicinity.
based receiver/transmitter it is possible to obtain accuracies Frequent checks should be made between bridge
of 6-7 metres. However, errors can occur both in compasses and an external verification of compass errors
transmission propogation and reception and the simplicity of through an azimuth or transit should be made once a watch.
the readout should not be taken as infallible. Also, satellite The results should be properly recorded to detect any error
transmissions are sometimes interfered with. Alternative tendencies.
navigational practices must
Navigational duties and responsibilities 8 (a) The
officer in charge of the watch shall:
(i) Keep his watch on the bridge which he shall in no circumstances leave until properly
relieved;
(ii) Continue to be responsible for the safe navigation of the ship, despite the presence of the
master on the bridge, until the master informs him specifically that he has assumed that
responsibility and this is mutually understood;
(iii) Notify the master when in any doubt as to what action to take in the interest of safety;
(iv) Not hand over the watch to the relieving officer if he has reason to believe that the latter
is obviously not capable of carrying out his duties effectively, in which case he shall
notify the master accordingly.
(b) On taking over the watch the relieving officer shall satisfy himself as to the ship's estimated or true
position and confirm its intended track, course and speed and shall note any dangers to
navigation expected to be encountered during his watch.
(c) A proper record shall be kept of the movements and activities during the watch relating to the
navigation of the ship.
Traditionally the master has 'taken over' the watch when a status report concerning the ship and engines, work being
approaching 'difficult' situations. However, provided the carried out and so on. To avoid misunderstanding any
vessel is not in immediate danger, a good case can be course alterations should be completed before handing over.
argued for the master to oversee the situation whilst leaving At night the relieving officer should have time to adapt to
the watchkeeping officer to deal with it. This allows the night time vision and at all times he should make a point of
master to take a broader view and it is easier for him to checking the information and status supplied by the officer
question the activities of the watchkeeping officer than it is being relieved. In this way the change of watch can be
for the watchkeeping officer to question the master. considered as an act of verification rather than as an act of
A junior officer will tend to be reluctant to question the discontinuity.
master's actions. So the master acting in a supporting role Matters relating to the keeping of records are mentioned
can strengthen the bridge team, add to safety and give the elsewhere but it can be noted in 8(b) 'the relieving officer
watchkeeping officer more confidence. shall satisfy himself as to the ship's estimated or true
The master must make it clear in unambiguous language position and confirm its intended track, course and speed'.
when he is taking over the control of the ship and when he is But in 6(b) it states that 'the course steered, position and
handing it back. speed shall be checked at sufficiently frequent intervals, ...
A master should encourage the watchkeeping officer to to ensure the ship follows the planned course'.
give him a brief description of his intended actions. Under Here is just one example of how traditional words assume
these circumstances the master can consider the intentions, a variety of meanings which can become confusing because
can amend them and still allow the watchkeeping officer to of their multiple interpretations. To avoid confusion the
keep the initiative and implement the appropriate Council of The Nautical Institute defined navigational
manoeuvres. terms17'.
The importance of handing over the watch to ensure Track is the path followed or to be followed between one
continuity requires commitment by both the relieved and position and another.
relieving officer. The officer being relieved should have a
handover position on the chart, a clear picture of traffic and Course is the intended heading as related to the compass.
hazards in the area, verified equipment, and
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 118
Lookout
9. In addition to maintaining a proper lookout for the purpose of fully appraising the situation and the
risk of collision, stranding and other dangers to navigation, the duties of lookout shall include the
detection of ships or aircraft in distress, shipwrecked persons, wrecks and debris. In maintaining a
lookout the following shall be observed:
(a) The lookout must be able to give full attention to the keeping of a proper lookout and no other
duties shall be undertaken or assigned which could interfere with that task.
(b) The duties of lookout and helmsman are separate and the helmsman shall not be considered to be
the lookout while steering, except in small ships where an unobstructed all-round view is provided
at the steering position and there is no impairment of night vision or other impediment to the
keeping of a proper lookout. The officer in charge of the watch may be the sole lookout in daylight
provided that on each such occasion:
(i) The situation has been carefully assessed and it has been established without doubt that it is
safe to do so;
(ii) Full account has been taken of all relevant factors including, but not limited to:
State of weather.
Visibility.
Traffic density.
Proximity of danger to navigation.
The attention necessary when navigating in or near traffic/separation schemes;
(iii) Assistance is immediately available to be summoned to the bridge when any change in the
situation so requires.
An analysis of the reports received by the Institute over demands a balanced assessment between outside view,
the past 20 years indicates that in open waters the radar and chart.
predominant cause of collision was failure to maintain a Experienced watchkeepers are constantly seeking to
proper lookout. In some cases the ships, fishing vessels or verify the situation, and part of the reason for this is that it is
yachts were not seen or even detected at all and in other not possible to predict with certainty what other vessels are
cases they were detected too late to avoid a close-quarters going to do based upon past observations.
situation. When conducting a visual lookout, the eye is most likely
Masters must ensure that watchkeeping officers to detect new targets when they break the line of the
understand that the keeping of a vigilant lookout is horizon. Targets can also be obscured in blind arcs and
essential. unless the bridge is particularly well designed the
The use of radar and ARPA as aids to collision avoidance watchkeeping officer will need to move to obtain a clear
particularly in poor visibility must not detract from the view of the surrounding sea.
requirement that a visual lookout is kept. The following table provides a comparison between the
To ascertain risk of collision it is necessary to establish merits of visual and radar observation which can be used
whether or not the compass bearing is changing. At sea when deciding look-out priorities. It must not be forgotten
ships move relative to each other but when navigating, the that the watchkeeping officer also has to be vigilant
watchkeeping officer also has to be aware of how the ship is concerning activities onboard and the effect of weather on
moving relative to the ground. the ship, crew and equipment.
Watchkeeping and maintaining a proper lookout
TABLE I
ADVANTAGES OF THE EYE ADVANTAGES OF RADAR
Reliable Generally reliable
Sensitive to colour Does not get tired
Can assess aspect Accurate range information
Can identity small targets Stable bearing platform
Can see light configurations Simplifies the overview
Can assess ship types Can penetrate fog
Can identify conspicuous marks Better penetration in rain and snow
Can identify flashing lights Useful for predictive collision avoidance
Has better discrimination Predictive navigation (parallel index)
Can see changing weather patterns Can have longer range (height of aerial)
Can see effect of sea on vessel Can have low down port approach aerial to minimise clutter
Not affected by blind arcs (if observer moves)
LIMITATIONS OF RADAR
LIMITATIONS OF THE EYE Poor at assessing Misses small targets
distance (worse at night) Subject to night Can miss substantial targets in clutter
adaptation Degradation through glare (worse Can de-tune
with age) Gets tired searching Prone to inherent and input errors
Binoculars needed for early identification Targets need transponders for positive identification
(particularly on high speed vessels) Is prone to interference
Cannot discriminate as well as the eye
Cannot identify ship types or operations
Cannot assess aspect immediately
Bearings less accurate than compass
119 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
When a lookout is posted the watchkeeping officer should encouraged to take an interest in the situation and develop
brief him so that he will be involved and more effective lookout practices.
Introduction
1. This Recommendation contains operational guidance of general application for officers in
charge of a navigational watch, which masters are expected to supplement as appropriate. 11 is
essential that officers of the watch appreciate that the efficient performance of their duties is
necessary in the interests of the safety of life and property at sea and the prevention of pollution of
the marine environment.
General
2. The officer of the watch is the master's representative and his primary responsibility at all times
is the safe navigation of the ship. He should at all times comply with the applicable regulations for
preventing collisions at sea (see also paragraphs 22 and 23).
3. It is of special importance that at all times the officer of the watch ensures that an efficient
lookout is maintained. In a ship with a separate chart room the officer of the watch may visit the
chart room, when essential, for a short period for the necessary performance of his navigational
duties, but he should previously satisfy himself that it is safe to do so and ensure that an efficient
lookout is maintained.
4. The officer of the watch should bear in mind that the engines are at his disposal and he should
not hesitate to use them in case of need. However, timely notice of intended variations of engine
speed should be given where possible. He should also know the handling characteristics of his ship,
including its stopping distance, and should appreciate that other ships may have different handling
characteristics.
5. The officer of the watch should also bear in mind that the sound signalling apparatus is at his
disposal and he should not hesitate to use it in accordance with the applicable regulations for
preventing collisions at sea.
Automatic Pilot
11. The officer of the watch should bear in mind the necessity to comply at all times with the
requirements of Regulation 19, Chapter V of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at
Sea, 1974. He should take into account the need to station the helmsman and to put the steering into
manual control in good time to allow any potentially hazardous situation to be dealt with in a safe
manner. With a ship under automatic steering it is highly dangerous to allow a situation to develop to
the point where the officer of the watch is without assistance and has to break the continuity of the
lookout in order to take emergency action. The changeover from automatic to manual steering and
vice-versa should be made by, or under the supervision of, a responsible officer.
Radar
14. The officer of the watch should use the radar when appropriate and whenever restricted
visibility is encountered or expected, and at all times in congested waters having due regard to its
limitations.
15. Whenever radar is in use, the officer of the watch should select an appropriate range scale,
observe the display carefully and plot effectively.
16. The officer of the watch should ensure that range scales employed are changed at sufficiently
frequent intervals so that echoes are detected as early as possible.
17. It should be borne in mind that small or poor echoes may escape detection.
18. The officer of the watch should ensure that plotting or systematic analysis is commenced in
ample time.
19. In clear weather, whenever possible, the officer of the watch should carry out radar practice.
Clear weather
22. The officer of the watch should take frequent and accurate compass bearings of approaching
ships as a means of early detection of risk of collision; such risk may sometimes exist even when an
appreciable bearing change is evident, particularly when approaching a very large ship or a tow or
when approaching a ship at close range. He should also take early and positive action in compliance
with the applicable regulations for preventing collisions at sea and subsequently check that such
action is having the desired effect.
Restricted visibility
23. When restricted visibility is encountered or expected, the first responsibility of the officer of the
watch is to comply with the relevant rules of the applicable regulations for preventing collisions at
sea, with particular regard to the sounding of fog signals, proceeding at a safe speed and having the
engines ready for immediate manoeuvres. In addition, he should;
(a) inform the master (see paragraph 24);
(b) post a proper lookout and helmsman and, in congested waters, revert to hand steering
immediately;
(c) exhibit navigation lights;
(d) operate and use the radar.
It is important that the officer of the watch should know the handling characteristics of his ship,
including its stopping distance, and should appreciate that other ships may have different handling
characteristics.
Watchkeeping personnel
26. The officer of the watch should give watchkeeping personnel all appropriate instructions and
information which will ensure the keeping of a safe watch including an appropriate lookout.
Ship at anchor
27. If the master considers it necessary, a continuous navigational watch should be
*Squat: The decrease in clearance beneath the ship which occurs when the ship moves through the
water and is caused both by bodily sinkage and by change of trim. The effect is
accentuated in shallow water and is reduced with a reduction in ship's speed.
Supplement to
SEAWAYS
PASSAGE PLANNING
The Nautical Institute Council
FOREWORD
PASSAGE PLANNING is a way of minimising the risk of navigational errors. With tighter schedules, reduced manning,
faster turn-rounds and more intense operations, the requirement for pre-planning becomes even more necessary.
The aim of passage planning is to prepare for the navigation of a ship so that the intended passage can be
executed from berth to berth in a safe manner in respect of both the vessel and protection of the environment, as well
as ensuring positive control of the vessel at all times. Without planning, the time to process essential information may
not be available at critical times when the navigator is occupied confirming landmarks, altering course, avoiding traffic
and carrying out other bridge duties such as communications. Under these circumstances mistakes can be made and
errors go undetected.
A particular benefit of planning is that it enables the appropriate navigational methods to be used at different
phases of the voyage. In narrow or confined waters it becomes more important to concentrate on forward-looking
pilotage techniques. However, before they can be applied it is necessary to provide detailed guidance in advance.
Passage planning can be time consuming and therefore carries a cost in terms of human resources, expertise and
supporting administration.
The value of passage planning is difficult to quantify. If it is done well, and the ship's navigation is consistently
reliable, then there is no cost penalty against which to assess its relative merits to the company. However, if it is not
practised, the costs of navigational incidents can be significant.
Some guidance is provided in the STCW Convention concerning 'Basic Principles to be Observed in Keeping a
Navigational Watch' which states that:
'The intended voyage shall be planned in advance taking into consideration all pertinent
information and any course laid down should be checked before the voyage commences'.
However, this statement needs further amplification if it is to be meaningful. This briefing, therefore, is designed to
focus on the principles of passage planning and the plan's
execution, and to provide a document which can be discussed both at sea and ashore to encourage a
professional commitment.
Captain LA. Holder, ExC, MPhil, FNI, FRIN, FCIT, President, The Nautical Institute, January 1994.
131 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
plan must take into account the expected traffic flow and be
PASSAGE PLANNING flexible enough to allow for collision avoidance in line with
the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at
Aim Sea.
THE AIM of this briefing is to demonstrate to governments,
marine management, masters, pilots and deck officers that
passage planning from berth to berth is an essential TABLE 1
navigational discipline and that it must be supported, Information sources for passage planning
encouraged and applied as part of bridge team include:
management. 1. Chart catalogue.
2. Navigational charts.
Scope 3. Ocean passages for the world.
This Nautical Institute briefing outlines the principles of
berth-to-berth passage planning. It covers the subject within 4. Routeing charts, pilot charts and IMO Ship's
the context of coastal navigation; Routeing.
however, ocean passages must also be planned in detail. It 5. Sailing directions and pilot books.
assumes a knowledge of navigation and the use, and 6. Light lists.
limitations, of radar and other aids to navigation.
7. Tide tables.
Planning 8. Tidal stream atlases.
The purpose of passage planning is to ensure positive 9. Notices to Mariners (Navareas, Hydrolants,
control over the safe navigation of the ship at all times. To Hydropacs).
achieve this purpose, the ship's track to be made good, once 10. Radio signal information (including VTS and
it has been finally put on to the chart, will become the focus pilot service).
of attention.
For ferries, liners and other vessels engaged on regular
11. Climatic information, meteorological and
passages, the passage plan will have been established for oceanographic data. Weather, seastate and
normal operating conditions and only the variable items like tee forecasts.
weather and tidal information will need to be updated. If, 12. Leadline chart.
however, the vessel changes route or the officers change, 13. Distance tables.
then thorough briefings will need to take place.
For the majority of ships visiting different ports, the 14. Electronic navigational systems information.
process of planning must be given due consideration. Early 15. Radio and local warnings.
advice about an intended voyage may come from a variety 16. Owner's and other unpublished sources.
of sources and frequently the master will need to provide a 17. Manoeuvring data.
voyage itinerary quickly, covering distances, times and 18. Personal experience.
restrictions for provisional cargo bookings. Once the
intended voyage has been confirmed, planning will 19. Mariner's Handbook.
commence in detail, The master should discuss an outline 20. Guide to Port Entry.
route with the navigation officer. The appraisal process will
then take place, during which all relevant information will be
collected from sources such as those listed in Table 1, while
bearing in mind those parameters listed in Table 2. TABLE 2.
This information will then be used in preparing the plan, Vessel's status reports needed for passage
along with guidance from the master concerning, for planning include:
example, the clearing distances which he considers 1. Main propulsion system.
appropriate. The navigating officer will ensure that the ship 2. Steering gear.
can always be navigated in safe waters, that critical parts of
the voyage are identified, voyage timings are checked and 3. Navigational equipment.
that the appropriate navigational techniques required for 4. Anchors.
each part of the voyage are highlighted. It has to be stressed 5. Thrusters.
that the plan must be complete, from berth to berth. The 6. Auxiliaries.
plan must also include those parts of the voyage during
which it is expected that a pilot will be on board.
7. Trim and draught of vessel and air draught.
The construction of a passage plan encourages all those 8. Transverse stability.
concerned to think ahead, to foresee potential problems and 9. The availability of manpower.
plan a strategy to minimise risk. Contingency plans must be
made, such as identifying deep-water escape routes from
turns, possible alternative routes and emergency Preparing the plan
anchorages. The When preparing the plan the navigating officer will need to
take account of the following
Adequate underkeel clearance at all times, including
allowances for squat, pitch, roll, swell, predicted tidal
height and possible increase of draught due to heel and
trim.
Safe distances off dangers, allowing for weather, tidal
stream, anticipated traffic, reliability of survey data,
availability of safe water and navigational systems in use.
Alter-course positions which can be monitored conveniently
by means of radar or by visual bearings.
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 132
Management of chart changes, which should not occur at ensure that all watchkeeping officers are properly briefed;
critical points of the passage. and that the plan is kept amended and up to date for the
Traffic Separation Schemes, and the requirements of Rule intended passage.
10.
Predicted tidal information, leading to the pre-working of
allowances for set. Tidal constraints limiting ETD/ETA at Monitoring the passage plan
locks, etc. It is common practice on merchant ships to fix the ship's
Visibility of lights, rising/dipping distances, arcs and colours position and then make an allowance for set and drift
of light sectors. depending upon offset from the previous fix. This approach
Safe speeds along the route, leading to a speed plan, and to navigation is REACTIVE, being based upon past
an ETA plan, making due allowance for possible reduced observations. If either of these is wrong, then any
visibility. A plan for reducing speed under control should be predictions using them will be erroneous. When using fixes
considered. in this way, it is usually better to make the fixes at regular
Selection of depths for comparison with the echo-sounder, intervals. This enables a simple check to be made with
taking note of the predicted height of tide. respect to speed. It also helps the quick and effective
Reporting points, VHF frequencies, VTS requirements, calculation of short-term EPs (Estimated Positions), using
areas of special concern and pilot stations. Points for taking the latest course and speed made good, to warn of any
tugs. immediate problems developing.
Abort positions and contingency plans in case of accident
or emergency or bad visibility. However, in narrow waters, techniques need to be used
The primary and secondary systems of navigation to be which enable the navigator to maintain a forward outlook,
used. that is to be PROACTIVE, whilst monitoring the deviation
Requirements for any electronic chart systems. All charts from the intended track being made good. Frequent, hurried
and publications available are up to date. Equipment visits to the chart table to fix the vessel's position may not be
status. the most effective use of the time available. Also, whilst
Margins of allowable error, safety clearing bearings and doing this the overall sense of awareness can be interrupted
ranges. and it is easy during critical phases to become disorientated.
The making up of a bridge, or conning, notebook. Choice It is worth remembering to monitor the echo-sounder. This
of ocean route (circle, composite or rhumb line). instrument can often provide the first warning signs that the
Choice of ocean route to avoid weather/ice. vessel is standing into danger, since in almost all situations
The master must satisfy himself that the passage plan the nearest land is beneath the vessel.
meets all his requirements and he must then
Passage planning therefore should be a preparation for effective piloting by selecting, and marking in
advance, those relevant navigational techniques which will lead to safe control of the ship and
adherence to the plan.
This point was emphasised in the Nautical Briefing on the period between fixes. As the ship approaches confined
Bridge Watchkeeping, when the Council of The Nautical waters the fix interval becomes shorter. When appropriate
Institute observed that: navigational markers have been identified, pilotage
'The need to confirm the ship's position frequently is a techniques should be used.'
statement which needs further examination. A fix should be
taken whenever the vessel completes a turn on a new track There can be a reluctance amongst some officers to
and at regular intervals thereafter. The fix interval should be accept pilotage techniques as valid methods of navigation.
such that the vessel cannot be set appreciably off track or This inhibits their use and application, so depriving the
into danger by the anticipated effects of tidal stream, wind or bridge team of predictive information when it is most
currents in needed.
This study guide on Bridge Watchkeeping is part of The Nautical Institute Bridge Watchkeeping
Programme, which includes books and videos.
Books
BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT: by Captain A.J. Swift, MNI, a shipmaster who has spent
15 years training bridge teams on the simulator at the Maritime Operations Centre at Warsash
This practical guide is designed to enhance standards of bridge team management with the
purpose of demonstrating effective practices which are necessary to avoid navigational errors. The
book covers team management; error chains; casualties and their causes; groundings and their causes;
bridge organisation; passage planning; plan execution; monitoring the ship's progress; teamwork;
navigation under pilotage; and navigational technology and the human interface.
Videos
The Nautical Institute has supported the production of three training videos made by Videotel
Marine International.
PASSAGE PLANNING: This video is designed to demonstrate the need to prepare passages
in advance, berth to berth, with the overall objective of giving the Watchkeeping officer a plan to
follow and sufficient information to enable him to do that easily.
THE MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP: This video recognises that the Master and pilot are
two professionals with a common purpose. It discusses responsibilities, the exchange of information
and ways of ensuring the best basis for a safe passage through busy, confined and sometimes
hazardous waters.
Information concerning these three videos can be obtained directly from Videotel
Productions, 1-2 Ramilles Street, London W1V 1DF, United Kingdom; Tel: (071) 439-6301.
Additional References
As stated in the introduction this study guide on bridge Watchkeeping assumes that the officer
of the watch or trainee has a proper knowledge of navigation, of The International Regulations for
Preventing Collisions at Sea, and some bridge experience. Many books exist to cover these subjects.
The following references have been chosen as books which provide practical advice.
A handy sized book which embraces traditional chartwork with instrument navigation.
Terms, concepts and principles are clearly explained and there are numerous examples and
working charts for the student to practice.
RADAR AND ARPA MANUAL by A.G. Bole, Extra Master, FRIN FNI and W.O. Dinley,
Extra Master, MPhil
Has been written not only as a comprehensive practical reference for mariners on board ship
but also to provide essential information for candidates studying electronic navigation systems, radar
observer and other professional qualifications. The book covers radar principles, operational
principles, target detection, automatic radar plotting aids, operational controls, plotting, navigational
techniques using radar and ARPA, ARPA accuracy and errors and references.
COLLISION AVOIDANCE RULES: Fourth Edition by A.N. Cockcroft, FNI, and J.N.F.
Lameijer
This useful book provides an account of the changes which took place to revise the 1960
Rules to embrace the more widespread acceptance of radar, the introduction of traffic separation
schemes and the increase in size and speed of ships. There is an introductory section followed by a
discussion relating to each of the 1972 Rules, which came into force in 1977. The bookiswell
illustrated and provides valuable practical advice on the implementation of the Rules at sea. The
book also contains the outcome of a study undertaken by The Royal Institute of Navigation to advise
mariners on the appropriate action to take when vessels are detected on radar in fog in accordance
with the provisions of Rule 19.
The first edition of this guide, published in June 1977, was intended to develop a more
widespread awareness of good operating practice and the regular use of sound bridge procedures.
The basic guidance it contained is still relevant today, but this second edition has been expanded to
cover recognised practices concerned with passage planning, the use of radar, master/pilot
information exchange, the availability of manoeuvring data and ship characteristics on the bridge,
steering gear test routines, the use of VHP, and ship reporting procedures.
ISBN 0 948691 42 5
1 General
Height of highest point of vessel's structure above waterline, e.g.
Air draught
radar, funnel, cranes, masthead.
Anchor position Place where a specific vessel is anchored or is to anchor.
Bell book Manoeuvring book.
Calling-in-point (CIP) (see way point)
"Correction" An error has been made in this transmission, the corrected version
is...
Dragging (of anchor) An anchor moving over the sea bottom involuntarily because it is
no longer preventing the movement of the vessel.
Dredging anchor Vessel moving, under control, with anchor moving along the sea
bottom.
Draught Depth from waterline to vessel'sbottom, maximum/deepest unless
otherwise specified.
Established Brought into service, placed in position.
ETA Estimated time of arrival.
ETD Estimated time of departure.
Fairway Navigable part of waterway.
Fairway speed Mandatory speed in a fairway.
Foul (anchor) Anchor has its own cable twisted around it or has fouled an
obstruction.
Foul (propeller) A line, wire, net, etc. is wound round the propeller.
Hampered vessel A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre by the nature of her
work.
Icing Formation of ice on vessels.
Inoperative Not functioning.
Mark General term for a navigational mark, e.g. buoy, structure or
topographical feature which maybe used to fix a vessel's position.
Offshore installation Any offshore structure (e.g. a drilling rig, production platform,
etc.) which may present a hazard to navigation.
Receiving point A mark or place at which a vessel comes under obligatory entry,
transit, or escort procedure (such as for port entry, canal transit or
icebreaker escort).
Reporting point (see way point)
Vessel crossing A vessel proceeding across a fairway/traffic lane/route.
Vessel inward A vessel which is proceeding from sea to harbour or dock.
Vessel leaving A vessel which is in the process of leaving a berth or anchorage.
(When she has entered the navigable fairway she will be referred
to as an outward, inward, crossing or turning vessel.)
A vessel which is proceeding from harbour or anchorage to
Vessel outward
seawards.
Vessel turning A vessel making a LARGE alteration in course, such as to stem the
tide when anchoring, or to enter, or proceed, after leaving a berth,
or dock.
Under Keel Clearance The depth of water allowed for, under the keel for safe navigation.
UKC
Way point A mark or place at which a vessel is required to report to establish its
position. (Also known as reporting point or calling-in point.)
13) In addition to the abbreviations laid down in para 12, the following signs and symbols may be
used:-
Abeam (Port or Starboard as indicted by arrow)
Anchor
Degree of Arc or Temperature
' Foot/Feet, Mile (Nautical), Minutes of Arc as indicated in context
" Inch/es or second/s of Arc
45
/15 The upper figure shows length of cable veered. The lower indicates depth of water obtained by
sounding at time of anchoring
NOTE: a) Astronomical observations in the Nautical Almanac may be used
b) Navigational abbreviations as prescribed in the Mariner's Handbook N.P. 100 and B.A. chart 5011
may be used
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 168
14) Prior to departure from each port, positive reports are to be made to the Captain in
accordance with Fleet Regulations:-
REGULATION NO. REPORT REPORTING OFFICER
Navigation and bridge equipment Officer of the Watch
Stability condition Deputy Captain
Safety equipment Chief Officer
Main and auxiliary machinery Chief Engineer
Securing of shell doors/openings Nominated Officer/CPO
Hatches, scuttles, deadlights Senior Officer of the Watch
Passenger and crew numbers Purser
Times of receipt of the above reports are to be entered in the appropriate columns on page 2
together with any pertinent comments in the remarks column and initialled by the Captain in
column viii prior to true departure confirming receipt of these reports.
1. This is possibly the most dangerous situation under the Rules. In fog the other vessel cannot
know that I am constrained by my draught and I have very little room in which to manoeuvre. I
would call the Master, set up a careful watch on radar and work out the best manoeuvre in the
water available, sounding the fog horn
When the Master comes to the bridge I would brief him on the situation with own course and
speed and the course and speed of the target vessel. If the Master was unable to come to the
bridge and if risk of collision existed at, say, 15 knots, I would reduce the speed of the ship as
quickly as possible by stopping the engines, applying helm hard a starboard, hard a port to
assist speed reduction within the channel limits and watch the other vessel closely.
2. Notify the pilot IMMEDIATELY, re-ring the telegraph and call the engine control room. If
there was no response I would expect the Master and pilot to use the emergency stop and use
the anchors if necessary. I would record the time in the manoeuvring book
3. As OOW I have a duty to query any unexpected deviation from the pilotage plan. I would
therefore:-
Ask the pilot if the action was intended
If appropriate ask the pilot to check the heading at the steering position to verify any compass
error
If I was concerned about any deviation from the plan or the safety of the ship I would call the
Master
4. Records are necessary to establish trends. Without records it is not possible to know when an
instrument has an error, if I have made a mistake or if the ship is out of position or steering a
wrong course
5. The course alteration should take place at a time when it is safe in terms of the position of the
ship and the traffic in the area. If the OOW is in doubt as to when he can accomplish this
course alteration he should inform the Master of the circumstances
8. Rule 9 states that a vessel proceeding along the course of a narrow channel or fairway should
keep as near to the outer limit of the channel or fairway, which lies on the starboard side, as is
safe and practicable. Other small vessels shall not impede my passage but I would keep a
vigilant lookout to avoid collision in a crossing situation. Rule 10 states that I shall proceed in
the appropriate traffic lane in the direction of traffic flow for that lane. If there is crossing
traffic I must comply with the rules for vessels in sight of one another, or in fog comply with
Rule 19
10. This varies from ship to ship in still water but the information for your ship should be available
on board. It is usually much further than originally thought. Having obtained the answer, note
it in the answer column and compare it with other ships.
11. If there was an emergency I would call the Master to the bridge immediately and explain the
situation when he arrived. For routine items I would be prepared in advance giving a summary
of the circumstances for making the call
12. Note down what the International Convention states in Article 27 Annex 2
14. Only in real emergencies where there is no time to telephone or sound the whistle. The most
likely times to sound the alarm would be when the OOW needs urgent assistance or when the
vessel is in immediate danger and when other methods of calling personnel are inadequate
15. The helmsman or the automatic pilot is steering the correct course
The standard compass error is determined at least once a watch and, when possible,
after any major alteration of the course; the standard and gyro compass are frequently
compared and repeaters are synchronized with their master compass
The automatic pilot is tested manually at least once a watch
The navigation and signal lights and other navigational equipment are functioning
fix the ship's position
The change-over from automatic to manual steering and vice-versa should be made
by, or under the supervision of, a responsible officer
The alertness of the lookout
Changes in the weather and barometric pressure
Weather forecasts
16. Slips and lapses, knowledge based mistakes, violations of rules and instructions and incorrect
responses due to cultural conditioning
17. I would call the Master in accordance with instructions. I would post a lookout to assist with
searching for other vessels and fishing vessels in the vicinity
I would have the depth recorder running and the maximum number of radars running
I would ensure that the GPS was working. If there was a problem with other equipment I
would consider using the radio direction finder
I would follow the policy on the closing of water tight doors
19. By familiarising myself with the intended pilotage passage and the tracks laid down on the
chart in accordance with the pilot's briefing
I would then know the intended courses to be steered and I could then establish the ship's
speed and monitor progress
I would independently fix the ship's position and note the times of passing buoys
I would note the distance off radar conspicuous land
I would monitor the depth recorder against the chart
I would observe traffic
22. I would call the Master in accordance with his Night Orders which would probably include any
alter course or way points
His requirements for being told about vessels with a CPA of less than (one) mile
If the weather deteriorates
Any potentially dangerous situation which might develop
Any significant equipment failure
23. My first action would be to change over the steering gear and call the Master. If changing the
steering gear was not effective I would consider stopping the engines I would then hoist two
black spheres by day and two red lights at night to warn other ships. I would also broadcast
the emergency on Channel 16 and consider using the aldis to send Uniform to advise
ships if they were standing into danger
24. I would look for guidance in the company's instructions and the inside cover of the log book. I
would consult the Master and other senior officers on the items to be entered, their frequency
and layout and consult Annex 9
25. I would note the ship's position and work out where I would expect the ship to be at the end of
the watch
I would examine the track and note that it correctly 'followed on' over any chart changes
I would verify the track and the compass courses covering my watch
I would note buoys, lights or any other conspicuous navigational mark that
I would expect to see in the next half hour
I would note the expected tidal set
I would look to see what night orders the Master had provided and mark on the chart when he
requests a call
27. Until land is sighted and navigational landmarks or lights are properly identified there will be
doubt about the ship's position relative to land I would work out the ETA for the expected
landfall
28. By taking a compass bearing of the approaching ship or by taking a radar bearing from a
compass stabilised radar
29. Supervising the rigging of the pilot ladder and embarkation of the pilot
30. The handing over of the bridge watch must be deferred until the action is completed and the
vessel is in a safe condition for the relief of the watch to take place
Reliable
Sensitive to colour
Can assess heading
Can identify small targets
Can see light configurations
Can assess ship types
Can identify conspicuous marks
Can identify flashing lights
Has better discrimination
Can see changing weather patterns
Can see effect of sea on vessel
Not affected by blind arcs (if observer moves)
33. The draught (forward and aft), the non-availability of equipment, the date, port and displacement
and any defects which might affect the navigation of the ship
34. On large ships this is necessary to reduce the free fall speed (the anchor is lighter in water and
there is more resistance). Also it avoids damaging the bulbous bow if fitted. It also ensures that
the cable is free in the cable locker. Lowering the anchor out of the hawse pipe is particularly
important in confined anchorages
36. Convincing the OOW of the need to call the Master when required
37. In the IMO Standard Marine Vocabulary bearings are always given FROM the vessel. So my
ship is 135 from the pilot vessel at a distance of two miles I would therefore expect to see the
pilot vessel on a reciprocal bearing of 315 FROM my ship at a distance of two miles
39. Equipment error checks. Where possible I would compare one instrument with another to
identify an error, that is check the gyro with the standard compass, the GPS with a radar or
celestial fix
40. I would make a quick lookout around the ship to ensure the ship was not at risk. I would then
inform the Master and next alert the leader of the emergency response team and the
designated medical officer
41. Check that the largest scale chart is available, corrected up to date with the passage plan details
and that future charts are stored in the right sequence Record tidal information for the time of
departure The latest weather forecast should be available The log books, chart equipment and
other relevant publications are ready for use All bridge recorders have adequate paper and are
ready for use All time related activities are updated from the time of departure The pilot card
is completed with up to date information Bridge and Engine Room clocks are synchronized
42. Rule 18 states that I must keep out of the way of:-A vessel
not under command A vessel restricted in her ability to
manoeuvre A vessel engaged in fishing A sailing vessel
47. (a) The regular interval between fixes such that if an error has occurred there will be time to
correct it before the ship might run aground. The fix interval is more frequent in confined
waters
(b) The combined speed of wind and tide is about 1 plus 3=4 knots. The distance to the sand
bank is one mile. To cover the worst situation, the fix interval would be 15 minutes, or in
practice 10 minutes to give time to correct any adverse effects.
48. This varies with size, but typically for a VLCC or Super Container Ship a speed of 1 knot should
not be exceeded
49. It is important not to become distracted when busy. I would therefore make notes of times and
positions in my notebook and write up the log at the end of my watch, after I was relieved. I
understand that a notebook used for this purpose may be required as admissible evidence in
court. I would therefore keep it tidy and only use it for this purpose.
50. By checking the plan, asking the pilot and consulting the Admiralty Guide to Radio Signals if
the information was not available elsewhere
51. Small wooden and glass reinforced plastic vessels are very bad for reflecting radar waves and
may not return a strong enough echo. Where an echo is weak it can easily be lost in clutter and
cannot, therefore, be detected.
52. A brief description of the most critical threat and my intended actions followed by a general
summary of the situation
53. Getting warning of tidal streams and measuring tracking with radar parallel indexing Adjusting
course for set
54. I would check it again to confirm my own suspicion. If it was a critical error, for example a
wrong track in confined waters, I would point it out to the Master and pilot, ask them to verify
the error, and then correct it
55. A lot depends upon which side to. For example, the gangway has to be turned out, the moorings
prepared and the cargo manifolds or gantries aligned. Also, the preparations to take bunkers
and a fresh water lighter may need to be considered as well as power and communication lines
Preparing to berth a ship on one side and then having to change arrangements to the other,
causes extra work and is inconvenient.
56. When the pilot is picked up or disembarked an officer must be in attendance with radio
communication to the bridge. A second crew member should also be in attendance in case of
an emergency
57. On hearing the general alarm all crew members should proceed immediately to their emergency
stations
58. The watch system shall be such that the efficiency of watchkeeping officers and ratings is not
impaired by fatigue
60. The lights are visible two miles. At twenty knots I would expect to see them just 6 minutes
before reaching the sailing vessel
64. If the bottom of the ladder was in the water it would be caught by the movement of the sea,
particularly if the ship was moving through the water. This would be dangerous and could
cause the pilot to be thrown from the ladder
65. I would:-
Monitor communications
Comply with the COLREGS for a vessel at anchor
Maintain a security watch
66. Call the Master and the appropriate officer forward. Maintain steering (there is usually an
emergency system). If the internal communication system had failed I would use hand held
radios to communicate with the foc's'le. I would then switch on two red lights on emergency
power
70. I would immediately release the bridge wing smoke marker floats Sound the general
alarm
Try to ensure the man stays in sight by posting lookouts Turn the
vessel to facilitate recovery
Log the time and note the position of the ship in case a search is needed Mark the
waypoint on the SatNav if fitted Put the engines on stand by
72. There is uncertainty about the identification of the approaching vessel, particularly in multiple
ship encounters at night, and in conditions of poor visibility. The OOW on the other ship may
not be able to understand my language I might waste a lot of time trying to establish contact
when I could have taken action in accordance with the Rules earlier, the time spent
establishing contact might itself cause a close quarters situation
74. The Master of every ship is required to issue standing orders in writing, to be formally
acknowledged and signed by each navigating officer prior to the commencement of the
voyage
The ETA
76. In coastal waters, clear of obstructions, collision avoidance must take priority as this provides
the most immediate threat. It is desirable to have a regular fix interval as this makes the
estimation of the next fix position easier but this is not essential
77. Warning the pilot cutter of approach and speed, and which side the ladder is rigged
79. If I thought the ship might be put into danger from a situation I could not control, for example:
A give way vessel standing on
A sudden increase in traffic density
Deteriorating visibility
The malfunction of any essential navigational equipment, e.g. radar, steering gear
Reported problems with the engines
Any emergency onboard
I would, of course, call the Master in accordance with his instructions
80. Undertake to plot the vessel with at least three observations and take appropriate evasive action,
informing the Master if appropriate. In this case the most likely action would be a bold
alteration of course to starboard having first checked this would not endanger other vessels or
risk putting the ship aground. When I had made sure that the alteration had achieved the
desired effect and that there was no further danger I would resume my course
93. Sound the whistle, flash the aldis and try calling on VHF to get the other ship to recognise it
was standing into danger. Use the engines or use the rudder to create a sheer. Call the Chief
Officer to go forward urgently to let go the brake. Inform the Master as early as possible
94. Record the information contained in the MAYDAY or PAN message, try to establish contact
with the source and then call the Master. I would endeavour to plot the position of the
casualty and the ship's position in preparation for any follow-up action
95. Under no circumstances is the OOW to sign the Master's orders until he fully understands the
Master's instructions. If in doubt, I would call the Master for clarification of the orders
96. The steering system works on the principle of a control system When steady the system is stable
When the helmsman puts on, say, 10 of starboard rudder the signal is sent to the steering gear
and to an additional piece of equipment called the hunting gear. This detects when the rudder
is situated 10 to starboard and feeds back this information to the steering motor which stops
turning the rudder Without the feedback or corrective mechanism provided by the hunting
gear the rudder would be uncontrollable
INDEX
A N
Anchoring............................................. 57 Navigating, out of sight of land......... 45
Navigation, celestial............................ 46
B prudent............................................ 51
Bridges, automated............................ 109 Night Orders ........................................ 37
C O
Check List, pre-departure................... 14 Ocean passages.................................... 43
Checking.............................................. 111 OOW, responsibility of........................ 10
self.................................................... 87 Organisation, emergency.................... 76
Collision avoidance ............... 38, 91, 92
Collision risk......................................... 65 P
Command structure .............................. 9 Passage plan......................................... 17
Communications.................................. 15 Pilot, boarding...................................... 31
Control............................................ 37, 91 boarding card.................................. 22
Controlling........................................... 111 ladder............................................... 31
Cultural conditioning.......................... 84 Pilotage waters..................................... 25
Planning......................................... 24, 85
D Positive reporting ................................ 15
Distances, rising and dipping............ 51 Preparing, for arrival........................... 53
E for sea................................................. 9
Emergencies, responding to ............... 76 R
Engine control room............................ 10 Radar, advantages of ........................... 44
Error, chains.......................................... 87 limitations of................................... 44
equipment....................................... 83 Record, books..................................... 106
human.............................................. 83 keeping ................................. 103, 104
management................................... 83 Recording............................................. 111
Eye, advantages of............................... 44 Relief...................................................... 68
limitations of................................... 44 Response ............................................... 43
F Routines ......................................... 46, 86
Rags....................................................... 17 S
G Seamanship............................................. 9
Shelter.................................................... 59
Gear, testing the ................................... 10
Ship, in port............................................ 9
H Situational awareness.......................... 24
Handing over ....................................... 69 T
K Testing ..................................................... 9
Keeping alert........................................ 88 Threat.............................................. 43, 65
Time, managing ................................... 39
L
Landfall................................................. 50 U
Log books............................................ 103 Unmooring ........................................... 21
Lookout, priorities............................... 44 V
M Violations.............................................. 84
Man overboard..................................... 79 Visibility, reduced ................................ 65
Master, responsibility.......................... 72 W
Standing Orders ..............................11 Waiting area.......................................... 58
Master/pilot relationship................... 23 Watch, changing the............................ 68
Mistakes, knowledge-based............... 84 taking over ............................... 36, 68
rule-based........................................ 84 Watchkeeping, skills............................ 93
slips and lapses............................... 83 Weather, rough..................................... 74
Monitoring ....................................23, 111
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