BEING HUMAN

Transcripts from Lecture 1-9

AUGUST 30, 2017

COURSE 227
The Great Courses
Lecture 01: What's So Special about Being Human

Oh you are is as good as that of, you start off with a scenario in which you guys young guys primal
way guys were on testosterone. It all know each other since they were kids there practically
brothers, their brothers in arms. Actually, one pair of them are brothers visited your cousins have all
been hanging out with little to go with it hasn't been getting along with. It is a bunch of guys over in
the next year or usually avoided each other but every now and then have to recount of the other
stations. One day, our God is knowing there had not look for the owners get themselves all riled up
for this ritualistic stuff to get themselves in a frenzy they go out to the edge of their territory as a
group they want into one of the guys from the next group. And they attack in the East have a savage
him just to show the researchers here this is not Westside stories were beaten the game with his
testicles off they need to go back all triumphant and a few days later, one of them is a truck and a
beard and the guys from the next over. Catch him and do the same thing in return, you know
exactly what happened that things start as the way they do indeed a few days later and our guys get
together to get themselves in this Lindsay there this time they bring some weapons it needs to bring
some weapons and they encounter some guy from the group and not others beating stuff
here. They killed by their power over the coming weeks ago about systematically killing every single
male is next for over a word on terror gang warfare under certain level to such technical definition of
genocide killing individuals in the early because of the group able to adhere to have a fairly sordid
picture of human behavior, but in this case is not human. A group of chips, male chimps and the
violence they organized violence between meditative proto-warfare alive. I went with which they
can do with all the members of every group and author John Kerry got a bunch of individuals living
together or males females give anyone an easy matter for the rolling a college dorm together. And
this one demographically as an atypical door. Normally in this world would be a one to one female
to male ratio for some quirks that just happens to have predominance of females in this group. The
males there are very atypical they are not very aggressive for males are particularly socially
affiliated. Not only are they all nice atomic buddies with the females. Old guys get Longwell with
each other, and it happens every now and then you get a new shipment on Fox freshman guys
shifted and there were coming from some big bad aggressive on cooperative world after a comment
and what these folks are really good at is assimilating these new individuals into their special culture
so that within about six months or so of these new males are no longer acting like these charts and
instead they're nice and affiliated and on aggressive old world of sushi was hanging out in dorms are
unaware of the college will only know this is a bunch of baboons attribute baboons oversleeping
staffer could over last decade or so were a fluke. Went to the systematic killing about half of the
males and males who were most aggressive and least socially affiliated and what you saw there in
the aftermath of truth with a predominance of females remaining males will aggression on affiliation
and his new males came into the troupe at adolescence. It would take about six months or so for
these guys to be assimilated into the social value of the strip where we seen here in the species that
is not human. We are seeing cultural transmission would overwhelm a first pass of just how much
human. Okay, you've got a female, and she's got some skills she is highly skilled with some craft and
building something rather making some further this is a traditional skill she learned how to do this by
watching her mother and her lover turn watched her mother. And this female skilled with this craft
of course would like her kids to acquire the skills as well and she has a well watching whenever she's
doing this and they're kind of wording at times. Perhaps no surprise to her perhaps your
disappointment she's noticing her daughters are learning it just find her songs are very well because
they can't pay attention to their off screwing around on wrestling and chasing and breaking things
and the daughters learn this craft far better than the songs to human eyes. You are adjusting
binomial model in this case, the chimps chimps in the 1970s chain could all up ending our very
definition of what makes us human. We are the only species that makes tools know where she
discovered a chimps make tools chimps make a variety of different types some of which involve
multiple stats landing a fair amount of dexterity. And this tool making skills are passed on
multigenerational and a study showing will. You kids observe their mothers and learn how to make
tools that way, but songs that weren't anywhere near as well as the daughters because he didn't pay
attention or too busy doing other stuff. Okay, another domain were first pass would be assuming
were looking achievements, not just any humans which humans were the finest of our client hosts
social humans. Individuals who look out for owners are willing to do. Something. Aw even
spontaneously soaked and cheered these individuals have a choice of two scenarios they're hanging
out there others. Someone else. Maybe they know then. Maybe they don't, maybe they can
communicate with them enough, but they have a choice and a half in one scenario that could choose
an option to get X. amount of something wonderful X. amount of M&Ms X. amount of free kidney
transplant is what where they have a choice between they can get this or second option, they can
get this comes on the other individual can get that same great things as well and have the
opportunity to act selfishly or at pro-socially and in this recent study of chimpanzees, while the show
was at a much higher than expected rate these chimps are acting pro-socially given the option they
would rather choose a scenario where both they and is on the other individual to reward and it
becomes more likely is that individual was giving some sort of soliciting gesture, but they will do as
well. Surely spontaneously. However yet another thing a similar effect on their individual is making
a complete universal rating for the food is one is less likely to do the pro-social sharing their repair
issue scenario final one. Here were once again, what initially seems a very human side of behaviors
into chaos after all. That one you're with a friend who's totally phobic about going to the dentist and
they drag you along because they're at her of it and fair share. For all younger legs are twisting of
the pain of and you're just empathizing there like Matt and you do something like you would bolt
into the doorway and you recoil because it hurts. What are you showing there. Your empathy with
your friends pay as lowered your own paid for. And this could be shown experimentally were
formally observing someone else having some sort of pain lower Sharon pain threshold and word
works much better if it's someone you know and you like to take this sounds kind of human and this
particular study demonstrating these exact attributes to do with laboratory road where you have
animals observing another one getting shocks you read the full vocalizations the old for sonic alarm
calls that was giving off it lowers that animals pain threshold... and affect response of the effect
feeling that once paid and most amazingly, you would get this effect when you were dealing with
cage mates, but not between two strangers, what do we make of this when we look on all of these
supposedly human realms of sociality of motion's identification with violence all of that and he got
asked this question. Are we just another animal species now switching gears a bit beginning to think
about the brain. There is this brain chemical and trust me, there is no need to panic at this point for
the jargon of support we will hear about it Claymore and the subsequent lectures versus brain
chemical called vasopressin don't even write that this person was 10 transmitters some parts of the
brain use it to communicate with others hearts and vasopressin has certain interesting functions
certain interesting things and those in the bright. It's got something to do with social affiliation
discuss something to do with social bond formation particularly and males male rodents no monkeys
ordered for starting. Now, this vasopressin stuff comes on one type of MoveOn and it has an effect
on another on the Red Sox the Windows it is that it is detected by a vasopressin receptor on the 60
connection reposing dozens thing in response to so vasopressin is coded for by Jean. There's a gene
from vasopressin receptor and it turns out there's a number of different genetic forms of this
vasopressin receptor and looking humans human males add. There is very little use to which type
which flavor of vasopressin receptor gene you have a more recent study has shown us how one
particular variant had you that human males are more likely to be in a stable monogamous
relationship are more likely to derive satisfaction from that and you go when you look, and that's a
variation occurs within the two different species of rodents. One of which has mailed in Albany and
the other is helpfully make and the male monogamy version of the gene is the one you see in the
guys were barreling towards their 80th wedding anniversary and easily in the road and do some
fancy gene therapy. Take the monogamous version of that Jane and stick it into the brains of the
polygamous male rodents and they suddenly become monogamous will throw some little switch is
there and you certainly have a very different profile of behavior of another domain. And here we
have once again variations on those formal economic games. Do you cooperate you paid to do this
without but what circumstances Golden rule tit for tat. Here's a classic English used in the study
again called the ultimatum game and a columnist study there is some sort of negotiation people and
diplomacy ultimatums and got two players are what you do is the first one starts off with $100. And
that individual makes a executive decision, they decide how to divide the money between them and
the other individual base with 50-50 era creep in 1999 of it and you want to be the person whatever
it is. They have all this power. However, after that is done the other individual has the power they
have the power to accept or reject the offer and if they reject the offer. They don't get whatever
they been offered and this individual doesn't get what they've have high for this person has the
ability to reject an unfair offer. Notice that in doing that, if I've just gotten this crummy all for
99. About one I only get one if I rejected on doing something totally irrational, which is unchanged
against zero instead of one year as a lousy deal, but it's better than nothing. Most humans in most
cultures have been study are going to reject extremely unfair offers this is economically irrational. If
you were pure sheens of economic rationale if you take whatever the offer is instead what you see it
as it's usually around 6040 if what you get is for your whereabouts when people begin to reject the
authors whole world of research done on this as we wonder what circumstances does the refusal
rate change if you know the person accountable for games against the differences in rates is a
function of what cultures people come from. But here's a very interesting study that was the you
have somebody playing the ultimatum game. And what you do is you take advantage of a fancy new
technique called friends magnetic stimulation to technique where you can't use a powerful magnet
that those actually have a clue how it works you France magnetically stimulate some would rather
you hosting the first in nearly a part of your brain the surface is a Country to the surface of the
cortex. We stimulate one particular region of the cortex and want to stimulation does the silence is
that part of the brain from taken that part of the brain off line and when you do that with this one
particular region. You change people's ultimatum play and make people far more economically
rational for more pragmatic, far more willing to accept some White House he offer from the
executive able to use change somebody's attitude towards cooperation were then all sorts of stuff
like that by turning off one part of the brain for 10 seconds while they make a choice. She was the
really cool thing U. would speculate maybe this is some non-generic coaches serving some messy
nonspecific effect two different controls tried this with another region of the cortex. You get the
same effect OKs whatever's going on here that is specific to this part of the brain, but maybe you
just start making people change their pattern of play. No changing their pattern of social play had
been proved that if you use this technique to take this part of the brain off line and you don't change
somebody's behavior when they think they're playing against the computer. This is not changing
strategy is changing strategy in a social context. All you're doing, there is throwing a little switch on
your friends magnetic stimulator machine. One final example, and this has something to do with
another one of those brain chemicals this one called oxytocin or where to hear more about oxytocin
down the line as well oxytocin dose of very interesting stuff. Also, in some ways it's kind of sort of
cognitive vasopressin oxytocin has something to do with social bonding among female rodents
oxytocin mediates females on dating imprint into their baby's oxytocin plays a role in females and
rodent species, were they formed their lawns for life and health oxytocin facilitates that isn't that
interesting, just like we've vasopressin having this person receptor. There's oxytocin receptor in
parts of the brain that make a lot of sense walk with oxytocin receptors in the room and female
brains of a bone to their infants or that makes wonderful sense. How about oxytocin and humans
though. I saw the way things look kind of familiar in terms of oxytocin being able to throw some
switches in our own brains. These studies in these cases are experts in oxytocin into somebody's
brains, but instead you get some volunteers and would you do if you get some mice aerosolized
perfume the story waiting auction and he supports the stuff up somebody's nose or the control
group interspersed with just some placebo stuff and what happens often to visit the notion that
turns out, because the chemical structure of this thing. It gets into the brain pretty readily you are
now sporting some of this bond formation causing rodent motors loving your babies in your
chemical into the brains of humans what happens. People become more trusting when interspersed
with oxytocin. You do this experimentally, people listen to a supposed political pitch by a supposed
candidate oxytocin onboard they are more willing to trust the individual they are more willing to
save the person is making sense would get their votes were remarkably people become more
charitable. When interspersed with oxytocin, this is not just the social realm of here is the needy
person writing Friday empathy feeling their pain. They're just oxytocin and choose to sign over even
more municipal this is people sports with oxytocin become more charitable in the abstract sense of
saying they be more willing to have their taxes used for char repurposes is really abstract this is not
to bring helical path into our social with the weight of this is really abstract stuff oxytocin doing
this. Sports this into somebody's brain and their capacity to feel somebody else's pain or turn the
page and go on with your interest is altered. Now this oxytocin has given rise to one of the and we
all warning... and in all the world these days is our heart will turn of the road marketing. A whole
realm of people who are now convinced that if they get you into the right in a shopping mall and
most of the people is being sold as water sports and oxytocin clouds will replace the urge to be
buying the stuff to look cows come home water we seeing here we are seeing all these ways in
which you alternately have to ask a second critical question after listening to chimps having warfare
and having pro-social altruism. Always fewer things we have to ask the question. Are we just
another animal species, after hearing things like walk around with the function of this part of cortex
perching oxytocin. We have to ask similar questions are we just a bunch of your other's oxytocin
thing tells us something very interesting that we will hear more about in a while, which is all of this
works in social contexts, but even hearing on the first pass your stuck with these absolutely
galvanizing questions, which is okay, we as a species are we just another animal or reduced another
mammal just another primate and his lead is. I merely the aggregation of us being just a bunch of
Iraq's ask what this course is about. My name is Robert supposed he and I am a scientist and writer
who studied biology behavior. And I do into different realms of one of the very pertinent to this
course. I spent part of my life being a laboratory where biologists studying how the brain
works. One has to do with behavior of social behavior, what abnormal behavior. Looks like in the
brain of all of that speaking to the world of just a bunch of Iraq's also a divide my time between
doing that and being a primate college is to study baboons out in the wild and national parties to
Africa and natural that college dorm of over one college problems with a truth that I've studied and
that's a very grown for me spending a lot of time thinking about an hour. We just another primate
species of what this course is about is exploring these issues where do we place ourselves in the
world of social species making sense of where she lives or exceptional human exceptionalism and
were just like every other beastie out there and how we make sense of this and reductive framework
at the end of the day our boss. This is the outcome of just a gazillion euros going about their
business. Had we think of our souls as a species rather than going after some systematic way in this
course and I have a prior course that you could surely be interested in the great courses will get
these issues methodically going from the love of the nervous system down to genes going to
evolution or history instead with this course is to be being a somewhat of a sample or just a survey
of some of these ways of thinking about our law is a Shia menace in the context of our species
exceptionalism or lack thereof in the context of this just a bunch of cells affair that creates us. Since
there's a common theme that runs through all of this is what it should be apparent by now, which is
if you want to understand what we are about as a species. You are up the creek, you are not have a
clear understanding what's up, and once you have biology as part of the scenario now doing that
what's implicit in that is. It's going to be a very fancy complicated version of the biology of wrestling
with humans as just another social primate wrestling with humans like India and the older behaving
animal as simply an aggregate of Iraq's past we begin to approach this issue. This whole issue of,
you can understand behavior outside the context of biology, which as you can understand the way in
outside of the context of it sitting there in a body of writing your mind is not only in the range of
your brain is embodied and you can't make sense of it outside of the realm. As we'll see part of
what this does is it doesn't one of the great dichotomies, because all the way back to Descartes. The
notion that the brain handles carbonation and emotion very differently will see the Thatcher burst
and also those in the classic philosophical dualism of mind and body are separately are not separate
in the slightest and will be seeing them in a few these essays in here. One is a little more kobold
bizarre disturbing role showing how some parasites can get into our brains and change our behavior
was actually gets at the fact that if this parasite noted Iran's work differently and suddenly our
behaviors different, that sure makes us have to think in terms of our reaches the bunch of Iraq's
number one lectures gets up is also saying how much of our moods. How much of the motions are
brains come up with publishes the computer brain paying attention to what's going on in your
body. As we'll see in that lecture anatomy of a bad mood. What's gone on often is your brain is
trying to come up with an explanation for some extreme physiological state in your body, and it
often comes up completely irrational once known for some of those providers does not make sense
of this in the context of the individual person's psyche. In the context of society at large were seeing
here is the Make sense of behavior outside the context of biology, but Europa Creek just as readily if
you think biology is going to explain everything. And another famous corrode throughout these
lectures is digitally cautionary not sure if you solely depend on biology would be solely depend on a
certain type of biology at what this is about is currently the most exciting gamester bandwagon or
Sharon will of biology and what has to do with behavior and notion that stuff is really determined by
your genes by genetic. This is the heart of Western science is focused on reductions reductionism. If
something isn't working like a clock had a fix if you break it down to its component parts, and you
find the little EB part that somehow out of whack and you fix every workplace at an equal pieces
back together and runs perfectly. The notion that you understand a complex system all need to do is
understand its component parts of that great for Western science that's been a much better way of
safe dealing with illegal coming up with a vaccine based on reductive Western science in deciding
the way you deal with polio is to sacrifice a goat and wait its innards around that some would this is
great. However, it has its limits, and when it comes to understanding behavior and the brain
reductionism ruled all you need to know is the genetic makeup of an individual and you have them
in your palm exactly how the Raiders could work is reducing over over unsolvable case as well as it
always goes reductionism is great for teaching you want to watch is running anymore. Why clouds
raining a lot when it comes to behavior when it comes to the vagaries of how just another animal, or
just a bunch of girls how that translates into behavior and the individual aspects of it. We are much
more like loud satellite clocks running on simple peers. So those will be our tools in this constantly
this dual pair of questions. How do we make sense of ourselves as just another primate species
vixens were souls as an aggregate of Iran's with a theme that biology is to be relevant every step of
the way these lectures at the same time, that sure not going to explain everything. Individual psyche
social context, all of that would be running throughout no particularly hit that we just another
species of primate as we transition to the next lecture. Unless someone shows is when it comes to
making healthy food choices and dealing with health consequences are that we most definitely are
just another primate that will be our first topic
Lecture 02: Junk-Food Monkeys

Oh is as as as as as as as as as as as remember Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the 18th-century Swiss

philosopher Norma Sonora's impact on Western thinking. Unfortunately, I know next to nothing
about it other than he was the 18th-century Swiss loss for auditors warned about the
guy. Something about noble savages, and that he was probably much more fun dinner guest on the
bomber of the Thomas Hobbes guy and forcefully that he's got to essence of his last name so I could
look them up on Wikipedia. So noble savage, versus Holland's and his short nasty and brutish Coke
versus Pepsi this is an issue people been wrestling with for long. What is the nature of our
primordial ancestors are read by nature good a read by nature, and nobody really thinks about this
much anymore. I certainly don't we think about our primordial ancestors were mostly thinking was,
how they work, where they work and good word healthy while their diets like what was what was
this an chance with this aerobic exercise routine and what was the Neanderthal die at how can you
do kickboxing like home will hobble as this will be see here is interesting. Basically asking the
subwoofer cluster levels like in the Garden of Eden. What was our ancestral diet, what was our
ancestral level of health and what can I tell us about how we should be doing our lifestyle stuff these
days remarkable age people have actually put a lot of effort into trying to understand what was the
diet of primordial hominids. Among other people when the first physician anthropologist Melvin
Conard and genius job of trying to reconstruct the crew man in God at the preview was a guy and
coming up with a picture of these are folks who have lots of fiber on lots of simple sugars in the
complex ones and verbal assault on all the stuff you're supposed to be doing really ideal for. We
have is an example of modern times are studies of additional hundred outers and lots of ways
they've served as a surrogate for our ancestral country covers one of the study populations are the
cooling people of the call our desert in Botswana, and they have long been studied to try to
understand what the relationship is between the traditional long-standing human lifestyle of country
covers and what that has to do with health post perfectly obvious what the answer was going to
be. Because these people have miserably difficult lives there short nasty and brutish and it wasn't
until anthropologist Bernard studying them in eastern detail and became clear that this effect was a
pretty great lifestyle. Traditional hunter gathering some refer to as the original affluent society at
these are folks who actually don't have to work for Hartford days calories as it's a much much easier
lifestyle people and dissipated. And when you look at the health of traditional hundred outers all
sorts of bits of medical dogma go down the two walked were viewed as some of the inevitability's
aging for example, that resting blood pressure tends to increase their cholesterol levels tend to
increase that there is an inevitable cardiovascular degeneration that hearing gets worse as you pay
him with the studies have shown was traditional hunter gathers in the skull hard populations known
of those are inevitable features of age or they're virtually inevitable features of Western aging, but
not of standard human nature and as has been said, if you want to be optimally healthy kids, would
you want to want the vaccines of Western art statements and you want the diet and lifestyle of
hunter gatherers units. As you look at this releases I look at this thinking about the fried Twinkies
that they got out there during the next break. It's hard to afford the feelings that we have fallen
from a state of metabolic rates. Now a log book is falling from grace is that about was one of the
great terms of human history. We transition to farming to agriculture, about 10 figure out some
years ago for Crescent in the Mideast and what can always been sure how it into our heads was this
was one of the great leaps forward to human history. This is one we figured out how to do by
farming intensive settlements we produced material culture if this is what made it all possible
foreign. When you study the bones of humans for various periods over time, what scientists can tell
you is a very different story, which is the onset of farming was a turning point way for the worse in
terms of human health. As she transition from a traditional hunter had her daughter to the ones of
farmers, were you during your going from a world in which Earth hundreds of different food sources
from class to relatively small number of them are much more vulnerable to fathom and to outlast
you think as our bodies showed this historically from the time she amendments started
agriculture. The average human height started shrinking. It seems she has became farmers, they
became less healthy. You could tell us in the bones from that more evidence of malnutrition were
evidence of the weighted metric. It wasn't until around 1850 that humans started being as tall
against companions were agriculture as the school rate mistake. You think about meaningful nights
and there we all think of them that their life is big in Manlius meanies and they were all like Google
or Terriers recombined the sort of bad teeth fact that they never dry cleaned their honorable was
sweating. This was not a very appealing picture agriculture as being this downward trend since
human health. For bunch of reasons, not only was there that feature that you are now much more
former role to famines and soft. You also were suffering the consequences of sedentary life
hundred outers always on the move and widely dispersed populations of farming with that allows
you to do is to begin soon found a permanent settlement, the permanent community be permanent,
higher density of humans living together, and when you do that if somebody's got an infection and it
is to bounce around and move a lot faster than far more dispersed and forgot her populations start
having sedentary human communities and infectious disease begins to take more of a total
interesting feature of that if you think about it in my bet is to think about this often but if you do one
of the features of traditional hunter gatherer hominids. One of the features of all the other apes is
rarely sleep in the same place two nights in a row. Interesting consequence of that bus, you rarely
sleep in close proximity to your raw excrement from over the last few days and grammatical life-
changing transformations in this humans had stable sedentary lifestyles and stable settlement,
which is you're spending a lot of time living on the detritus of your physiology. Another vector for a
lot more infectious diseases coming up and spiraling around someone you put these pieces together
the onset of agriculture produce lockable 30% decrease in life expectancy. Now, I will try not
touching much around here, but it's clear in retrospect that the inventions of invention of agriculture
domestication was one of the all-time stupid moves on the parts of humans. Sure, it allowed you to
begin to have a sedentary lifestyle pluses and minuses but that eventually forced us to invent health
clubs short allowed us to begin to have food surplus, but the minute you have surplus of some
resource where species is really really good at having the surplus be an equally distributed. All of
this being ways of getting us into trouble to the transition from a hunter gatherer lifestyle to that of
agriculturalists not really great things in terms of health effects. Things get even worse with the
transition from a traditional agricultural thought it to that of Western art. You and this is very well
studied and two different realms one is when you look at people who have migrated emigrating
from a more traditional culture on this planet. Moving to one with a westernized diet and you can
see exactly what happens there are in terms of changes in the health risks of such a service is a
perfect study, because you've got a control group, somebody picks up and emigrates from wherever
they were to whatever place in the developed world and their absence siblings are cousins with who
knows what back their continuing lab that lifestyle having a new one with the same genetic
background. Right way to do comparisons, or there's a second way in which a westernized lifestyle
consultant sweeping and and this is not when you move to the westernized world with a
westernized world suddenly moves on top of view this as well studied a lot of islands of Polynesia
where over the last century Western influence came pouring in there along with Western
thoughts. Sometimes you don't have to be an immigrant to have a different culture suddenly
enveloped. Okay, so what is seen when the mouse study the effects of this transition to a
westernized.and the results are not good. You have people who traditionally want not quite in the
range of hunter gatherers in terms of pristine health but who nonetheless more traditional
agricultural settings have their real rates of hypertension ferry Road will rates of cardiovascular
disease very low rates of all of those and suddenly throwing a westernized diet of Pop goes
hypertension up with cardiovascular disease, up goes the incidence of the disease that hour like
wake reground parents never even heard of adult onset diabetes, insulin resistance IDs this is a
disease of aging a typically westernized way to becoming even more sedentary. Putting on which
this once on her disease is just on the edge of being the number one killer on this planet and what
the studies have shown in Sunday's Polynesian populations is as a westernized by its sweeps and
populations that used to have essentially zero incidence of diabetes. Suddenly 70% diabetes for that
one of the most sort of reform is studying this has been another one of his perfect human
populations that provide you with experimental control group. This is where the Native American
population that came up who live in Arizona, and about half of the population lives in Arizona at
what makes the perfect experiment is the other half live across the border in Mexico and over the
last century we Arizona and the king of folks have gotten the standard American westernized diet,
while the folks relatives across the border in Mexico died is changed for less still much more
traditional diet and what you could see is astronomically high rates of the diseases of westernized
lifestyle. Particularly diabetes astronomically high rates on their side of the border and virtually no
change on the Mexican side. And perhaps most remarkable if you compare the two populations and
an average of 30 pound difference in body weight to the question of course becomes why does this
happen. Why when people transition to westernized OIF do you get subject has struck a
consequence of the diabetes is very prevalent and increasingly so in the United States for example
bought a 70% rate is not typical of what you see in general America a 70% rate that was what you
see him on the team or among these Polynesian various islands the wanting such catastrophic
responses to one westernized audits are first introduced, and it turns out there's a great deal of logic
to this a great deal of evolutionary logic. When you deal with traditional human rights traditional
primate hominid diet over long periods of time. There's not a whole lot of power reasons and
sources of food was intermittent periods of time at what you've got this selection for bodies to you
good at storing energy. Has this work, one domain for this is the hormone insulin. Insulin comes out
of your pet Chris you eat something your blood sugar levels rise, and you secrete insulin and insulin
is this hormone aplenty this hormone of surplus water is doing is saying. I've got enough energy in
the bloodstream that I'm going to secrete insulin and that's a signal to store stuff away for the
future. Insulin triggers, energy storage. So you're somebody with a traditional primate hominid,
whatever God which is one way whereby you lead good at storing energy, because are sometimes
evidence intranet and what you have is a super sensitive hacker is at the slightest hint of nutrients
that your bloodstream and quick pour out that insulin store the stuff away. Your kidneys were really
good at their job also, very little salt in the diet kidneys are great at retaining salt will wind up being
called thrifty genes. Genes related to energy storage food storage available to Pancras the kidneys
thrifty genes, because natural selection has scoped and people to be more surviving and more
adaptive when they have these thrifty genotype data. Along comes the Western diet 20 C. is so risky
genotypes thrifty genes plus westernized junk food ads. That's when people get mode over with
these rates of diabetes in such season with the second one about everybody else in the United
States isn't having 70% rates within the uses most of us are descendents of ancestors, who one
westernized diet swept into Europe, for example, a number centuries ago. The ones who didn't
have the thrifty metabolisms and got fueled early on in life from diabetes ones who had sloppy
Mattel. All of us are descendents of folks with a propensity towards a sloppy metallics. So what
does this want of meaning in terms of how this works in the body and were the lack of health, for,
you can see this interaction, not just between the genetics of how this works and the selection over
the years for a body that genetically is a really good at storing energy. You can see a similar
outcome as a function of experience early in life. And this is one more global phenomenon called
Dutch underwent 1944 course in World War II Holland occupied by the Nazis and because of
uprisings there against them as punishment for non-seas that winter diverted all the food from the
Netherlands to Germany, and people in Holland boss went through the Dutch underwent her tens of
thousands of people starve to death of eventually, after a number of months home was liberated by
the Allies food is suddenly back in available and the abrupt onset of starvation now has an abrupt
recovery back to the more typical European westernized.remarkable finding came out of that which
is if you spent the Dutch hunger winter as the third trimester fetus. Something changed in your
body. Turns out during fetal development, one of the things is happening in the third trimester fetus
is the body is metaphorically deciding what's it like out there in terms of nutrient availability. Is
there a lot of food out fairness are not that much and be a Dutch hunger winter fetus and what your
body is deciding that is realizing this is a whole lot of food out there because your third trimester
mom is going from the Dutch hunger winter. There's not a lot of nutrients coming from and what
happens if Jordan now used as the metabolic system of fetuses than under the circumstances in
printed became more efficient, was set up under way for the rest of the lives of these
individuals. There better and faster I secrete insulin at storing stuff away their better at salt
retention if they wished roll grabbing another term use their programming during the third trimester
to deal with food availability so that ends the individual was born. The siege was lifted everybody
goes back to normal diet and what happens now. It's like you've just migrated from the womb of
your mother during the Dutch hunger winter and migrated into a more typical westernized diet. 60
years later, people who were third trimester fetuses during the Dutch hunger winter. Almost 24
increase in the risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease metabolic syndrome besieger two ways in
which you could control what is if natural selection has scoped that you do have very thrifty genes
and suddenly you westernized on it or if prenatal experience and the imprinting program effects of
that time set you up to half instead of 50 genes 50 metabolisms and often go to westernized diet
catastrophe okay. To my own work I've been able to see an interesting domains were not only you
see the health effects of a transition to westernized diet for transition to a really lousy
westernized.this is some research on doing as I alluded to in the first lecture on why do that when
research in addition to the biology research over the last 30 years. Most summers ago and I study a
population of wild abundance living in a national park in East Africa trying to understand the
relationship there between social behavior and health, and that's what if you want to study
baboons. This is the perfect place on earth to do with this is the greatest echo system around
Athens with fuel to get to live in the Sergei. You only have to spend about a third of your time
getting her days cowering as you live in these be saved from the keep the lines of what your diet is
ideal with virtually vague and even the highest-ranking male who is able how successful he was the
one percent of his diet is the animals were walking 510 miles a day for forging rate of ESA. But then,
in one of my troops, something changed in a very interesting way. What came up with a problem
that occurs in loss of national Parks loss reserves the world over, which is this a challenge of what to
do with the garbage being generated in the hotels Tours launches because you want to make sure
the animals don't have access to. And that's not always handled well, and it happened in my park. It
was not handled particularly well. Or rather, it was basically handled on well worth whatever was
the garbage was being handled well. There was by this one's first loss of the garbage that have been
dug out there by tractors and every day. Leftovers garbage from this loss was the fair had this was a
gold mine for the baboons living around. This is one truth that had the good fortune to have this
loss within their territory and dismisses garbage dump opened up. They were suddenly just
transformed in their diet based suddenly stopped doing normal foraging. Why do that they've
shifted these nouveau riche opposed to living entirely off of the garbage that the food refugees and
their and suddenly they're not even like going back to their home near sleeping and trees at night,
just above the garbage at the garbage truck to recover every morning run Linux off to dump the stuff
and at each 59 these baboons with Laurel out of the trees to ever complete transformation as to
what the other lifestyle of this was an amazing place. This would be the garbage at smelling in the
tropical heat and earning and is normally bad movies theaters hyenas shackles stressful shooters the
Arab store. This is like going for a picnic and how long this Washington is a totally disgusting and to
make it even more disgusting. One time I decided on the name of my science was gone while closed
and I waited for the garbage that tried to get a sense of what was the food in there that these guys
were feasting, and it was leftover drumsticks on defense, rotting sun warmed puddings and other
desserts and these were the four Horsemen of your pop of the apocalypse is processed sugar salt fat
cluster of this is about as bad as you can get what it happened to these baboons they become junk
food monkey's. So what do this to their health, and over the years I was able to study one of these
troops and eventually with a colleague Eugene Altman from Princeton University study a garbage
dump true about another national park and walked once it happened to baboons when suddenly
they get this chunk from God. Interestingly, some of the outcomes are good. These animals, a
puberty earlier, they developed faster something that's been seen in humans over the centuries as
westernized diets have gotten richer with the documentation shows quite clearly it is the onset of
puberty the time of first menses and human girls has gotten earlier hurler something known as the
secular trend. So baboons were now not sure if faster developing for. It was lower infant mortality
rates because of faster maturation of these kids use a shorter interval between when you gave birth
and when you mean church will start off believing again. In other words, more kids. You also
thought offering from the occasional ecological catastrophe in 1984 there was a Rashard drought in
East Africa that mode over both humans and animals left and right except for these garbage dump
true, because found under drought or otherwise, there were still tourists, unless there were still
food for the tourists and customers to westernized tourist food left over in the garbage dumps these
animals do not suffer during these drafts. So there were some fossilized us on becoming a junk food
monkey. But then you start looking at the physiology of these animals and things are not so
good. And this was work done in collaboration with Jean Altman, but also some other scientists:
more the University of Texas joke candidates of the Wisconsin primate center of what I'm able to do
outfielders. Are these guys anesthetize them add there now, unconscious and you can check out
their bodies within the exact same clinical tests as you would use on humans and say well, how are
they doing, how are these garbage dump dump junk food monkey's doing. In comparison to the
folks next to the normal.and it was not a nice picture female baboons in these garbage dump
troops. They were heavier than their counterparts in the normal sort of troops. The heaviness was
due to increased amounts of fat producing an increase in the number of the dread number that
harms our waking hours increased BMI. All the baboons male or female were beginning to show the
first indices of what is called metabolic syndrome are interesting trend in medicine. In recent years
would use to be the case was metabolic diseases like diabetes. They belong in one subspecialty
cardiovascular disease completely different types of physicians. The two groups never even talk to
each other what metabolic syndromes about is the recognition that some of the things that can go
wrong predisposed towards diabetes can also increase cardiovascular disease risk some workers
wrong there. In that they're not separate subjects and metabolic syndrome is the first hints of
former ability in both of these domains. These garbage dump baboons were having the earliest
signs of metabolic syndrome are circulating triglyceride levels were elevated their cholesterol levels
were elevated and not just cholesterol levels in general. Want to do for classroom aficionados will
know if it's two different types of cluster was good cluster one\the HDL and LDL cholesterol. One of
the good kind is being scraped off your blood vessels, the bad times been deposited there. So if
you're going to have your cluster will be awful. It's not just that cool level since the ratio of good to
bad these garbage dump baboons. They started having a diet and not only did the cluster level
scope out the ratio of the amount of the bad cholesterol went up as well. Other aspects got that
they began to show insulin resistance, some of the first steps of moving towards diabetes. They
started to have elevated insulin levels all the stuff that you see in the settings of westernized diets
when we're all being shrunk from monkeys. The increased incidence of all these metabolic disorders
increased risk of cardiovascular disease, a short while primate that are now coming down with some
of the same diseases that get us as we can have a 7-Eleven on a regular basis. Turned out to be one
additional portability that came in there as well. And this to become apparent until a few years
later, which was. There was an outbreak of tuberculosis tuberculosis in this part of my Park,
tuberculosis and bovine tuberculosis, and it turned out, there was an identifiable source after a great
deal of work and I was able to identify the source of being contaminated meat at the launch that one
of the those garbage dog and dust got into the babbling populations and eventually got into some of
that and populations living their normal foraging lifestyle and those guys. Tuberculosis got some of
the animals that had some degree of spread in this garbage dump true to move them over and killed
the majority that sure how common that same issue. Once she started having sedentary high-
density communities, if instead of forging every day, where the nearest baboons she was 100 yards
away for have to take if instead all of you were jammed into this place on our overall was tubercular
meet and have a grand old time competing high-density one individuals illnesses that get passed
around a lot faster too because her of his classic kind of question, which is so was this a good thing
or a bad thing for these baboons is a westernized lifestyle a good thing or a bad thing for us these
transitions and will receive as some of the hostages some disadvantages some things have extended
our lifespans on the Dakota self more risk for degenerative diseases and remarkably this whole
garbage dumps during these baboons show the exact same plusses and minuses. In other words,
like everything you be hearing about in this course gets complicated. And remarkably, the answer
seems that even for baboons justice for us. There are very few unambiguous rules for figuring out
what to do with the choices that life throws in our laps
Lecture 03: The Burden of Being Burden-Free

[music] after I finished graduate school. I spent a couple of years doing research at this place called
the Salk Institute, was named for Jonas Salk and it was down in San Diego actually La Jolla. Just
north of there and it has one of the most famously beautiful buildings out there about by Lewis can't
it's right out overlooking the Pacific cliffs over their absolute magnificence of building that's
constantly inundated with architecture students. Nice place to work, and it just happened that next
door to the Salk Institute was a Hank Leiter facility and a glider place and Torrey Pines, and it's a
place where people would go to rent their handle underserved bringers from home and I don't know
how to describe this or defend this for reasons I can't understand. I've never like bungee jumping a
result of people over age 20 joke one genes are somehow suspect that's indefensible and for even
less rational reasons. I decided when I was there watching us have glider is that there was
something is deeply less about the sport and that they were all cowboys. I've no idea why reach this
conclusion, but nonetheless getting there I imprinted with a negative impression of how saw in my
lab. Once it was on the top floor of this building that happens the way at the corner overlooking the
Sith, which is pretty nice and one of these have glider guys came past and weirdest thing the guy
was low enough and close enough that glanced over and for easy for the second. We actually had
eye contact with each other, and it occurred to me were having the exact same thought on there
with my Joe sciences lab coat on pipe heading at his flight path and it struck me we were both
thinking. There's no way I want to be in your shoes right now, but he obligated him safe this fool is
paid good money in these crashing Pacific at Newport. He's looking at me having no idea that I
would need to get the chance to do lab research like that were looking at each other. And what's
the message there. Obviously we are not all the same in terms of what we consider to be stressful
or pleasures are hobbies. Tremendous individual differences in our terms of what counts as stressful
and some demand is no individual differences. And you have been mauled by a lion unexpectedly in
the parking lot. You still are alive, he'd managed to stuff your innards in holding their hands and you
running for life out of line. So come after you and no matter who you on the matter how home and
solve actual laws, would you be having a stress response of the time. Your heart is going to be racing
parts of the nervous system that we will learn about, although she didn't care the least stressful
emotions run with all the perfectly logical under the circumstance is what the stress response that is
about. It is saving your life saving your life in the face of the sort of stress are the sort of crisis that
mammals have been having for God knows how long would choose an acute physical merchants at
the lawyers running after you hear running through my what he wanted to be one of the lost energy
out of the storage sites in your body. Haven't seen the final scenes that are saving you want to
deliver that energy as quickly as possible. Your blood pressure, hardly any rate increases all as part
of a strategy that energy on muscles and 2 seconds and three without much more likely to
survive. You turn off all sorts of things in your body, which use the energy for that stuff later if there
is a later you suppress growth you suppress reproduction. Your immune system gets a little bit
sharper and blunt pain perception. All of this makes wonderful sense as your sprinting away from
law box in the world of being stressed were being euphoric and lighting were being stressed are
being used for hunting little bits of fluid into a test to what we've transitioned to bear. It is a world
in which a stress response is not about running for your life in the short-term fiscal crisis were
instead, what it's about is some of us perceive this to be stressful more than others in the
cornerstone of a whole field of stress physiology is built around the simple fact. The stress response
evolved in our bodies for dealing with the short-term fiscal crises and then we turn on for our next
psychological stress. And that's where we get into trouble because the system to be false for being
chronically activated. When running away from a line in your blood pressure to increase the great
saves your life. Increase your blood pressure chronically because every day instead of getting to be
more biology researcher forced to hang glide or every day instead of getting the hang glider forced
to study for and you do that chronically add to chronically increase in blood pressure and workers
for cardiovascular disease are more at risk for metabolic disorders are constantly mobilize energy. If
you're constantly shutting down the road with your immune system eventually shut down tissue
repair, infectious diseases all sorts of stuff is likely to move you over more readily. When we have
here is a very very clear punchline fever basic animal out there which stresses about his reading
minutes of screaming terror is a after which it saw the rover with your over with and for us humans
ask often the least socially sophisticated humans. The stress response could also be turning on
chronic activation for your early psychological and psychosocial reasons. In this domain, if you do
that chronically you're more at risk for getting sick of that scrape we now understand the
relationship between psychological stress and health. But that still doesn't tell us much about that
hang glider and me with a pipe header. It still doesn't begin to tell us about individual differences
and to get a sense of that individual differences flying up in the air sitting in spending 15 hours a day
trying to solve the same scientific issue in terms of getting at the question of why these individual
differences essentially were asking is what makes psychological stress stress, because the two of us
in that circumstance were definitely differing as to whether this constituted a psychologically
stressful situation is what makes psychological stress stressful. Beautiful lurcher by now showing the
building blocks of this for the same external reality for the extending same external news or read
challenge challenge the whole new starting balance to what for the same external reality. For more
likely to feel stressed you more likely to activate a stress response and you more likely to get a
stress-related disease. If you feel like you have no control over much going on out there. If you have
no predictability over what to call me how bad is going to be how long is it going to last. If you feel
like you have no outlets for the frustration caused by the external unpleasantries if you feel like you
have no social support for this is what psychological stresses about and this can be shown
wonderfully elegant studies. For example, you've got a test subject your proverbial volunteer sitting
there and they're sitting around, and one scenario. Every now and then without any warning
whatsoever. You play a lasting hundred 10 dB bursts of noise for half a second which is really
unpleasant. So they're sitting there no control over particularly over what second scenario, the
person sitting there without sandblasting nor is every now and then, but they got little lever here
and they've been told if you keep pressing this lover to get rid of all the blast itself is to decrease the
frequency with which they occur. That's what the whole Jew in reality you're getting the same blasts
of sound as the person who first reports the difference. I feel like I have some control over much
going on here on decreasing frequency that this will look how effective on being this could happen
every second, half, a sense of control and upsetting and you don't get as much of a stress response,
or in the third situation. The person sitting there and the blasts of noise are coming and if they don't
have any of this placebo sense of control, would you give them a sense of predictability beside 5
seconds before each glass is coming to wife is going to come on. The note it's the same frequency of
stressful noise as the first person the same time distribution could get a little predictive information
here recalls hunker down. Close your ears would ever add. You don't get as much of a stress
response. We see here is in those examples and lots of other studies that power of
context. Psychological context loss of control also predictability in one setting that can greatly
modulate the stress response in other settings. It has no effect at all here's an example of this this
whole business showcase a loss of control was bad for you loss of predictability is bad for
you. That's clearly the case is shown in these studies modulate those and other protective, but there
is domains where we love loss of control will also predictability. We love that we will pay good
money for it to go on a roller coaster and unpredictably have our inner organs flung against the side
of us. We love unpredictability when were listening to a comedian and the punchline is wholly
unexpected. What's the difference they are. When it's in a setting that we view his
benevolence. We like loss of control of predictability were willing to roll the warship in order to be
surprised what we call the corporate stimulation. We call that play, and it requires a benevolence, I
think you get on the roller coaster ride and you know the worst possible outcome is fueled in queasy
afterwards not figured to be universally decapitated some sort of benevolence setting loss of control
also predictability were willing to give up to be happily surprised to play a minimal level of setting
loss of control also predictability loss of outlets lost social support. These were all ways in which
your keyword search shoot on just as surely as they were being chewed on by a lot. So we see here
is the importance of context wonderful recent example of scientific study both the great anecdote
attacks into this showing how much context social context could modulate whether somebody find
something stressful or not. It is there's this place up in San Francisco near where I found this
connected with UCSF medical Center, University of California San Francisco cold Friedman Institute,
named after Maher Friedman cardiologist who first described type a personality and this is a place
where you get people moved over by their type a personality both your more about that until
shortly people, who at age 40 or so I've just gotten their first heart attack and not because they have
something general weirdo way in which the body deals with cluster of these are people who just
have a behavioral profile all over south of being inpatient hospital. Low self-esteem, this profile that
constituted the ritual view of type a personality. Wonderful ways that this is documented in this
Institute, and they get someone whose first have a heart attack. They come in and they will
videotape them having a first interview when they first start this whole program of combining
cardiovascular care of the change of diet with the change of sleeping schedules with the change of a
notional spot with any luck the comment of a videotape person at the beginning and he looks decent
airport. Amazing part of what shows this type a profile is the person is sitting there being asked
about life about their illness and are fidgeting their calling attention to see if you can even get
halfway into your question before the interrupt you to answer this this this this whole type a
profile. So here's what they did a film crew wanted to feel somebody a type a individual having a
highly stressful morning and they wanted to take advantage of a new type of technology, which is
called ambulatory cardiology. That's what was deals Reagan put a little machine little thingy on
youth, which can monitor your heart rate one for sure. In real time as you're going about your
day. She mentioned facts and cardiology, because now you could study peoples hearts not while
they're in your office running on a treadmill when they're out in the real world about this film crew
decided they wanted to do was get something runnable type a over-the-top individual and hook
them up with one of these ambulatory cardiology devices and let him go through stressful morning
while you're in there filming with them succumb to these reading people and they should give us like
your all-star tight tapered for someone with video in question are like in health of your question in
the routine interrupted. So agitated patients so they get their liking the vault type a folks in there
and they wire the guy of the need for Greece to do this experiment turns out someone the things he
found most stressful life was everyday. He had this long commute into San Francisco driving and
going through this one miserable home exchange traffic bottleneck and the school uses real problem
there and they bring them in and there filming him through this. And what's the expectation hits
traffic there and it's hard it is to go through. It doesn't budge. It doesn't, but she has as little of the
heart rate as if he was the Dalai Lama or something what's going on this guy was having the time of
his life worse for traffic was the mortgage trigger out of the film proved he can you believe what you
will about this is 27 years I've been putting up with us. Can you believe what I've had to go through
the Hera was in the sewers discuss thisresponse context being very important in this case was
validating his misery over all these years. This was the destinies of his life context being very
important. So we begin to think some more about these individual differences in how they are
working where topology comes from, and we could begin to design, what would be the ideal profile
or stress response in some of what we see is pretty obvious in the absence of the stressor. You want
a nice low resting heart rate or pressure level of stress hormones all about, along comes a
psychological stress are the gifts offered in by the bunch from down there. Along comes the real
physical stressor and you explode through the roof there massive stress response up as fast as
possible and the second is over with the water recovers fast as possible. This is the ideal profile of
fascinating classic study done decades ago showed exactly how this nurtures this conditioning of
mergers over time. Getting the study, young recruits in the Norwegian military had these were guys
who just got assigned to power shooting school, where I guess this is viewed as a movie something
rather and this is this intensive stressful training over the course of a few months becoming some
crack a depth car shooter and what the researchers did was water these guys up vehicle part report
pressure take a sample before look at all levels of examples afterward, the major major study
looking at these guys starting with the very first jump they ever did. And then coming back months
later when these guys were just polished professionals this very first day six hours before these guys
walk off they were already having massive stress response is only God get an up-to-date jumping out
of an airplane in the plane through the roof, while rarely been massive stress response is there a big
chunk massive stress response to hit the ground. They go about their business after hours later that
evening, they still have a massive stress response she machines globalization for this
challenge. Now, come back own team jumps later, and these guys are these polished cool
professionals and see what their bodies are doing than in a very different that you see there is one
big chunk at the height of their physical challenge is just as big of a stress response then as they did
on day one. Where's the difference 10 seconds before they jump out of a plane they're sitting there
gossiping and talking about sports for the guy next to the insulated tap on the shoulder your turn to
get up and jump out zero stress for spots open for seconds before they hit the ground and 10
seconds later all their thinking about his lunch is your response there, what is happening, what was
originally a she used anticipatory stress response and then the actual event and each team slow
recovery has now turned into getting rid of the anticipation of getting rid of the delayed
recovery. Only having the stress response were you need it. Classic work looking at another very
stressful occupation showing very similar outcome air traffic controllers not one of those life sit back
in your chairs and kick back in the last kind of think and apparently there's assumed by mobile
powdered people become aircraft controllers either or razzle burnouts after six months, or they go
decades happily doing it what you see is a difference. The folks who for hours before rehabbing the
stress responses of hours afterward. They're not the ones who ask the ones who come in from the
parking lot in their stillness and longer find blood pressure states sit down the church for things on
finish the shifting to boost the ones who last forever. Somewhere to these individual differences
come for some work has been done to get insight into this looking at animals launching the Primates
looking at and I dare use the word here in the context of another species. For some hourly
differences, and that's absolutely valid to use terms like those personality differences how we acted
as a primate is to a novel environments. How will fold it is by setting how it deals with
ambiguity. Some of my own work as I noted with problems in East Africa has look at individual
differences in the stress response and you see on workable differences there. For example, you see
differences in stress-related physiology levels of certain stress for moms and some male baboons as
a function of their competitive style with my year a baboon and the question becomes, can you tell
the difference between the big things in the little things, the big stressors and the minor ones in your
life was asleep talking about baboon is sitting there his worst rival on the entire planet shows up
somewhere in some of his face from 2 feet away. What's this guy didn't want to give this is a crisis
stop what they're doing get into this defensive stats and contrast your guys sitting there in his worst
rival on the planet shows up and take some that 50 yards away as he do but keep doing what
everything this is not a big deal. When you look at male baboons who are equally good at
distinguishing between this is a big deal. That's nothing nice low resting stress levels, and when you
look at the guys who get justice raised having their worst rival soaring over to you feel as if the guy
was in their face highly elevated stress response. And you see all sorts of individual differences like
those among the stab wounds, and they seek social support or they affect the social outlet and they
tell the difference between big things a little things when it's a bad thing to have coping
outlet. Tremendous individual differences, you even see the same thing in laboratory rats were
people have read different breeds of wrath for differences in how they react to novelty how
exploratory they are in the new environment anxiety differences and you can see physiological
differences in these animals as a function of having read them for half of the react to psychological
stressors in their world. The question becomes, of course, where this comes from how machines
how much environment. This is an area of endless ongoing research. Now this whole notion also
applies to humans, in particular realm, which is making sense of some of the most common
psychiatric disorders, and a way to think about a lot about is that there is a mismatch. There is a
mismatch between the external reality and the stress physiology that people have been
response. There is a mismatch well in the first example, anxiety disorders. What's anxiety about is
basically seeing stressors seem menacing threats and other people don't. What's that about, it
means you're turning on the stress response at times when other people around perceiving the
slightest thing you look at the bodies of people with the general anxiety disorders and on the
average they have more activation of a part of the body called the sympathetic nervous system will
be hearing lots more about that for our purposes). That's the source of adrenaline and more activity
in the adrenaline part of your nervous system. More secretion of another class of stress for moms
and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. If you and your body stress response she stressors
that other people don't. There is a chronic activation of stress response, another well, the type
individuals just referring to the much more modern incarnation of type a personality is instead of
personality style built around hostility. The term, given his talks to cost away everything that occurs
in the world around you is proof that they're out to get you are out to get you preferentially and the
only defense you have is to watch your back 24 seven with the knowledge drawn. And what are you
doing, you were not only seeing threats that other people don't perceive very specialized attribution
responses that somebody could have held the elevator door open for you and doesn't that is
grounds for going berserk somebody cuts you off in traffic here experimental is how to show
anybody's talks of hostilities were tendencies to the church put them in some sort of team tasked
think and have their partner intentionally screw up over and over Taipei individuals already have
coronary strike to what it is-a regionally famous for, and this toxic hostility profile still being valid
increased risk of cardiovascular disease over activation of the sympathetic nervous system
controlling adrenaline. Another example of assisting with clinical depression, and this is another
Roman which there is a mismatch between external reality as the stress response. This is different
from anxiety and toxic hostility where you basically seeing stressors that other people don't and
depression. You were seeing hopelessness and helplessness that other people don't you have
circumstances where you can't cope with the stress or where you can't manage it worry you can
triumph over and it'll bother, because it's hopeless, because you're helpless where you try a coping
response you stumble into it works and you don't recognize it for the efficacy that it has. This being
another case of a mismatch, major depression characterized very frequently by elevated levels of
one class of stress for moms as being recognized more and more non-free fuel increase in risk of
cardiovascular disease and overwhelmed or individual differences if they produced a dramatic
mismatch between the stress response and what's actually going on the outside world there are
powerful logical implications of so all of this begins to frame this in the context of new woman of
individual differences in the pipe heading in to hang glider feel I have absolutely no trouble lecturing
up here but if I were so much is like the fourth tree from the left and some Christmas pageant having
to act. I would be less, and obviously people go their taste in the opposite direction spoke all that
will normally the individual differences and as we've just seen this realm of differences associated
with psychiatric disorders. One of the most interesting examples so has to do with a personality
profile. One having to do with a repress a smile of dealing with emotions affect just a personality
profile is called a repressive personality style. These are individuals who are not anxious they are
not depressed, they say they're not give the test group are actually not, what are they up out there
about their real tight regulation of their emotions. These are people who have super egos out the
watching these are people who don't like surprises. These are folks who can tell you what they're
having for dinner two weeks from Wednesday, the people who don't express a lot of emotions
they're not good reading them in the other individuals. Very very tightly regulated. Is this a
psychiatric disorder is obsolete, not in effect, these people tend to be highly functional highly
successful. These are the college roommates, we look at them, so I could be 1/10 as disciplined as
this person is at the very successful. Their disciplined, they are productive they are not unhappy,
they often written souls be having this is personality profile by 5% of people are so choosing well
may be able for longer than they were honest or secretly miserable and they're just claiming not to
be anxious and they're just claiming to give them, what are called psychologists inclusive
promotional tests ones that are hard to live on and pictures of you they really are fairly happy
underlying system are not depressed. And what's going on with these folks, and we begin to get an
interesting hit. Built around the fact that they are so good-we were pressing commotion so
regulated as we will care about a bunch of lectures become a fascinating part of the brain called the
frontal cortex from the cortex does is keep you ensure a regulating of motion and motion will
express somebody keeping the lid on the gratification postponement had something to do the
Berger regretted frontal cortex as the viewers were biological equivalent of a super ego as we got on
the research and market and colleagues at Vanderbilt showing people with these repressive
personality styles. Their frontal cortex is growing like crazy. In addition, they have elevated levels of
stress, while again these are people who are not anxious they're not depressed or not stress they're
happy. What's going on with this, but I think what we begin to see here is something very subtly
import. These are people highly regulated thanks their frontal cortex working like match these are
people who were squeezing their psychic sphincters closed 24 seven keeping everything very tightly
regulated sources tell us the world out there is a pretty unpredictable vibrant place summertime is
unpredictable almost scary malevolence of ways some of the time and was wondrously spicing ways
it is a role where there is limited control. There is limited predictability for good or for bad as what is
personality profile is about his people were spending on numerous amounts of energy building a
wall between them and that vibraphone predictable world out there, and lots of ways this business
individual differences in the stress response and what looks like an individuals with these repressive
profiles teaches you something very surprising and important. Sometimes it could be a radically
stressful to create a world for herself in which something stressful. Never ever occurs
Lecture 04: Bugs in the Brain

[music]. Now, scientists, like the scientists I go to conferences now and then then confer with other
members of my tribe and being under a scientist I occasionally go to your site, you know there is a
Koran society of her science known as the Society for her size, which every nurse scientist in the
country belongs to, and there's an annual meeting and it is really quite something because you're
walking the convention center and there are 28,000 science is there and you were there for a week
and over the course of the week. There are typically 14,000 lectures or posters itch while it's totally
out of the office things about it is everywhere you go there for her scientists you go into a restaurant
and people about talking about her science you go into an elevator. You go to the bathroom, and
there's guys on either side of you at the urinal and they're arguing about giant squid axons, which
weird experience, what you do is you go there on the purpose is to find out the new was the latest
and often this is really important stuff for shaping your own work. Annual editions of bears a poster
that absolutely critical, and it does the same thing. You go to see that and you know, you must seem
to shake your and your chichi crowd of people acting in congratulating and you can even push your
way through the crowd. Or you go to this critical post return to the language of the reason heard of
or you go when you actually get to see us post and it turns out with this person has done
wonderfully and completely is exactly the experiments you were about to start next week. So this
can be somewhat of a bruising experience and or were few years ago I was one of these conferences
in support I needed a break and I went outside and demoralized I sat down certain on the curb their
and in front of me there was a stagnant pool of water, and I remember thinking that there are
microorganisms in there that understand more about the brain at all 28,000 people and they're put
together. And that's the subject of this talk for the very simple reason that it turns out that all sorts
of parasites can manipulate behavior of the organisms in fact, no water car sites power sites come in
lots of different forms. You could have the simplest versions of viruses which depending on your
taste do not count as living bacteria of single cell organisms that are power sites fancy multicellular
worms protozoa all of the thing all, by definition have one thing in common, which is these parasites
are supposed to say in a different target organism and two things are for the benefit. For example,
we power siphon fuel the energy from the host organism. It can use it to reproduce to make more
copies of itself. It kind hijacking the reproductive machinery of the host species in order to make
more copies of Karsay there are some while examples out there of ways in which power sites
independence of altering behavior. Two things for their own benefit, really bizarre complex
example. One example of virus called her peace herpes simplex waters HSV losses are about
herpes. Your herpes cold sore infection and one of his daughters and sector nurses at the nerve
endings in your skin and as we all know herpes after initial infection disappears. Doesn't really
disappear, it becomes latent ISO yourselves. Now, what we also know is when you've gone into
latency with herpes when the sitcom out of latency. When you're stressed, a year later, half a
century later stress of all sorts. Chemotherapy social stress or reason all of those and her peace
comes out of latency. Why is a good idea because it turns out that stress suppresses your immune
system so. Stress your immune system is on the floor right time for her to come out make more
copies of itself and then go hide back the weight and so the question becomes, how does her please
know that the host organism is stressed. And this virus is able to measure levels of stress or motion
your bloodstream. Another example of how a site for kind some and what it does is invade your
immune system and an amazingly clever way. Now, normally what you have is your immune system
is always on the prowl to spot something that doesn't want a foreign invasive cell pathogen
wherever and how the immune system does is look for alien markers on the surface of the power
siphon safe haven protein sticking out of the surface of this is not in our library of cost proteins and
bust your immune system begins to develop antibodies, which within a week or two is ready to
attack power site and free web. What does that for kind some to every week or so it withdraws its
surface routines uses genes du jour boring or shuffled cards and puts a weekly novel surface protein
in other words. Just when your immune system is ready to go after it is genealogically
invisible. Now another power site blood fluid shifts to some systems which cautious to some
RSS. Even more clever, what it does is it steals some of the surface proteins from your own cells so
that your immune system doesn't even notice it doesn't longer to all of these are cool amazing
examples of power sites being complex and power supplies in one really interesting stuff happens
though is when the power site is manipulating the behavior of the host for its own benefit. Under
some examples that involve acting parasites these parasites, but don't actually get in the body of the
organism but are just outside and doing your Karsay think here's one example. There is a might
some type of money, which is at the power site for pants, what it does is why it's on the back of the
past and is not clear to me at all how you ride on the back of the house was even riding on the head
of the know what it does is it power supplies is one aspect of behavior which uses of the species
event I got some food or other in its mouth, and they come back from the nest and there's some
behavior really use their something rotors to type on the mandible of the other Anthony at this
gorgeous food. What does this might know how to do, it could lean forward and do the same thing
On the mountable of this at the end of this gorgeous food, which is soon happily consumed by the
light. Another example where an extra power site is altering behavior. This is some type of pain
were and what it does is it lays its eggs on the fur of a road in what has the chemical needs to do is
make the road and iPhone doubly itchy from industry scratch itself prove itself how he do that if you
wrote if you know, I had it with your teeth you room there, you use your mouth and in the process
using just some of those eggs from the 10 were as inside the God of a road is the ideal place for
these to reproduce. Now what's really interesting is when you look at end of power site and a car
sites which get into the body and alter behavior by some of the most interesting examples that
involve sequential power such as what's this about, this is where I parasites into which thing to go
through its life cycle has to effect was a type of species as then gets transferred to another one or
dozens reproducing and has to get back to the original one a multi-species cycle and also to clever
ways in which this is done under some power site that lined the organism they infect so it's less able
to evade a predator of predator, which is the other species needs to get into a 10 week in the
energetics of the animal source was able to get away from a predator. Here's a great example of
how a site which moves between a species of fish and a species of watercooler what those of us in
the fish's masses with functioning of the gills so that the fish has to swim closer to the surface to get
more oxygen. More readily or I were eventually secretes excretes the parasite species fault that the
water even by the fish goes on the encircled the user cases, where you were changing the behavior
of an animal basically by messing up, making it less than all, what happens in some cases is when
you are truly altering the behavior you the power site of the organism you have invaded the ongoing
spare you from all those Latin taxonomic terms and continued with just commonplace terms first
example with barnacles. There's one type of particle that power supplies is some kind of sound crab
and what is able to do is somehow inject hormones crowd for moves into the crowds remarkably
inject some sort of estrogenic oral estrogen typical female estrogen in clouds, symbolizes Fred
behavior using leading to very strange terrain here and when injected into a male crowd the mail
starts doing the seatbelts of the crowd behavior, including taking a nest in the sand to lay its eggs of
his male crowd is not really in any spot article does point. It has gotten its host, to make a nest for
one's particle jets on female crabs that does the exact same thing. But first, it castrates the female
that destroys its ovaries were coal power civic castration. So this is pretty weird. For example, she
was a truly strange once this is a type of worm's hair were whose life cycle involves getting into
crickets. You can only reproduce the water, and I think you know what it does is produce a desire of
desire, what it does is it makes crickets jump into bodies of water where they drown and that's just
when the hair worm comes out of the crickets Bobby and those of you who only have the audio
version you are missing one of the most group test pictures imaginable right now of showing one of
these words at the same know-how to produce a suicidal state of exit stencil group to read in
crickets, whatever his surgery. This being another example. Examples get even stranger now we are
dealing with a Brazilian law, which was in the caterpillar stage can be power supplies by a type of
watch what happens once stings at and in the process lays eggs inside the Caterpillar offers to
modify the eggs inside are hatching and using the innards of the Caterpillar for nutrients, but no
more than that. What happens is eventually these eggs and the Coup they've made pushed out of
the caterpillar which some of them stay inside. And what these little humble delight in the middle of
the nervous system of these caterpillars make the capital or defend these new hatchling loss maker
Caterpillar superstring steps were waving back and forth what is that accomplished careful
experimentation shows that these chases off stink posts that would otherwise be eating his baby
while you have forced this caterpillar into defending your babies. Even stranger, others and example
here of a fungus that infects a certain species of how to certain rainforest have and when he gets in
there and justify the outcome of forest floor. It induces a behavioral change in the half the ad
develops, what is called a photo progress on, which means if suddenly attracted to light the giraffes
are normally spending their time on the floor of the forest and instead they have this desperate,
desperate to hold the best in the sound they climb up trees and when they get to a particular height
facing in a particular direction at a particular temperature in power site takes over and causes the
absent show on a reef there were stays and dies that has this point, what happens is the fungus
emerges and grows on the hat is totally bizarre and what you can do is careful scientific studies
showing that if you prevent the end from going quite that high or going a different orientation,
which we are going to want to get us a fungus doesn't grow. This is the optimal place somehow the
fungus is able to make the head coach at precisely the height that needs on the trick. Now here's an
even more bizarre click the example if you haven't been unnerved by the support and this involves a
cockroach, which is power supplies by a wasp and this is without question the most disgusting
examples. What you get is a wasp stings to host the cockroach and websites in their receiving
nothing ready but what this power site this wasp these baby wasps when they had decided to his
change under a chemistry of brain chemistry of the cockroach of copper stone actually have brains
with clusters of your own server sort of proto-cockroaches brains and what happens is that the wasp
is able to change under a chemistry of the cockroach and the cockroach loses its capacity for bold
national movement and a factoid of wasp ITG dog gets a hold of the antenna of the cockroach and
walks it over to its last and the term is actually used in the scientific papers is the loss leads to the
cockroach as if on a quote leash. At that point, you got the cockroach positioned exactly where you
want it to be an everything is perfect to that point and then it does what you really wanted to do,
which is out of the body of the cockroach conditions that would mix of Dreamweaver heart five
bodies bursting open ad will do this involves bringing this cockroach loses on the five states, leading
it where you needed to go. How are they doing that people are beginning to learn more and more
about this as again in some cases changing the brain chemistry filled the cockroaches -- very hard to
reconfigure your less interested rooting for the wasp or the cockroaches are both kind of disturbing
in this won't actually working mostly wonder is like what goes into the brains of people who decide
to devote their life's work to figuring this out. But figuring it out they are indeed doing and figuring
out some of the mechanisms how these parasites pull it off and they make power site versions of
some of the Euro chemicals in the host organism and inject them were beginning to understand. No,
really interesting domain of power sites manipulating host behavior is when we start looking at
mammals, because as we all know mammals are so much cooler than bizarre little cock roaches and
pinworms crabs of articles. When you get power site that can alter the behavior of novel for the
benefit of the power site itself out important distinction here, which is power sites can induce what
would be called sickness behavior. The behavior of the host organism. Change is not because the
power such as manipulating away for the benefit of the power site itself but just as the organism is
set to announce its behavior just ask not what I'm talking about here. These are cases where the
power site was able to selectively target a particular behavior of the mammalian host for its own
benefit. And remarkably one example of this is the known about for centuries we all listen to know
this one, which is rabies virus rabies virus is like all viruses, some former parasite, what is rabies virus
do we all know. It is finding a way to make as many copies of itself and pass them on and there's lots
of ways this could be got rid of these virus could achieve all the means by which it gets NTU and gets
into your nasal passages and what causes you to do is sneeze dramatically and sports the stuff for
the person sitting in front of you out of moving it could give the infected organism this insatiable
need to lick somebody else and passed on the rabies at work while we all know is what rabies does
as it makes you rabid. That's the way it is transmitted, it makes host organisms were added more
aggressive and more likely to bite another individual and copies of the virus furious copies are
looking around this a lot of their other rabid animal and wrongfully for transfer to the next organism
altering behavior think about the use got scientists who sit around this wall boldly have childish
fights they tried to block each other students, doctoral theses they get into a conference is all about
trying to understand and row signs of aggression and rabies virus understand how to manipulate
aggression better than all those scientists put together. But there's one vulnerability on the part of
the rabies virus so as we'll see shortly a note for example bypasses of what vulnerability it's the non-
specificity of what the rate is virus to us, which is it makes a host rabbit, which may then buy another
organism another organism, where rabies doesn't have the means to manipulate behavior get
passed on. It may be transferred into a dead end species, and that's a vulnerability for rabies like
rabbits for example may get rabies but not the rabbit because it doesn't get passed on from there
that would be a dead. Now, we transition to the most amazing example of all of the power sites
manipulating the million behavior because as you'll see it avoids this a non-specificity of accidentally
stumbling into a dead end species for the most part. It has a way to make that less likely to this
involves a protozoan power cycle talk so plus the full name Toxoplasma gone D. Gandhi, I believe,
and from now on this one for the potential mistake for further with this talk. So in a very familiar
sort of way now talk so Toxoplasma will be familiar to all sorts of people. People who been pregnant
or have hung out around pretty people, because what you're supposed to do that which is become
terrified of Toxoplasma and wears a found intact feces tax-cut and was well-known if you are
pregnant. The cat box should go outside you shouldn't do gardening in a way that may expose you
to Faces. Why because you may get effective talks of plasma, which can get into the fetal nervous
system and we all sorts about having. But that's not what talk so is normally about, because it has a
distinctive lifecycle that involves a workable manipulation of behavior one of those sequential power
sites that moves from one species to another and has to go back to get now for reasons of great
mystery talk show has this limitation. It can only reproduce sexually in the crux of pass actually
probably am seriously a choice people know all about this. I have wanted, but if you only reproduce
in the gut of cats who reproduced sexually there gets excreted in the Feces feces are prickly heat by
rodents and now talk show is inside the road and in what has Fox's evolutionary challenge bad to
find a way to get the infected rodent inside the stomach of a cat to complete his lifecycle. And what
does it do, we could see one of those scenarios alluded to before it could curdle the mice could
that's within the road may not be as capable of invading printer cares what it actually does. You
take a lab rat, you take a lab mouse you take one of these that's a descendent of a live easily in
generations of laboratory rodents who never seen a cat in their lives, and you take some Key and put
it over in the corner of the page to the other at. It has instinctual hardwired version to the orders of
cats. So what talk so does is, it gets rid of better version of rodents were infected with talk so stop
being afraid of Cells and was most amazing is. They now develop an attraction to the first paper
describing is coming up with one of the great all-time titles for paper, fatal attraction in Toxoplasma
infected rodents. It makes the road is like the smell of cats you take a rodent and you expose it to
capsules with the other thing that happens is. It's to secrete stress for month 1000 limits infected
rodents like the smell of cats when they are effective of Toxoplasma Toxoplasma thereby makes the
rodent. More likely to wind up in the stomach of the Because if you weigh close to it to investigate
its beloved source of attractive older and talk so has just completed his lifecycle and the explanation
for this is obvious, which is well worth the room's behaviors messed up is that got this power site in
them, as it turns out in their branch at or just like not acted normally. That's not the case, these
talks were infected rodents they shall perfect normal learning their olfactory system works normally
their social behavior is normal. You are not just laying waste to their nervous system of Jesus is a
little bit more specific than that. You are laying waste to the part of the brain that does fear that is
the version you should be knocking out all sorts of hardwired instinctual fierce in these rodents
because talks was just turning the fear part of the brain of the Swiss cheese, but no that's not what
you see on either, which is rodents that are infected with talk so are for the most part still afraid of
the other things, a rodents are essentially afraid of being open spaces with bright light is not just
generically doing in fear pathways in the brains of these guys is doing it selectively. This is, so you
may think this is like they're some power site that affects you and doesn't change anything about
your behavior. You are collection for how you press your SAT scores were TV programs like all that it
does is give you this insatiable need to break into the zoo at night and French kiss the Casillas looking
polar bear around. That's how the power sites completes his lifecycle. This is actually why, and you
can see another measure of the specificity what talks was doing. You look at closely related power
site for the parasites are they able to induce this fatal attraction and rodents nobody don't and they
don't have this limitation of only reproducing and cats. You look at what infected rats feel about the
smell of other predators, and it doesn't change those and there's actually a company called leg up
where fuel for Christmas presents. You can get an assortment pack of urine samples from all sorts of
different creditors means bobcats Tigers apparently also and you can just run wild and as we did in
my lab studying the bidders only loss aversion to the smell of cats is old news to, how does this work
houses work. This is something my wives would try to understand for a number of years to add a
little bit of a sense of the talks of plus or get into the body of rodents gets into the gut, because we
heard the rodents will ingest infected feces from cats. So it's now inside the body of the rodents and
would you say this slowly over the course of weeks afterward. It migrates from the crux of soul. For
example, but it also migrates into the brain into the nervous system of these rodents, where it
doesn't trigger changing behavior. Our way we think it does is it knows exactly where in the brain to
migrate actually once all over the brink preferentially goes to the perfect brain region that is most
famously involved in fear of version a part of the brain called the amygdala. Like if you want to muck
around with an organism's fear or anxiety phobias, whatever you want to land in the amygdala and
start manipulating things to knows how to get to precisely the right place. When they see as if
taping now in 2011 is once in the Nicola talk so was able to cause in the wrong spiritual atrophy
disconnecting circuits is disconnecting some of this fear circuitry how it is selectively doing to the
fear of cats also supposed with your bright open spaces. We haven't a clue work for Nevada, but
okay, what we just explained. The loss of a version that only explains half of how is talk so managing
to now produce an attraction they fatal attraction for the smell of rodents and remarkably, what we
see his talks. It was able to do some rewiring in the branch and a circuit is hijacked a circuit that
normally responds to sexually arousing voters in these rodents listen to this. What talk so does is
have a rat that smells Voters, and thanks to undoing the circuit and being able to divert things and
other circuit. The animal reacts as if he has smelled a sexually arousing Fairmont from the female
road. She has decided that Hatteras smells sexy, and prosecution wants up inside the stomach of
the This is very very unexpected alteration behavior. Of course, which are wondering right now is
world of humans get infected with talks and doesn't have any behavioral effects and the answer is
yes. There is by now a very solid literature showing Toxoplasma infection is associated with an
increased risk of schizophrenia. That's kind of interesting and it turns out that it causes some
changes in your chemistry brain chemistry similar to some of the things that seems to go wrong and
schizophrenia schizophrenics have a higher than expected rate of having had talk so exposure
somewhere earlier in life tax when they were a kid Exposure of their mother during pregnancy. So
that's wondering if there's another as well, which is it has more subtle effects on behavior. There's
now a literature showing that men who are infected with talks of it or lose it disintegrated with their
behavior. They get a little bit less restraint there are now separate publications independent
replication to look for in a study showing that people infected with talk so or something like 3 to 4
times more likely to get themselves killed in car accidents involving reckless speed. That could be
because it is producing perhaps they fatal attraction for driving quickly alternative. It could just be
messing with coordination of his evidence for that. Here's an additional overture merging
suggesting it's affecting the behavior talk supplies for infected humans as reporting independently
replicated studies increases for the same severity of depression of likelihood of impulses we
committing suicide. This is overly wild stuff that we barely understand that the stitch. So what are
some of the lessons to be taken for what is obvious to anyone which they think about it is described
busily in more examples after power sites manipulating our behavior and the mind reels at the
possibility is there would've also does is teach us a little bit of evolutionary humility. Now, we
humans we mammals we refurbished we are very proud of ourselves. We humans we have
opposable phones, and we can work high pads and we've got big brains and we can lactate than all a
person we can lactate a species all this fancy million stuff like this talks history teaches you is we are
not necessarily the most involved were the most clever species out there
Lecture 05: Poverty's Remains

Or is there a is passed on to a better place. Jesus this piece of glass at St. Peter's gate at the people
farm become an empty vessel taken from us. Big sleep off the farm cash in his chips climbing the
stairway to Heaven croaked during the graveyard shift ended his days final resting place final sleep
free at last given up the ghost gone the way of all flesh gone to his reward. Happy hunting
ground. He's had a negative patient care outcomes. In h deep-sixed paradise in the great beyond in
the hereafter in the invisible quark in the permanent safety deposit boxes upon boxes house in the
skull orchard is at the dirt discos in cold storage caput kick the bucket meeting his maker needing the
maggots other realm out of business, passing over Jordan pastor of peace place of eternal rest,
pushing up daisies shed his mortal coil, 6 feet under sleeping without bail. Soft sport, taking the dirt
nap, the big off-line fat lady is so taken a one-way trip told you he was sick with God with the worms
and my favorite play hard duets with Jimmy Hoffa now, what does all of this teach us something very
obvious. We don't like saying that somebody's dead. We don't like the idea that all we've got very
squishy and big US feelings about dealing with mortality, especially the fact that our own mortality is
inevitable. And as a manifestation of that body is kind of creep us out, because we'll see you later
lecture despite that we often go to extraordinary extends to retrieve bodies and as we will see that
has all sorts of ritualistic meanings, but for the most part bodies can't unnerve us as bodies and what
could be done with them afterwards. The notion that someday a bunch of medical students may
marvel at the degenerative tissue inside your torso or that your spleen may want a pickled in some
dusty corner of a lab. Now it's always been this way were not with all individuals, 1829 there were
some counts with tears a brit and Peter bound and what he left was this just festival pragmatism be
left very strict instructions as to what should be done with his body after his death his bones should
be used for teaching. This gender should be tanned and used for chair, his inner should be used as
fertilizer by most of us are not like that most of us are not that pragmatic most of us are just creeped
out by bodies and especially by the fact that someday where to wind up as well to one result of that
is that the incidence of all talking has gone way down. People are much less likely to agree for love
once the autopsy. People are much less likely to agree themselves when their deficit to add this has
a medical consequences as autopsies can be very useful. For one thing they could sometimes tell a
cause of death when nobody had a clue one person was still a lot of. Sometimes they can confirm or
contradict a diagnosis that the doctors made some time that can be used for research that could be
used for teaching another teaching part is particularly interesting because in order to get trained as
a physician you need to learn gross anatomy. You need to learn from a corpse. You need to hit the
courts, and as the centerpiece of this whole lecture throughout the history of medical education of
medical research. It's not random, whose bodies were starting its nonrandom whose bodies were all
talk seen the central point of this whole lecture is over the centuries. It's disproportionately been
the bodies of poor people, as we'll see since produced some oddities, but one also proceeded to
generate was one of the odd corners of medical history, a disease that accidentally got invented
around 1900 was invented because people didn't know that something was different about the
bodies of the poor versus everyone else and this odd quirk of mistaken topology before was over
what was the cause of tens of thousands of deaths that all of us begins in the 16th century with King
Henry VIII. Now Henry did not have any particular interest in anatomy, but nonetheless he should
be a teacher and saints of anatomists and autopsies because he made a law during his reign, which
was criminal, who are executed would then be dissected by the anatomists.active in the middle of
the town square hole to pieces in front of everyone left overs taught to the dogs. And what was
clear about that. Was full to work getting executed were disproportionately the poor. This was a
time for stealing a loaf of bread could cause you to meet the gallows now by the 18th century. This
trend has been growing for the simple fact that there were more medical schools something
beginning to resemble our modern notion of what a medical school as an added that came a
wonderful new occupation. You could work the graveyard shift, you could be what was called a
resurrection asked you to do that for a living war in the term is more familiar to you to be a
bodysnatcher. Because what you would do is get the bodies of the dead and sell them to the people
at the medical school. The anatomists in order to learn about the human body doing autopsies were
some gross anatomy of this involves all sorts of wild unlikely things. Not only were these
resurrection is often out of my dig up corpses from in the graveyard. They were sometimes reading
funerals and stealing the bodies right at that point. In some cases, they were wrestling people for
now, this was far more likely to occur when the body's report and the wealthy and wealthy during
that period would often pay for an armed guard at the funeral so that resurrection is to not crash
the party. But you also saw during that time was a rule out in the hospitals who ever came and paid
the bill got the body and the resurrection is to often be there and once again. That's going to be a
bias towards getting the bodies of the poor. Even more so, would be the fact that poor people were
buried in Potters Fields. Often not in coffins were made of flimsy material fairly shallow and contrast
the wealthy in some impregnable coffin, way down their undergrad this even gave rise to a new
invention. Somewhere around 1820 or so, a patented old coffin, patented triple coffin where the
body of the wealthy individual would be put into the old delay or coffin walked and so that the
resurrection is we're not going to get to them and just in case that wasn't good enough. There was
even something that emerged during this period in the cemeteries of the wealthy something called
the dead house, where you would have the body of the individual left there under armed guard and
the wealthy gent or gentlewoman's body aloud she reached such a point of genteel purification that
nobody would try to steal it and at that point they would be buried. So we've got this bias here for
the bodies of the poor of this. Gave rise to a very interesting herb in the English language blocking
working was named for a gentleman of William Burke, who was an aging resurrection is presumably
he was getting a little tired of the night work all the physical labor of having to dig stuff up and what
he did was he opened up a soup kitchen is soup kitchen for the poor and the poor would come in
and he would find some means of lowering them out of the alleyway off overhead slit their throats
and soon. Mr. Burke had burped somebody and they were off to meet the anatomists ironic endings
here when he was eventually convicted of this he himself was home at his skull sensorineural
anatomists they're trying to figure out how somebody could do such an offense of crime. Now the
poor short notice that they were being disproportionately autopsies that their bodies were being
stolen at funerals that their coffins if they were coffins were being dug up at night there being urged
a awareness of this and as result of all sorts of resurrection must have anatomists and doctors and
medical students would be lynched by angry crowds. He would have crowds of people burning
down hospitals where the bodies of the poor were being dissected bring down the holdings of the
anatomists. This is all going on at that time, around 1780 event happened, that is the store cleaner
was the doctors rebellion at King's College in New York soon named instead Colombia University
Columbia College, a doctor's rebellion. There was discovered that some medical students try to get
some cash on the side students questions being what they were even in the 18th century fungus in
cash on the side couple resurrection of starting business cut out the middleman and were caught
one night and taking a bodies out in Potters field. And this generated a go figure a riotous
displeasure on the part of the poor major riots the doctors rebellion the anatomists and faculty of
Kings College medical school had to take refuge in the house of of Alexander Hamilton of the tissue
was called after fire on the crowd. All because of this preferential stealing and autopsies of the body
of the poor numbers also gave rise by the 19th century to a law in the number of European countries
that actually formalized this process will also perfectly known as anatomy acts, which said that if a
person died in the poor house. Their body was turned over to the anatomists, if a person had died
and the relatives could not pay for the medical expenses. The body was automatically sent to the
anatomists. That was really interesting book if you're looking for some fun holiday reading by
historian Ruth Richardson book and deaf dissection and the destitute and she makes a very
convincing argument that these anatomy acts were introduced to punish to terrorize the poor. But
here's the argument that she makes in 1829 in England. He was the first introduction of the
proposed anatomy acts in the British Parliament and was roundly voted down by everybody saying
this is a holiness is being humane. Doing this to the poor automatically turning over their bodies just
because they're poor. In 1832 there were major riots in England were for riots mostly by crowds of
the poor and in the aftermath parliament considered the act again and passed resoundingly. The
Richardson's thesis very convincingly that sending the bodies of the poor to the anatomists is a great
Friday punishments to the poor for their unfortunate in for dig up arising there don't even think
about trying that again. And by the mid-19th century best estimate soars 99% of the bodies that
were autopsies 99% of what medical students learn from the bodies of the poor don't version of this
is still going on these days there's still that disproportionate bias, but quite frankly, but it was still
there. I know a guy who for living would wander around India. This was a physical anthropologist
and what he would do worse by the bodies of the deceased from poor people there to be shipped
back where ever and turned into a skillet for educational purposes, and he had no shortage of
people who were willing to sell off the remnants of their loved ones was really disturbing is after
while he had a fairly clear sense than some these cases, the relatives of work, hard to hasten the
demise of their relative there just for little bit of extra cash to tide you over this still goes on these
days. But out of all of this comes, what is the really interesting thing about this whole lecture by mid
all of these emphases and autopsies bona fide biases as to the bodies of the poor being
autopsies. Disproportionately this wound up having a major consequence, as we'll see later lecture
people as a function of their social economic status of different diseases and the poor aren't as
healthy. And what we see here is the fact that the poor were not equally being autopsies were
being preferentially so gave rise to this very surprising outcome. So the main story here has to do
with the interesting thing that happens during stress that during stress you should read all sorts of
stress for most do not write these terms down glucocorticoids epinephrine one of the things that
chronic stress does is it causes atrophy of some parts of the body hypertrophy of other parts for
example hypertrophy. The adrenal glands were the source of the court voids and of adrenaline and
over the course of chronic stress they will get bigger. But we will see here is there's another organ
that gets smaller and faster calls of this medical disaster. By the early 20th century physicians were
wrestling with the cause of the disease that is commonplace these days, a disease that invented it
was known as crib death these days, we know what a sudden infant death syndrome that he was
just being recognized as a disorder. A disorder where a perfectly healthy child, typically a baby is put
to sleep at night and for no obvious reason dies during the night. The mystery of sudden infant
death syndrome. So it's around 1900 and you are a medical scientist, a biomedical researcher and
you are trying to understand where sudden infant death syndrome is coming for the turns out that
there's something critical happening back to that business about stress. Its effects on the body just
lessons on excretion of these legal stress levels, which reveals that are meanwhile north of that in
your throat. There's a glands called the finest glass on this planet has something to do with your
defenses. And what was found very soon after the discovery of the stress or launch is that because
atrophy of the finest love. It causes to shrink hundreds reasons why this makes sense does have
something to do with the fact that stress suppresses a new defenses take up his new record in the
finest. This was a big affect reversible, but a huge huge effect and added this affect the fact that
people didn't understand the rule of stress and the fact that they were learning their anatomy
disproportionately from the bodies of the poor added this came this capacity having to do with Sid's
sudden infant death syndrome by these days are getting some insight into what the disease was
about as 1900, and you are trying to understand this newly recognized disease. So what did you
really don't have molecular biology, you don't have imaging techniques you've got the cutting edge
of 1900 science, which is to cut the person open anatomy. During that time, a German anatomists
and how tough it is one of the first studies try to understand what's different about the bodies of
kids who die from sudden infant deaths per download again the requirement for SIDS is the kid
wasn't sick. The trial was mysteriously at night, the child was healthy, jewelry or he has his account
is a bias is that infants who die from citizens tend to be middle or upper class to downsize this
anatomists and what he's done from day one learning about the body as an anatomists is the
information derived from studying the bodies of the poor. But that introduces a bonus, the very
simple reason that it was not recognize that the body of a poor person is not a normal body. It is the
body that bears the wounds and scars the stigmata of poverty of one of the things that that does is a
life of chronic stress for incense. Chronic illness, if you are poor malnutrition and factions these $.14
in normal autopsy studies that were dying of chronic stress. The other words, when anatomists at
that time were learning the anatomy of what the baby human body was about because of the fact
that they were disproportionately studying the bodies of the poor, would they were learning was a
totally incorrect idea as to how big the finest land is supposed to be the fault they were looking at
normal sized finest glass, but in reality. They were looking to find his clients that had shrunk as
result of the stressors of being a poor child dying of chronic diseases. In other words, what they
thought of as a normal sized finest was in fact, one was abnormal abnormally shrunk. But I don't
know this. So down such this anatomists and he's one of the first 10 now autopsied the body is not
of poor infants poor children, but children who were middle-class children, whose bodies were not
warped by poverty. Children whose fineness clans has not shrunk the case study in the bodies of
these since kids, these little class kids and comparing it to everything he knows about anatomy of
the body of an infant with a normal court finds clans and what the guy really does go look at the size
of the fineness is in the SIDS kids their big their abnormally large. We know exactly what was going
on here, which is he didn't know what was normal game is the first anatomists looking at what
normal sized finest his work because he couldn't appreciate that by disproportionately looking at the
body support during his education. He hadn't totally wrong idea as to what the normal sizes of the
Fox been added this came from very simple conclusion, which is SIDS involves an abnormally
enlarged fondness and he came up with a perfectly plausible theory, which is for whatever
mysterious developmental reason some kid having large fineness gland and at some point during
sleep presses down the trachea suffocates the child at night. Here is the theory to explain all is said
and have normally large finest, which compresses the tricky at night and we know this was totally
wrong. He was looking at normal sized viruses and he didn't have a clue that the fondness is he
learned on work abnormally shrunk in by the stress of poverty. Okay, so he comes up with is very
influential suit, theory and by the early 20th century is catching on is being accepted and it was so
excepted that it even got a name. There was a name for this imaginary disorder of having, and I'm
normally large finest plant, a disease was invented called status via: fact is, this was the description
for this post of abnormality of an enlarged fondness which causes you to us and infant at an
increased risk of your trachea being compressed and he was the name of it. We know that was
nonsense, but here is a new disease cutting edge every top-of-the-line physician pediatrician
understood that SIDS involves something abnormally large finest was wildly influential by the 1920s,
this was in every pediatric textbook out there and by the 1920s. People had a pretty good idea as to
how you prevent this baby is SIDS how you prevent these large fineness if you take advantage of the
wonderful new technology and irradiate the fruits of babies. If you concerned parents want to
protect your child from the risk of said taken and have their throat are radiated to shrink the
abnormally large fineness Bui know that's nonsense we know it's ridiculous, and we than discover
that there is a really bad outcome is right next to the fineness is the fibroid client and marinate the
thyroid gland and radiation and you've greatly increase the risk of ivory cancer before was over with
best estimates are that this wonderfully helpful intervention of shrinking abnormally large finest
glass was the cause of death of at least 10,000 people downloaded 1920s. The first hints were
beginning to appear in the literature that this was gibberish. Somebody discovered that babies who
were killed in accidents in car accidents. All of them seem to suffer from status via: fact is that all
having large. I must clans, what is that about, we know what that's about bad normal sized viruses,
and they dogged by an abrupt accident rather than the raw.
The shrinking consequences of being poor once I thought about this here thing reported the medical
literature and roundly ignored them wasn't until the 1930s that people began to understand these
effects of stress on the fineness gland and was put together the pieces by a man anyone who went
from medical training and study pediatrics loses guys named Nelson of Nelson's textbook of
pediatrics. He was a young intern at the time University of Pennsylvania, and he was the first one to
put this together and save all my God. They got that backwards. It's not abnormally large fineness is
in these kids, these are normal sized finest is and what he do when you're radiating them he was the
first person and 1930s additions of this textbook to say the events and nonetheless it persisted for
remarkably long time afterward, and I've met people who in the 1950s in their childhood had their
fruits are radiated to avoid this imaginary disease had had come down with fiber cancer. This is one
chilling thing to contemplate the few want to do something release geeks go to a medical library and
go down to the basement that patterns down there and go through the old textbooks and look at
pediatric textbooks from the 1920s, and there is this really dangerous disease status by Michael
emphatic as you will see pictures of the supposedly I'm normally a large fineness is the peak detail
protocols there about how much radiation on which days to avoid this disease. All of the raw ball of
it asked backwards all the safely wrong and all you can do in the context of little bit of humility is sit
there and say what kind of mistakes are we making the stays in what ways are we deciding there's a
disease state is not really disease, because we don't know what a normal body looks like the okay so
this is an incredible piece of medical history. When it also should be obviously is instructive, because
there's all sorts of lessons that come out of this. As we will see you later lecture as I mentioned
there will be a focus on this simple fact that your social economic status as a whole lot to do with
your health. If you get a choice in the matter. Don't be poor, especially when you're growing
up. Don't make the mistake of being born into a poor family, your health is going to suffer for the
rest of your life seem to come up with a very good soapbox sort of seeing their can we do something
to raise the health inequities in people as a function of their social economic status of the obviously
that's not to get you very far here so much for something a little bit more manageable if people can't
live equally under health hazard function of their social economic status of least they should be all
top-seeded heat will rates because this bias has caused all sorts of problems as we've seen by what
other lessons come for us. If you look at what counts as cutting edge biomedical research and
medical fantasies this is amazing stuff. Its cheek when he sequencing the genome soon distribute
personalized moments where your own genome will be sequenced in order to get a doctor's sense
of what drugs will work better on me, what interventions sequencing the genome artificial organs
transplanted in Iran's and the brain stem cell biology revolutionizing the whole field will be seeing
here is some of the time. You need to have people doing EDI Cleese and plastic biomedical research,
ticketless things like asking the question of well what's the normal size of the fineness gland that
ridiculous that 19th century anatomy. Why would anyone want to study that because as we
see. Sometimes it's not so easy to be sure, what is a normal sized glass with disastrous
consequences. But at the end of the biggest lesson that comes out of all of this is one that
transcends the medicine transcends biomedical research trends in science, one that is relevant to
virtually every aspect of how we go about having judgments decisions deciding on actions how we
go about this, which is the very very careful when you have decided what counts as a normal state,
because the second you've decided what normal is convinced yourself of the second you pronounce
that you forever after distorted your ability to look at an exception to that supposed to ignore reality
and see it for what it really is
Lecture 06: Why Are Dreams Dreamlike

Will you are, is that there is a youth find yourself for dinner I realize you're feeling very disaffected
revealed Thursday in a foreign language. Suddenly you feel pressure on your foot feel somebody
else's foot on the glance of you have contact eye contact with the attractive stranger sitting opposite
you suddenly realize you must come up with the one word that will captivate them as a one word for
word as you say it did leave us all the guests are gone. Table is gone from the place, because all of
your grandparents sees and watching you to point I realized very severe looking man in a black frock
coat standing next to her was great clarity nostalgia. You say, William Henry Seward, US Secretary of
State Andrew Johnson of menstruation, denote one of those streets. This basic tautology that
insofar as kidneys or kidney shaped or organs. Dreams are dreamlike bad, would you immediately
want to know is, why do we dream blog entry blog or brains work that way that we should do that
now. The thing about dreams is the repair the rapidity the emotional content. Seconds after
meeting somebody in your dream. You are doing some activity thoroughly unlikely, because in real
life it would work that way. If you were at that dinner table and the foot was being pressed on yours
and glanced up and things were about to take off. Maybe they wouldn't because you realize this
person actually is totally erotic or they got a piece of broccoli stuck between their chief and that is
sort of taken the order of the future you suddenly realize he left the car lights on in dreams, though
all this sort of stuff can occur with rapid transitions heightened emotions disinhibition of emotions
by not only our dreams representing things we wouldn't do awaiting life if you manage to reflect for
a second season things you wouldn't simply want to do in real life. So the question becomes of
course wide we drink that some of the time that serves absolutely concrete purposes. For example,
it could be a very good way to let you know that I'll like you need to wake up and urinate suddenly
on the dream completely built around that or it could tell you about other sort of bodily states are
either dream once this was way back during the time of the Ayatollah Khomeini. Then I dreamt that
I was some sort of resistance fighter was captured by Ayatollah and this was clearly a night when I
have a mosquito bites just before going to sleep captured by the Ayatollah brought out and sing in
Seoul is to be executed in the town square box. All interest rates, great benefits and and pity a lousy
infidel one last wish, what is a speak and I say. Can you scratch on the shoulder just overhears
during which some of the time dreams are just giving us concrete information. Over time may be
dreams are letting the God speak to us. Sure it's a chance to work out some your motor issues
without all the repression getting in the way. The radius of chance to problem solve there is
evidence that means super foster creative problem-solving than there's a whole view that were
dreams are about is taking underused circuitry in your brave ones that haven't gotten enough
activity during the day and here's a way to get them serve warmed up again, these gibberish
pathways and then of course there's the scenario of having the sex dream with some completely
unlikely person soaks the next day at work when you encounter them in the hall. You're acting all
weird and uncomfortable it may just keep the surrealists in business. But in order to get a sense of
why we have dreams. We could start off with why we sleep the sleep this is very ancient
phylogenetic phenomenon. What that's a fancy way of saying is, you see stuff that looks like sleep in
all sorts of unlikely species interests are full of fruit flies and worms like you even feel convinced of
their weight highly you know that the three main benefit what you notice is they can have periods
where they are in active they are resistant to stimuli. That's a fly speaking sleep. Then you can show
more evidence for it you can induce was called sleep debt. If you keep the fly, always keep nudging
it so we can sleep and then let it do its own thing it will go into that corporate state for longer. And
if you didn't keep it away or you can show that you deprive flies of their sleep states even further
function presumably their bosses well for, you can show that if you take a fly and putting the more
complex environment will do more of that sleep stuff. Just like us sleep at all sorts of other species
is well one of the things you see, the carnivores sleep a whole lot more than prey species, which
makes a lot of sense if you are a oh wildebeest you're spending awful lot of time being unrestful
keep an eye out for law items who if they ever get a meal and scarf down a whole bunch of needs
can then go 20 hours a day of sleeping without getting needed some fruit cart of war is really
specialize in sleep by what other sorts of creatures. You then find your oddities in the sleep world
defined fish that can sleep with half a brain of the time you find birds migrating birds that are able to
sleep on their fly again, this trick of half of bringing the time you begin to realize the sleep is this very
widespread phenomenon, which you begin to look at when you were closer is. It's not just the
unmodified undifferentiated state of sleeping beauty sleep. The state is a whole architecture to
sleep, the slow wave sleep Thursday thinkers with REM sleep arrived anonymously is always
different stages of sleep, but very interestingly, there's a number of different psychiatric disorders
where you see that the architectural structure of sleep has been changed by sample new casinos in
depression and major clinical depression. There is this change in the structure most of us go through
a rock approximately 90 minutes cycles of going through different sleep stages and that pattern is
altered in major depression, and this is one of the most frightening ways of showing the pressure
on. Oh people were just kind of indulging themselves and not really pushing themselves to go out
with her producing biological disorder is a biochemical disorder and some of the greatest
evidence. You can get is while someone with major depression is asleep their brains working
differently. The structure of their sleep has changed the people in trying to study sleep for quite
some time and there's a time honored ancient technology for looking out it which is to look at the
electrical activity of large parts of the brain all of what doing EEGs electro-and sunflower, which will
tell you something about the degree of alertness of different brain regions by what you see is that
there is a whole short-term pattern of what the EEG does have different points of sleep and EEGs
patterns like that are fairly restricted to mammals, reptiles don't have driven waves of electrical
excitation during sleep, what we do and traditionally people in able to get a lot of information by
knowing when someone is in a particular state sleep stage. Now one of the things this EEG
technique can show you is that when you going to slow wave sleep at this stage of sleep overall
electrical activity decreases in the brain. And this begins to give you some insight as to one of the
things sleep is about, particularly the slow wave sleep state, which is it's a time that your brain
restores energy loss of sleep decoration you induce what would be called a sleep debt. And you
sleep more afterward and will be shown is a greater percentage of the sleep for it afterward is spent
in this restorative slow wave sleep stage, but turns out stress for some really interesting things here,
which is stress as we all know has adverse effects on sleep, stress makes it more difficult for sleep,
bound as we know what he is stressful and suddenly you're in this vicious cycle where stress and her
sleep, which causes more stress or you go around in his loop in there and one of the things that
someone is showing that stress itself has an effect on some of the energy stores in the branch's
compound called glycogen by glycogen storage form of energy in the brain and stress decreases the
extent to which glycogen is built back up again during sleep. Stress is not only making it harder or to
fall asleep once you are sleep is reducing the quality of fish efficiency of restorative energetic effects
of sleep. But if you really want to see an impact between stress and sleep quality. Not only have
less sleep, but have fragmented sleep, and especially sleep fragmented at unpredictable times. That
just reeks havoc with the ability of your brain to restore energy stores during the slow wave sleep
down recent years, EEG approaches have been made considerably more fancy by calling it to
modern brain imaging techniques. Techniques like pets stands MRIs, magnetic resonance imaging,
all of these techniques allow you to suddenly look at, not the brain as a whole particular sub regions
of the brain by which now was to give these really cool stories, which is you look at somebody
sleeping baby use standard old DJs to tell you what sleep stage their end and then meanwhile the
brain imaging techniques tell you is, which parts of the brain have become more active become less
active than really cool stuff you can do with this been one of the most interesting studies was done
by Alan Braun and his colleagues working at the National Institutes of Health. But here's what they
did, somehow or other of a lead some volunteers into going to also 24 253 hours without sleep and
is hard to imagine what the Tyson wants to do that but they got people to do that. Then eventually
they dragged them in these sort of shallow left overs of these once attacked people brought them
into the loud atstill couldn't go to sleep. They were stuck in a brain scanner in order to get a
baseline measures just people wanting their exhausted with her sleep deprivation run through the
MRI get some sense of what their brains to that point, and finally finally they are allowed to fall
asleep, and they are snowed as a board inside the scanner there and you can now begin to see what
changes occur in particular brain regions as someone transition from being awake into going into
their sleep state. But now no surprise in agreement with the overall picture of what you sow from
EEGs and rubber EEGs are telling you about electrical activity across large swaths of the brain. But
now with the MRI you were looking at particular sub regions of what you say makes perfect sense
given the EEGs over all there is a decrease in activity in most brain regions with the onset of slow
wave sleep than some areas particularly stand out. There is a system of the called the particular
activating system and what it has times to do with his older myths or row also put your finger on
attending reticular system leaps into action to be really a wake and over during a lecture or perhaps
you are and it is going gangbusters and perfectly logically. Its level of activity picked up by the
standards goes way down to the onset of slow wave sleep. In addition, you decrease the activity of
all sorts of parts of the brain that have moved four functions will tour to give commands to your
muscles to do the Ya are just lying there in a move and a whole lot. That part of the brain has
become quiet since also some parts of the brain that are centrally involved in memory become very
quiet as well joke a persons there find finally sleeping the scanner and 90 minutes or so into it they
hit their first round stage their first issue of rapidfire movement. But here, the picture changes in a
very interesting way. First off, this slow wave sleep picture of uniformed decrease in activity
throughout the brain subtly some regions become active, but amazingly, some regions become even
more active than 1.08. Some of these regions. First are parts of the brain that are involved in
autonomic function of public function. This is your brain can fully stuff in your body that you
normally are not her bleeding up regulating it consciously or heart rate your reasoning range
contraction in your stomach walls also stuff like that that happens with the onset of Britain's sleep
around on sleep the sleep stage associated with dreaming. Your heart rate has increased your
breathing rate. You were turning on aspects of this autonomic nervous system, and perhaps even
more so than when you were awake and this is suddenly the world of view for wondering if you
happen to be a puppy and everybody is looking at you and cooing over all the cute stuff you're doing
what you're sleep. As you're all in all my nervous system is just going like mad. Another region of
the brain, which gets activated perhaps even more than one way with the onset of dreaming REM
stage. The part of the brain called the limbic system, the limbic system, and this is a loose
association of a bunch of brain structures, what is the limbic system about it's about motion. It's
about a Russian sexual arousal on anxiety and fear freighter void in such fraction of all that stuff
Olympics system gets highly active coming out of line on the floor during slow wave sleep. The
structures of the limbic system suddenly become very active. Makes perfect sense as well, as we are
currently towards understanding what dreams are about dreams are just marinated in functioning of
limbic system than other cluster of brain regions become more active region called the hippocampus
that the This which has lots to do with memory formation. Parts of the cortex that are involved in
memory formation memory retrieval as well. What's going on here, this is as we will see the ability
of dreams to be wrenching off memories. Perhaps it has something to do with reviewing some of
the information some memories that came through during the day and then influencing dreams ball
of the the the, and this really interesting area of the brain that becomes highly active. When you go
to sleep. Then this is an area of the cortex called associative sensory cortex array. What's this about
let's look at one domain of the associative visual cortex powders were brain normally processed
fish. The see something visual information comes in for your eyes gets adults of the brain to a
particular region line very visual cortex, and what goes around here do is just no show workmanship
of decoding what you're seeing a bunch of Iran's there specialize in detecting dots and they pass
information once when asked where I turned adults and Hawaiians and another layer and wanted
some curves all without all the processing extracting of century church and eventually all of this stuff
gets shot rolled upstairs to the more advanced the more complex associative visual cortex. That's
not part of brain is telling you whether this pixel were that pixel as a certain degree brightness. This
is the part of the brain that's generating complex visual stimuli asked Helling you. You're looking at a
wet every you're looking at this individual you're looking at trade. You were looking at a complex
visual image to what happens during REM sleep. This associative visual cortex so link is really active
Beardslee though the primary visual cortex. Those layers during those first steps of processing
turning Datsun salons and lines moving the cursor absolutely silent void if this is greatly this is
treating you were dreaming of visual imagery. That's not for real. That's not really come into your
head because your sound asleep. It is generating all on its own, but his property of a bunch of the
sensory system suddenly amid your primary auditory cortex being very quiet. That would be turning
a single note into according to a cluster of sound. It's both the more complex associative auditory
cortex is going away and what ever is highly active and whatever sort of viewers seeing in your
dream you're hearing complex sounds as well as the war insight into what dreams are about. We
see here is the same slow wave sleep from than this decrease in activity of lots of areas throughout
the brain transition to read and sleep wrapped on moving sleep the sleep stage where you're most
likely to be dreaming at all sorts of interesting parts of the brain becoming highly active at this
point. But here's where we get really interesting exception, but it's got to do with a part of the brain
called the prefrontal cortex in the prefrontal cortex activity kits to floor it goes down dramatically
with the onset of REM sleep. But why is this interesting prefrontal cortex is arguably the most
interesting part of the brink if the part of the brain that most completely sorted to find who we are
as humans. But we've got more votes than virtually any other species out there as a percentage of
total brain weight. You don't see very fancy frontal cortices lots of other species as what we will see
in the next lecture is your frontal cortex has a whole lot to do with regulating behavior. The
regulating behavior, if you want to summarize what it does the frontal cortex makes you do the
harder thing. If it's the right thing to do. It resists the easy solution from the cortex is the thing that
keeps you from belching during the silent point of the wedding ceremony or you've just even the
most rent is stealing your life, but you have to enthusiastically ask the host what the recipe is it's
your frontal cortex that keeps you from being a serial murderer. It is porting all the restraints on
behavior. It is doing gratification postponement long-term planning self-discipline, frontal cortex is
critical to the interesting link if you do damage to the frontal cortex all sorts of aspects of behavior
are impaired. Your ability to regulate appropriately regulate behavior. Then you will see
circumstances were somebody would frontal damage perhaps after a stroke. Absolutely
understands the rules of some situation, whether it is a formal game that you were playing some
such think they understand rules they can even state them what they cannot keep themselves from
doing the easier or less proven think there is loss of will wish no control over behavior that you
better bet there's all sorts of interesting legal implications of that old world of people who thanks to
frontal damage may note the difference between right and wrong button on the less cannot
regulate their behavior. The other interesting feature of the frontal cortex, which is it's the last part
of the brain to fully develop kids do not have much in the way of a functioning from cortex as any of
us who have kids or any of us who were kids are capable of some honest reflection will attest to a
kissing wake the frontal cortex is not fully matured into your about 25 years old. And this was the
basis of number of years ago of the Supreme Court saying the brain of a 17-year-old committing
some appalling violent crime, has to be considered differently than the brain of an adult because it is
still her logically immature. You can execute somebody who did some crime than they were 70
more features the frontal cortex. You will find it has lower than normal levels of activity in people
with so she passed the personalities. People with repressive personalities have over act with
overactive frontal cortices. People with urological disease called picks disease or frontal temporal
dementia can damage your frontal cortex at how you begin to pick up memory problems know the
person starts doing all sorts of dysentery, but it inappropriate things. And that's the insight that
suddenly comes warring in there. That's why dreams are dreamlike, because your frontal cortex is
taken out of faction. You were having all the autonomic stuff going this route stated reading faster
in your REM state and your generating all this visual auditory olfactory imagery is not based on
anything really coming into your limbic system is warring along. And why is the limbic system or in
along because an awful lot of what the frontal cortex does is send inhibitory projections into the
limbic system, and it's working like mad during normal day is saying to the limbic system. You, are
you actually want to strangle this person cover for you want to do with the later regretted the
frontal cortex as ringing in the limbic systems emotionality and vendor and dreamed the frontal
cortex is metabolic rate drops down to the floor and the limbic system runs wild, and that's why
dreams are dreamlike. But suddenly, you're dreaming that you can fly or you could breathe
underwater router president of world or in some grandmaster chess tournament against lady dog
just goes out of control at that point, because this part of the brain that imposes linear rational
regulation of your emotional brain is out to lunch when you go into REM stage. That of course this
on first passage to describe the solution to everything. Why is it that dreams are dreamlike it's
because during REM sleep. Your prefrontal cortex goes very much off-line metabolic rate was down
as a result of the living system disinherited runs wild when you have dreamlike content your drinks
notices really hasn't gone Missouri for is what we've done to redefine the question. Why are dreams
dream like this because the frontal cortex goes way down to terms with, which of course brings up
the question of why does the frontal cortex. Go off-line during REM sleep. People are still trying to
understand that by what people don't have a handle on yet is is there a relationship for example
between how much the frontal cortex silences during REM sleep and just how vivid your dreams
are. Nobody knows that ball, so what's not known as is their inverse relationship between how
active you frontal cortex is during the day when it's metabolic rate is like and how much it. Then,
goes off-line during REM sleep, a suggestion of that remember just mentioning people with high
repressive personalities. Something spoken about in an earlier lecture people with repressive
personalities highly emotionally rigid, regimented. They have normal levels of frontal cortical
function that harder than most other people's, could it be because they're frontal cortices are
working so hard during the day that those who view we really off-line during dream stages and
dreams of people with repressive personalities are everybody else's to shame in terms of vividness
inviting us baby doing a stuff up. The more questions that remain. One is try to understand what
the prefrontal cortex individual differences be gone and simply extremes like these repressive
personalities. Individual differences with things like content. The content still is not understood in
the slightest. What remains for the unknown and sleep slides really are two things. First is, as we
saw this big mechanistic questioned why is it that the frontal cortex goes so off-line with the onset of
room sleep and then everything else cascading from their more research is needed and weird
individual differences, from what is the explanation for the content of dreams, but essentially what
you're asking is worse than her biological basis for why some of us are spending more REM stages
and chess grandmaster torments against lady dog and for others it's not quite what comes up on
regular basis, what we have here is one of the remaining mysteries of science one of the things to be
explained to understand the nature of life as every scientist is required to say at this point. More
research is needed
Lecture 07: The Pleasures and Pains of Maybe

[music] welcome back, because I mentioned in one of the earlier lecture is part of every surgeon
Paul Shield work studying population of wild baboons in the national Park in East Africa and is part of
the research you get to know the animals reasonably well. The bus, let me tell you the tale of
Rebecca and Jonathan to baboons in one of my troops. Now Rebecca had everything going for her
female that women spend their whole life in the same troops show you essentially inherit your rank
from your mother. And you could be in a particular lineage hiring a lineage low, medium, what the
Rebecca came from the highest ranking lineage for mother was the alpha female. She was popular
shoe round of the right crowd of baboons by any standards of the male baboon. She was considered
hot. She did something very very atypical for female baboon reflecting her conference, which is
male baboons will try now and then and succeed every now and then at killing a rabid female
baboons do not hunt rabbits. Rebecca hunted rabbits successfully this was a confident popular
baboon in the center of all that was if this was one of the cheerleaders who make out with the
quarterback by the bleachers being while there's Jonathan Jonathan was his adolescence and he was
this inoffensive beastie was, low ranking in the bottled water and basically this was a guy who's
destined to be vice president of the chemistry club that what occurred was that Jonathan developed
as the awful crush on her back as if she was so out of his league. She didn't even know he existed,
but he had this desperate tragic crush on her. So what would happen the back or go about your
business out forging during the day of terrorist Jonathan will bring along after her wanting her to
notice them wanting to room him to actually grew them something to do a lot of time wanting to
probably wanted her to do something more than that. We would've settled for just roommate he
would've settled for grooming her she ignored him she just gave him the whole for covered
shoulder. She had nothing to do with him watching Jonathan been doing. She can talk, because he's
getting nowhere with this in psychology chart in the behavior of desperately following around this
hot female baboon should've been extinguished by lack of reinforcement he shouldn't give up on
it. But he didn't earn his little but after her day after day after day in every now and then she would
lessen groomer should learn from her and once for about 3 seconds while she was mostly distracted
looking at some hot alpha male. She groomed him offhandedly keen was ecstatic. This was has
been for him to add what this did was read double report quadrupled the energy she put into
looping around after her this galvanized. Okay, so I'm out there studying these guys prematurely
along and this whole storage with Jonathan was frustrating me enormously and before he knew
what I find myself like standing on top of my jeep or rating loudly saying. Here we see the non-
Cuban primate roots of the magnificent human capacity for gratification postpone it here in this
pathetic dork of the baboons stumbling around with a triple success rate here is the path to our
greatness. Here is the human capacity for a 50 year on required courtships the excessive who spent
a decade making a full life replica of Elvis had a bottle Loses all of us working hard in high school to
get into a good college to your good job afterward to get into good nursing home someday. This is
on doctor or rating yelling at the neighbors it's obvious what was going on here, which was I was
kind of over identifying with Jonathan and I probably could use to which social grooming myself
ignoring it or not we have mostly coming out of this is the central question. Why did he keep doing
this while he keep dealing with failure after failure. Lack of reinforcement, why do you keep doing
this persisting why are we primates including nonhuman primates. Why are we willing to deal with
such long delays in gratification. What's gratification postpone it about the what we begin to see
what could be the corner piece of his whole lecture is the thing that was just getting to the very
essence of Jonathan's frenzied limbic system, which is the power of intermittent reinforcement of
water to be seen in this lecture is how it works and where it gets its extraordinary power from add
some of the plus size and downsides of this capacity that you understand this week early back to a
subject of the previous lecture. We are back in the frontal cortex quick overview if you haven't
committed the previous lecture the memory recapitulate what's the frontal cortex about. It's the
most decidedly human part of the brain. We've got more votes than any other species baboons
have a frontal cortex, but not a time that they are not famous for their capacity to do long-term
planning on long-term stocks and bonds. She went for the cortex is the last part of the brain to
develop interesting implication if it's the last part of the brain to develop its the part of the brain
that is least constrained by genes and most shaped by experience, what does the frontal cortex do
as we heard in the last lecture. It makes you do with a harder thing when it's the right thing to do it
since this inhibitory projections down to that emu disinherited limbic system. It tells you to do what
I know you're tempted to do it don't do it because you could regret it hold off hold off show some
discipline and once particularly good at this show some capacity for gratification postpone the turns
out scientists are beginning to understand this and this got to do with a legally interesting mirror
transmitter near a transmitter chemical in the brain that sends information from one wrong to next
a type of newer transmitter called dopamine dopamine. Some of us are familiar with dopamine
Coke cocaine works on dopamine neuron skips them to release dopamine dopamine has something
to do with pleasure and reward. There's a whole paradigm in your site is called self
stimulation. Were, you can take a rat and find the dopamine dopaminergic part of the electro-
dinner and the rat can press the lever and has resulted personally for doing the work to get
stimulated there and rational world work like mad to get stimulated in these dopaminergic pathways
a part of the brain do not write this down a part of the brain called the ventral segments and
another called the nucleus of Congress. This is where the heart of most dopaminergic neurons that
are about lecture about reward. This is where they are sitting where they send their projections
were part of the brain do they talk to. This is of course, you guessed it projections into the frontal
cortex than what we see is the dopamine projection has an awful lot to do with where the frontal
cortex gets the merging to do the right thing even if it's a harder so how would the frontal cortex be
working in response to dopamine. What happens to dopamine in the face of reward should be
pretty obvious. You take some monkey, and you have it there and from out of nowhere from out of
the heavens drops amount of summer warned that it did not anticipate and what you could see
single brain imaging. Is that dopaminergic reward part of the brain suddenly gets all activated or
unexpected bad. You have this part of the brain activate and what it does. There is server very
important role is instructive as part of a process that any good organism growth with a .6. Oh, I just
got this war coming out from middle of nowhere. What did I do, just before hand that caused it to
occur this need we have for agents to say this need. We have to understand cause and effect, what
did I just do the calls that found the frontal cortex in the dopamine system have a lot to do with the
feedback that occurs that point, which allows you to update your valuation to figure out a half what
behaviors that are just due to bring about that reward ever wore that was really great that reward
having more value to add what goes into these calculations (or things like time discounting. How
long do you have to wait to get the reward and as we know, things become less power used by All-
Star frontal cortex water resistance as you have to wait longer time for the reward to come. The
more realms for you see interesting stuff with dopamine in this regard would dopamine is playing a
big role in its helping you discern a few different options, which one is more valuable, which one you
should devote more of your efforts to obtain a interesting realm of clinical medicine, or you can see
an example of this Parkinson's disease, Parkinson's disease is a disease under logical disorder where
you lose all of the dopamine releasing the wrongs in some completely other part of the brain part of
brain having to do with smooth movement, sweetly unrelated to this, but it turns out parking Sony
and individuals also lose some dopamine neuron's in this for war halfway ventral tegmental
system. What you see is Carcassonne and individuals are not very good at shifting their game
strategies. When you were shifting the size of the reward if you do this you get X. number of reward
units if you do that you get why begin to change the reward rates and people can modify their
behavior accordingly to maximize the reward based on updating your valuation. People with
Parkinson's corollary with Pokey in this part of your chemical system of dopamine people but
Parkinson's are not very accurate at doing that should been remarkably there are drugs medicines
that you can give to people with Parkinson's old dope been the most famous that will boost the
dopamine levels and back comes the accuracy at choosing what's the optimal strategy. What's the
optimal set of behaviors I should do to maximize my report. That's sitting in here is one of each
wrote tragedies of human nature. When you consider a tough task that the dopaminergic reward
system has to take off, which is this is a world in which our pleasures are in relatively heterogeneous
are incredibly, this is a world in which pleasure to come in the form of hitting the lottery were to
come in the form of the faintest it's held up reason. The memory that floats past, how can the
dopaminergic system deal with such a wide range of award hitting the lottery is Ward noticing that
spring is coming from, how does manage to code for all of this and the secret for how does it is. It's
got a picture weight to any given reward very quickly. It's got a reboot so that it's ready when it's
finished with you just won the lottery reward. The responses to the nice breeze for worker slots out
of this. You see something is rudely depressing that impact for lots as follows. Okay, so you've got
an organism like she's been for example, many were studying the brain scanner, and they've been
trained that they do some activity or other some task, and they get X. amount of reward. Suddenly
out of nowhere and give them to ask you given twice as much and dopamine levels shoot through
the roof at that point. Now that you show it is you come back the next day. And you give them not
to ask dopamine doesn't go up. That's gone from a wonderful surprise right nowhere to forget to
actually surprised I deserved I am entitled to ask go back to the one that acts as only does the
dopamine go up to drops or read even situated to what counts is the norm to ask yesterday was
fabulous to ask today is just no Monday. When I better be getting a phone to remain satisfied
bouquet. So that's a first pass of what the dopamine system has to do with reward and will see now
is a totally simplistic and incorrect and a lot of these more subtle insights come from the work of
true worth of scientist Emanuel from Shultz and his colleagues at the University of Cambridge in
England, what he has done is begins a show that in fact the we is not really about reward. There's a
sort of paradigm that he would have been this is research done with monkeys, where they could you
imaging to see when these dopamine pathways to excite. Okay here's the paradigm you have
trained the monkey to do some task pressing the lever some such thing in order to get a food reward
will help of food something that likes a great add what you do is you've also train the monkey to
recognize when you were starting one of those lever pressing and get a great reward sessions of
light comes on, which indicates. Here we go it's the sort of one of the sessions start lever
pressing. Warts, and when does the legal open any circumstance, what everything I've told you last
five minutes suggested as the monkey does the work gets a great approach the dopamine that's not
when the dopamine goes up as it turned out virtual shows is once the monkey understands how the
whole thing works. Dopamine doesn't come up with her board occurs, dopamine, so when the light
turns on the what's this about, this is the monkey sitting there saying. Like time, I know what's up
liver persecute piece of cake. I know how this works, I don't press the lever get the reward I am all
on top of this is to be great, what is dopamine about. It's not reward. It's about the anticipation of
reward and added this comes a psychology term and dopamine fuels upended is behaviors appetite
which you were willing to do to get some sort of reward a conservatory event. There was a guy my
dorm in college who had recently caustic and probably cynically accurate viewing for 20 cases
ovulation should here's what he would say or relationship is the price you pay for the anticipation of
it. Okay that's pretty grim, but nonetheless with this begins to tell us a little bit about his dopamine
is not the reward is not the increase that you get in response to reward dopamine is about
anticipation, but dopamine turns out to be more than that. It's not just about the anticipation back
to the work that you need to do to get that reward. Where is the fuel for the coming from back to
where we were a few minutes ago where's the frontal cortex get the energy to hold out and do the
right thing even if it's harder to work away at that lever when you'd rather be just lounging
around. Where does that come from. It's from the dopamine talking chauvinists for example get
one of these carbines and a few blocks the dopamine from rising when the light comes on the go
and get the work. You don't get the behavior was dopamine about. It's not just anticipation of
reward. It's about the goal directed behavior it's about what you are willing to do the effort you
were going to extend to get that reward. That was dopamine begins to give us even more insight,
because the first pass. It explains things and very easy sort of way, but as we'll see us would doesn't
explain much raw back to Rebecca and Jonathan we now understand. Dopamine is not about
happiness at the pursuit of happiness. It's about the labors you were willing to do to get your
reward and your happiness and watched our scenario now based on technology that Rebecca even
Jonathan Rebecca vanishes to groom Jonathan once and now in Jonathan's mind woodpecker equals
grooming. He has a cause-and-effect relationship used for all of us forgot her warning works and
you have a scene where Rebecca appears that the end of the other field and windswept honor for an
author starts playing they will run into each other. Because dopamine in Jonathan's brain is
motivating him because by going for sure he's going to get group that's not what's happening,
because as we saw the fast percentage of the time. Instead of ruining fest at that point, often
happens. He doesn't get the report, but as we saw what he gets instead as you read very
intermittent reward. It should work that way than that to get the behavior of Jonathan will be just
salt was the you form an association to this behavior. Get a reward will run across the field with
Faulkner event room by room across the field with blogger and lightning once out of every 47 times
you get groomed. Something's wrong here with the seemingly straightforward relationship between
the dopamine forming the motivation for goal directed behavior and then you get the reward that
this is for some really subtle work by Scholz comes in, telling us something about the number of
chemistry to dopaminergic basis of not just reward. But intermittent reward. Just absolutely
brilliant paradigm that he didn't know what we heard about before in these monkey studies is light
comes on signaling the start of warning assertions monkey does the work lever trusses gets the
reward lever presses gets the reward hundred percent relationship guarantee. You are working at
the reward. Now, what they did was shifted to only 50% of the time, would you get the
reward. And what happens at that point outcomes the light soon start of one of the sessions and
dopamine lasts through the roof dopamine goes crazy water futures show, intranet and see fuels
dopamine like that what we just introduced into the equation. We've just introduced the
word. Maybe and maybe it is read only incredibly motivating at how could they show that this was
how was work, and here's where the study have particularly elegant. 50% 50% and you know what
that individuals doing there there saying. Yes I know how this works the light came on, I know what
to do for work, but I never had the reward is total screwup that failed feeling lucky moving on the
back for the just teetering on this full group of maybe because 50% maximizes the uncertainty is
what they did. Then now shifted their ward rate either to 25% of the time the monkey which is
working at the reward or 75% going for 50 days of diametrically opposite 25 things you were 75
things are getting better told the officer they have one thing in common though, which is they have
a greater degree of predictability and 50% of what you see is 25 or 75 he still get a burst of
dopamine, but it's not quite as big as 50% and still bigger than 100%. But what does this begin to tell
us this is the newer biology of ambling. This is in or biology of willing to put your miss amounts of
goal directed behavior into the possibility of an intermittent reward, because nothing boosts of
dopamine like that. The first interaction with stress, this awful lot of what stresses about
psychological stress is a loss of control loss of predictability of world in which reward and
punishment becomes unpredictable intermittent wonderful study a few years ago looking at brokers
in the London stock market. And what was shown was what predicted secretion of stress for most in
his novel the market was doing badly was when the market was July rate of more variability of the
more intermittent see the higher the stress hormone levels. More joy rations for fluctuation, bigger
stress for spots, but at the same time their circumstances were real love to give up control and
predictably that's what happens when we go into a scary movie with you generally see is in a
malevolent scary setting intermittency is about the stress response. But in a benevolent setting
intermittency is about to me. It's about the wildly addictive burst that you get this and is maybe it is
wrong to see the we see there is a 50% maximizes that anticipatory goal directed title wave of
dopamine and what some amazingly good social engineers are good at is being able to take humans
in a circumstance where you have like .00001% chance of getting reward making you think, in fact,
you've got a 50% chance one of my talking about. This is Las Vegas. This is the whole world of the
hints of reward or not much more addictive and powerful when something is really unlikely in study
were engineered to think it's highly likely this is my lucky day. Hello sir. Welcome to our lost Vegas
hotel array you've just gotten a free upgrade of free drink this is my lucky day and missed
infinitesimally small chance of getting reward. I now perceive as shifting to a much much higher
range towards 50% and you were on that full room of maybe and you are working like mad to get
this reward. The what does this begin to tell us about how this reward system works how this whole
world of intermittent reinforcement of Scholz brings up something very interesting. Very striking his
work because we've got something very tough to explain. Not just the fact that we big rewards like
you haven't eaten in weeks and you finally get to eat as the same euro chemical underpinnings of a
breeze feeling us that this is about the huge extremes. We humans were reinforced by some very
odd things, a quote by Scholz one of his papers this behavioral definition attributes reward function
also to certain non-alimentary and nonsexual entities including money. Technical artifacts aesthetic
stateless attributes and mental that what I talked about here what's he talking about it that we
humans can also get reinforced by stuff by things not just by eating when you were hungry or sex or
lose a sick animals. We have reinforced by stuff by these things that we have invented with
culture. Our courtrooms, suddenly we have a world in which getting some key goal is capable of
tapping into that same euro chemical system. As has been working in our mammalian ancestors for
God knows how long in response to hunger sex safe location, or that's what do we are using our
dopaminergic system in a very different way than lots of other species and were the keys to what
our first the incredible speed with which the dopamine system can habituate and the incredible
power the dopamine house to generate behavior to generate goal directed work to have you do that
when he becomes honestly. And this begins to explain some of our greatest triumphs of Shuman
accomplishments our capacity to postpone reward the human realm of phenomenal motivation of
reaching higher and higher up for your achievements would also begins to explain that some of our
most fertile realms of human behavior and our actions or dissatisfaction with the newer chemistry of
why the grass is always greener on the other side in your chemistry of boredom of you needing
something new serial marriages of this whole or come up world were something that was brand-
new and wonderful yesterday is exactly what you're entitled to today and is a good anywhere near
enough tomorrow and here relies the tragedy of intermittent reinforcement and when dopamine
has to do with the what should be clear, as we've transitioned from dopamine is about reward them,
though not really. Dopamine is about the anticipation of reward that turns out not really that either
dopamine is about the goal directed behavior of the work of frontal cortical muscular aerobic control
over limbic system. Dopamine is about the anticipation of reward of the work you're willing to do to
get it. As we see within that framework, nothing nothing stokes that system. Like when you put a
meeting into the equation, because we and our dopamine go wild duck point. So that's what this
whole lecture is about and we now have a very good sense of how all this works. Bo Jonathan
Urbach or what happened to the will for the most part, their paths diverge for the most part they
had nothing to do with each other in the truth for years to come except except for that, while 24-
hour. Once, were, they had this short ugly on the Orthodox surprising sexual consort ship. And
unfortunately I see from the clock. That's a story for another time
Lecture 08: How the Other Half Heals

[music]thanks for the card -- when efforts of his robes of scientists. We finally have a clear piece of
information. What is HD projector of good health, and the answer is, if you want to be healthy. Try
not to be poorer for enough to be born poor. Try not to spend your fetal life inside the womb of
someone whose poor as we alluded to in an earlier lecture. Your social economic status is homes to
do with your health and literacy and is now what's called the show show economic reading. The fact
that in disease after disease and westernized countries below, were you are in the social economic
hierarchy of higher the incidence of various diseases, the greater mortality rate, this is seen with
cardiovascular disease homeowner in his orders rheumatoid arthritis, gastrointestinal order disorder
psychiatric diseases, the poorer you are the more likely order to get these diseases succumb to it so
extreme that when you look in the United States in some areas of high income versus the lower ends
is more than a 10 year difference in life expectancy discourse. The question is always then why does
the social economic ratings exist and was always easy answer right off the bat, which is the reverse
causality deal, which is people who are chronically sick. Don't become CEOs of companies where
you often me on these healthy illness predisposes for social economic status, but that turns out not
to be the case and what shoe shows this is also the time course studies where you can show the
social economic status of somebody at some point in life is predictive of their health for later
time. Bogus was not as reverse causality deal, if not some extreme kind of step function, which is to
say everybody has roughly the same health and life expectancy in show you get to the very poor,
and they've got the big draw. No having all the way down to start going from Bill Gates to Warren
Buffett had all the way down this continue. Every step down the social economic ladder than other
obvious explanation with all into place like United States if you're poorer. You don't have access to
health care is readily if the access issue with turns out, that doesn't explain anything either, because
you look in countries with universal healthcare, socialized medicine, and they've got social economic
study of status gradients of help as well and you see the same thing for even diseases where it
doesn't matter how often you go to the doctor that doesn't change its incidence juvenile diabetes,
for example to its not healthcare access. Maybe it's got something to do with lifestyle would risk
factors with protective factors as it's obvious if you were poorer you are more likely to be living next
to rework heartsick dump. You were more likely to be working a job that is bad for your health. You
were more likely to be in a neighborhood that's unsafe you are less likely to afford the health club
membership go down and get nothing but that good organic produce. Just risk factors protective
factors are really turfed workers showed only about a third of the relationship is explained by stuff
like that. And what people come to recognize in this field is stress has a lot to do with the stressful
list of lower social economic status. Having something to do with how now the evidence for that
used to be in direct along lines of what you just heard well. It's not reverse causality is not
healthcare access is not risk factors or maybe it's for us in the last decade or so the notion that it is
due to stress become much stronger work by for example Nancy at work showing that yes yes you
were a check to social economic status is a good predictor of health. Even more so your subjective
social and economic status. In other words, it's not being poor. It's fueling poor, the work by
Richard Wilkinson taking this one step further, what is it about the community that translates into
social economic stress what he shows his income inequity and live in a community where for the
same average income there are greater extremes on the average health this could be worse. What's
that going us. It's not being poor. It's fueling poor and insurers with few reporters have your nose
rubbed in it by all the people around you. Now this relationship again is remarkably permeating and
since very early in life, and last for a long time afterward remarkable study. Some years ago, looking
at anonymous looking at aging nuns all of whom were joined the order when they were 1819 or so
all of who constitute the perfect experiment in Africa each 20 or so they've now spent the rest of
their lives perfectly controlled the same thought at the same medical care of the same living
conditions and what those studies have shown is your social economic status at the time that you
are joining this order is a predictor of health outcomes 60 years later. These are very persistent
effects, but maybe one of the best ways of summarizing how this works was the observation that
one of the best predictors of who survived the Titanic sinking was what your social economic status
was the poorer you were the more likely you were to go down with the ship. So that's a whole field
and lots and lots of realms where this place to no purpose of this lecture is to look at the rear cases
where instead you get an inverse social economic status, where the wealthier you are the higher the
incidence of the disease and what will see it is. This teaches us something about how the body
works, the nature of disease. It teaches us something about the nature of society and on equal
society and what we see is the most surprising outcome of this, but also teaches you sometimes be
careful what you wish for bounce some cases these diseases that show an inverse social economic
rating in the wealthier you are the higher the incidence in some cases it's utterly mysterious. And
that for example there's a bunch of auto immune diseases auto means is normally what your
immune system is good at spotting stuff that's not supposed to be in your body. Bacteria virus
invading pathogens and what the immune system and grow into its constantly having its cells knows
around the world body and sampling cells that encounters, and it's got a whole list there off, what
types of cells with what types of features, what things are self part of us, and possible things are not
so someone beating something or other and then you activate an immune response against it and it
protects health. Every now and then the immune system screws up big time and mistakes are part
of your body that really is a party or body was supposed to be there and decides instead of some
invasive pathogen and goes about attacking a party or body auto immune disease by what seemed is
there some order when in diseases which seriously are more common with higher social economic
status, rheumatoid arthritis as I mentioned before, it shows the classic relationship the poorer you
are the higher the incidence of the average of report arthritis. Meanwhile another overwhelming
disease multiple sclerosis shows the inverse query the wealthier you are. What's this about at this
point, nobody has a clue that some of the time these inverse SES social economic status is SES
gradients reflects something about society's values and societies notion of beauty. The amazing
economy as Torsten Veblen working the beginning of the 20th century came up with his ground
opens the theory of the leisure class and one of the things he noted is that in society after
society. The wealthy work very hard to have conspicuous signs of their wealth and more ways to do
that is to give off all the indicators that you don't have to soil your wealthy status with any sort of
work physical labor. Traditional shrine of the binding of the feet of girls among the wealthy. In
order to attribute the feet and the feet that are so accuracy that you couldn't possibly do a physical
labor really were about what how wealthy I have my feet are useless bore. You could have another
domain of showing off and that one was the one pointed out that if he were some rancher in the
1880s were soaked and you want to let everyone know how credibly wealthy or what he do you take
a piece of your grazing lands and you don't want animals graze on it. I am so wealthy, I don't even
have to have my animals making use of all my life, and one make sure you're just see that piece
allows a habit near the house when he just invented the lawn. The long would that one didn't live
long enough to do the worst sort of corporate notion of little plastic. Flamingos on long since it's
thinking about what lots of cases like this were the whole point is to communicate to the world of
your wealth and for centuries one of the ways of doing that was to make sure you were alabaster
white hail never if you have to stand out in the sun and deep hold by the reality of the world the hoi
polloi deal with. However things have changed the now these days, if you were wealthy were to try
to do is give everyone the impression wearing her blue jeans that you're just a good old boy
cowboys is there's a break in the earth.com in Silicon Valley. You go out for a rustle up the horses or
whatever suddenly walked prestigious about, you were wealthier in this country is to have this year-
round hand because your beach house your ski lessons this whole world of rotisserie signs of
privileges and where do you see the inverse SES relationship here. The wealthier you are in this
country, the higher the incidence of melanoma. The most dangerous form of skin cancer, bell
people who are actually doing physical labor outside don't get whole body has big rednecks or does
we knows is often the case in this country. They're not getting a whole lot of the wave attack
because of the amount of know when they haven't her skin by some of the time these inverse social
economic gradient relationships what they reflect is not a higher incidence of the disease. But what
would be called a detection bias, where depending on your SES status that influences the likelihood
of you actually getting to like ghost with the disease classic case of a disease that shows the inverse
relationship chronic fatigue syndrome. The highly mysterious disease potentially related to virus
potential he related to God knows what their rate very mysterious at this stage, but one of the
things about chronic fatigue syndrome is a shows the inverse gradient. The wealthier you are the
more likely you are to have chronic fatigue syndrome. But that's not what's really going on, the
wealthier you are the more likely origin diagnosed with chronic fatigue syndrome in one world the
symptoms get you this fancy diagnosis in another world. You just lose your job because you keep
showing up late at work. So in that case, it's not a real difference. It is just a bias in artifact of
diagnoses occur by some times you say this because it's reflecting SES differences in the life history
trajectory. One of the things you see in Western societies is on the average they hired the SES status
of a woman laborer on the average does she have her first child delayed childbearing ones that
made you spend more of your life having the natural cycles use and more of your life exposed to the
high estrogen levels were frequently a part of that. And what does that have to do a seeming
inverse SES disease, the higher the social status higher the incidence of estrogen sensitive breast
cancer and Dimitrios is again a case where reflects something about differences in lifestyle that
another case where there is seemingly an inverse SES relationship and it turns out not actually to be
the case of all, but again it's got to do with the nature of the disease and this is that rates scorer Joe
Bauer passed safely in the past now unless you happen to live in parts of the developing world
Holyoke Holyoke, what was the standard picture of polio in the United States back when it is an
inverse SES disease is a disease of the wealthy at the disease of Franklin Roosevelt coming down
with holier after being out on his yacht. One day it's a lease was viewed a disease that shows the
starter and it turns out that's not actually the case. That is not the case that people of lower social
economic status kids of lower SES are less likely to get polio are less likely to get diagnosed with this
here's the reason why the Holyoke if you get it at age 3, for whatever wreaks havoc produces the
whole rate of symptoms that characterizes awful tragic disease. If you can Holyoke, when you're
approximately under one year of age. It's pretty much ace of the manic and what you see is poor
kids get a lot more polio because it was a much higher density. They get a lot more polio, but they
did earlier in life again, because more exposure at a time when it's simply asymptomatic. And it's
not appreciate it is soft and artifactual you have a sense now that this is a disease of the wealthy
that some of the time. So what you see is the real true cases of this going on at this story I'll be
telling here is one having to do with a disease age fruit is a series of inverse social economic status,
one that teaches us a lot about the nature of health from the body and all of that also teaches us as
promised, but on about the values of society has to do with a disease called hospital was. This is the
archaic term now the hospital was in was a very relevant term back earlier in the 20th
century. What was hospital was, this was a world unrecognizable in some ways from our own. This
was a world of orphanages filled with children orphans abandoned children, and this was a world
with mind-boggling bad survival rates in orphanages studies done in the early 20th century. One
study run 1916 or so examining children in 10 different orphanages and such high mortality rate that
in 9/10 of these orphanages known of the kids survived the H2. This was a world of terror report
survival rates for children, particularly in settings like that and you read some of these peepers these
reports from back when these stiffs mattered reviewing the statistics on and free single child being
dead, and it is just heartbreaking to imagine from across these decades that there was a particular
disease related to this that would come up with kids who are in hospitals du jour hospitals honestly
because the hospital because they're not well but there was this additional disease that would
comment current hospital was. And this didn't begin to be appreciated to the 1920s were so
remarkable transition. Prior to that you did not go to the hospital to get better. He went to the
hospital would be separated from everybody else's will be going a hospital decreased her life
expectancy was until the 20s and finally this was a place to go to the actually become healthier. So
you've got kids in hospitals and on the average of kids were in hospitals for more than two weeks at
a time. They would begin to show this disease of hospital was they would become archaic term
around after two weeks on the average again, this trial would begin to become listless low energy
they would develop a technical term Taxi up, which is losing body weight faster than KB explained by
food intake they would get nonspecific gastrointestinal tract infections non-specific Larry
problems. Once you have kids passing the two-week mark and you begin to see this hospital was a
tenfold increase in the mortality rate than what was most striking was from the very start. It was
recognized, this was an inverse SES disease, but a child would go to a hospital, the higher the social
economic background of the child. The higher the likelihood of coming down with hospital wasn't
enjoying from the what is this about. People didn't have a clue then, but it is now understood and
represents the intersection of two critical things around that. The first one that is was session with
hygiene hygiene about everything else, what medical care is most fundamentally about is making
sure people were not exposed the passage. So his session with hygiene and the older piece of
explaining this is the view with the time that kids don't really need a whole lot of tender loving care
that that notion is just a bit of sentimental return of foolishness. This was a very different time for
thinking about how development worked in-house printing behavior of this was long before Dr.
Spock influenced all of our parents and how we raised this was a very different time. There was a
Dr. Spock of that. In Luther Holt and this man was exactly the opposite of Dr. Spock. This man wrote
the definitive textbook at the time for child-rearing it around the year 1900 decade before and after
we threw 15 different editions of the care and feeding of children. Just the title tells you something
the care and feeding of plants that care and feeding of copies the care of feeding children. This tells
you a whole lot, which was what parenting should be about is making sure kids are adequately said
kept warm enough in the book he refers to the vicious practice of holding kids for too long advising
motorists not to do that because kids are meant to be. Not ever been that way too should be seen
but not heard a completely different view as to what constituted optimal parent. And if that's what
these experts were devising everybody out there how to go about optimal parent take. You can
imagine how that's a cold and hospitals the view there was a kid in a hospital should be kept warm
should be fed should be all those things, but the last thing it needs is going to care pseudo-parental
care, social contact physical touching this was a completely different world world in which parents
were not welcome in pediatric wards if they were allowed in was one hour a week to come and see
their child and now leave us alone to do our medical care at all of this social connection to care an
affiliation fact. It's got nothing to do with any of his health business. But now we know far better
than the shift began in the 1940s, a physician at New York University and Harry backward and he
was the first person to note that children in long-term hospital wards children who begin to succumb
to the hospital was and they are suffering from social deprivation emotional deprivation will only
mess. Loneliness, this is the heart asked scientists who introduced the word. Only with loneliness
into the medical literature by the 50s they scientist a pioneering wanted Harry Harlow and
introduced another technical term at the medical literature love that normal development requires
all sorts of things like the avoidance of loneliness social connectedness love the evidence began to
merge at that time, evidence which anyone who was attuned to parenting or how children develop
warning about the scientists finally got on board classic work by Harlow joined the John of monkeys
developing monkeys if they had a choice of being attached to a server and get artificial mother of
forming a bond trading. One of David food, and one that gave comfort a surrogate mother covered
with nice warm terrycloth. They defied everything that moves are Holt would've told you his
pediatric advice book terms of what kids need is adequate calories forget the food they would
become attached to the surrogate mother gave more effective contact moral development and
bondage isn't just about getting adequate calories. It's about all sorts of things, in addition, down
the aftermath of this people began to study showing things like when baby rats or go by their
mother is a victim groomed, which is how long school about being good rapport and when that
happens, the levels of growth for mom would rise in these baby rats. It would enhance growth, it
wouldn't have health in the 70s wonderful research done by psychologists into the field. Opus on a
population of human infants who are radically isolated from normal socialization will contact and
these were kids. Extreme premature kids growing up or sorting their life and accused the initial
intensive care unit and those are just no salutes the hygienic isolation, which she noted what these
kids are never touched. There never handled in what she did was go and studies and increase the
amount of physical contact roaming the backs of preemies and the backs of that size is basically your
fingers there and showing these kids grew faster they have fewer health complications will receive is
all sorts of lessons about adequate calories in the right blanket every now and then is not enough for
normal development these kids would come home from the hospital earlier. These differences
persist for months afterward, as it turns out, this is to tell us a lot about hospital was broken. So we
take those pieces we think that a session with hygiene, and we take that notion the facts. The
mother's maternal is a little herbalism socialization contact loan ViaVoice loneliness has nothing to
do with normal development and what you would get is this vicious cycle, which is a kid reveal a
hospital for some kind of surgery or who knows what. And they would begin to show signs of
hospital was with their infection with airport or infection and what would be the logical
response. This child has been done in by some pathogens, the environment is not hygienic enough
make an even more hygienic one more isolation or being cut off from everything that makes for
normal now in development. You were moments where the parents were allowed more of this,
which would worsen the house was, which would cause even more hygienic hysteria and this was
the cycle with which it went. This was where hospitalist was coming from this obscure disease that
was pandemic at that time in kids and hospitals. It was because nobody recognized that all of that
social and emotional development stuff was critical for normal and good health. Just that they're
beginning to show the health consequences of loneliness and deprivation ice to later more isolated
and more. So that does a lot to explain this hospital is what it doesn't explain is why it showed this
inverse SES relationship. This business of a higher social economic status of the child. The more
likely they were to begin to show the signs of hospital was a bond they reportedly the hospital more
likely to succumb to what is this about, this is extremely confusing and you go back and is a
fascinating thing to do you read the medical or nurture from that time the pediatric journals that
were sometimes have proceedings of some conference and it would have a record after word of the
discussion between the person presenting the people in the audience of scotch and you will read
this and there was just this how Opal confusion people noting that there is a second mortality rate
for hospital is and was higher in these wealthy hospitals you could send mail to confusion going on
there. Nobody understood, but we understand that now all these years later, but it has a lot to do
with that notion of telling you something about society, but was going on at that time there was a
wonderful revolution in medicine that owed its existence, the whole tree saw Brown 1900 with
scientists in the poultry business were figuring out what happened build incubators and incubators
and this attorney transformed chicken science and incubators and wasn't long before it occurred for
somebody to have infants who were sick, premature babies would ever and incubators as well add
that was wonderful. There was actually a period where state fairs that during the summer would go
cruise around the Midwest and show off the prize so that they would have a display a baby in an
incubator that would be donated by poor parents at the deal was at the end of the season the child
going to include orphanage. This art piece of history suddenly this notion of incubators as being
good for developing children who were sick. What was going on was not all hospitals could afford
these newfangled incubators. It was the wealthier hospitals, and as a result it was the children
winding up in there who were put in the apogee of isolation from all the things the developing child
needs a brand-new staking incubator and that's why the rates of hospitalist were higher in the
wealthier hospitals. So what's the moral that comes out of this will actually there's a bunch of the
first is an obvious one that I noticed something along this line of the earlier lecture and obvious one
that hasn't a chance of possibly going anywhere, which is if you get a choice in the matter to be
poor. But okay, maybe there's also the moral that you should do something to help out those who
are poor. More strikingly, what this teaches you is good health is not just about germs. It also
teaches you the normal child development is not just about adequate food and adequate warmth
and temperature regulation and all you have to do is look in the kids growing up in the nightmare
Rumanian orphanages decade ago or so and you see that with a vengeance. What's another moral
here, which is even if you're Bill Gates, you need to use sunscreen. But finally there is a moral that I
think is the most subtle most interesting one, which is be careful what you wish for, because we all
know a lot of what happened with medicine if you were a concerned individual on a wild one of sick
of yourself as to what you want to do is get the new West the best access the connections of
somebody's cousin know somebody who's this fancy doctors willing to give you the consultation of
the whole world what you want to do is get access to the best is the medicine out there will be
seeing this case is. That's not always a good idea, because somewhere back when there were the
high-priced doctors who had their wealthiest patients who were willing to let a minimum is new
stuff out there, this new science of using leeches to cure you of what ever a leading people to get
out the vile humors. Here I've got a free sample of this new drug called for living life, what we see in
these cases is be careful what you ask for, because we know somewhere back when, early in the last
century, anxious parents who happened to be wealthy research while going into a hospital had their
beloved pediatrician telling them you're a good walk this hospital has the best and newest
equipment or is that there is a thanks for the card -- when efforts of his robes of scientists. We
finally have a clear piece of information. What is a key predictor of good health, and the answer is, if
you want to be healthy. Tried not to be poor. Try not to be born poor. Try not to severe fetal life
and saw the wounded of someone whose poor as we go to an earlier lecture. Your social economic
status as homes to do with your health and literacy and is now what's called the show shoe
economic reading. The fact that in disease after disease and westernized countries below, were you
are in the social economic hierarchy. The higher the incidence of various diseases, the greater
mortality rate, this is seen with cardiovascular disease owner in his orders rheumatoid arthritis,
gastrointestinal order disorder psychiatric diseases, the poorer you are the more likely order get
these diseases succumb to it so extreme that when you look in the United States in some areas of
high income versus the lower ends. There's more than a 10 year difference in life expectancy,
discourse, the question is always then why does the social economic ratings exist and was always
easy answer right off the bat, which is the perverse causality deal, which is people who are
chronically sick. Don't become CEOs of companies where you often, the arteries healthy illness
predisposes for social economic status, but that turns out not to be the case and what shoe shows
this is also the time course studies where you can show the social economic status of somebody at
some point in life is predictive of their health for later time. Bogus was not as reverse causality
deal. It's not some extreme kind of step function, which is to say, everybody has roughly the same
health and life expectancy in show you get to the very poor, and they've got the big draw, though
having all the way down to start going from Bill Gates to Warren Buffett had all the way down. It's a
continuum, every step down the social economic ladder than other obvious explanation with all in a
place like United States if you're poor. You don't have access to health care is readily if the access
issue with turns out, that doesn't explain anything either, because you look in countries with
universal health care socialized medicine as they got social economic study of status gradients of
help as well and you see the same thing for even diseases where it doesn't matter how often you go
to the doctor that doesn't change its incidence juvenile diabetes, for example to its not healthcare
access. Maybe it's got something to do with lifestyle would risk factors with protective factors as it's
obvious if you are poor. You are more likely to be living next to rework heartsick dump. You were
more likely to be working a job that is bad for your health. You were more likely to be in a
neighborhood that's unsafe you are less likely to afford the health club membership go down and
get nothing but that good organic produce. Just risk factors protective factors are really turfed
workers showed only about a third of the relationship is explained by stuff like that. And what
people come to recognize in this field is stress has a lot to do with the stressful list of lower social
economic status. Having something to do with how now the evidence for that used to be in direct
along the lines of what you just heard well. It's not reverse causality is not healthcare access is not
risk factors or maybe it's for us in the last decade or so the notion that it is due to stress become
much stronger work by for example Nancy at work showing that yes yes you are objective social
economic status is a good predictor of health. Even more so your subjective social and economic
status. In other words, it's not being poor. It's fueling poor, the work by Richard Wilkinson taking
this one step further, what is it about the community that translates into social economic stress
when he shows his income inequity and live in a community where for the same average income
there are greater extremes on the average health as could be worse. What's that tell us it's not
being poor. It's fueling poor and insurers to a few importers have your nose rubbed in it by all the
people around you. Now this relationship began is remarkably permeating and since very early in
life, and last for a long time afterward remarkable study. Some years ago, looking at anonymous
looking at aging nuns all of whom were joined the order when they were 1819 or so all of who
constitute the perfect experiment and a 3 inch 20 or so they've now spent the rest of their lives
perfectly controlled the same thought at the same medical care of the same living conditions and
what those studies have shown is your social economic status at the time that you are joining this
order is a predictor of health outcomes 60 years later. These are very persistent effects. The maybe
one of the best ways of summarizing how this works was the observation that one of the best
predictors of who survived the Titanic sinking was what your social economic status was the poorer
you were the more likely you were to go down with the ship. So that's a whole field and lots and lots
of realms where this place a note purpose of this lecture is to look at the rear cases where instead
you get an inverse social economic status, where the wealthier you are the higher the incidence of
the disease and what was seen is. This teaches us something about how the body works, the nature
of disease. It teaches us something about the nature of society and on equal society and what we
see is the most surprising outcome of this, but also teaches you sometimes be careful what you wish
for bounce some cases these diseases that show an inverse social economic rating in the wealthier
you are the higher the incidence in some cases it's utterly mysterious. And that for example there's
a bunch of auto immune diseases auto means is normally what your immune system is good after
spotting stuff that's not supposed to be in your body bacteria virus invading pathogens and what the
immune system and grow into its constantly having it sells nose around the world body and sampling
cells that encounters and Stossel was there of what types of cells with what types of features, what
things are self part of us and us what things are not so someone beating something or other and
then you activate an immune response against it and it protects health. Every now and then the
immune system screws up big time and mistakes are part of your body that really is a party or
volume is supposed to be there and the sides instead of some invasive pathogen and goes about
attacking a party or body in order when the disease. That was seen, is there some order when in
diseases which seriously are more common with higher social economic status and rheumatoid
arthritis as I mentioned before, it shows the classic relationship the poorer you are the higher the
incidence of the average of room for arthritis. Meanwhile, another order when in disease multiple
sclerosis shows the universe created the wealthier you are. What's this about at this point, nobody
has a clue that some of the time these inverse SES social economic status is SES gradients reflect
something about society's values and society's notion of beauty. The amazing economy is forced in
Dublin working the beginning of the 20th century came up with his ground opens the theory of the
leisure class and one of the things he noted is that in society after society. The wealthy work very
hard to have conspicuous signs of their wealth and one ways to do that is to give off all the
indicators that you don't have to soil your wealthy status with any sort of work physical
labor. Traditional china binding of the feet of girls among the wealthy. In order to accuracy the feet
and the feet that are so accuracy that you couldn't possibly do a physical labor really were on the
lookout wealthy. I have my feet are useless bore. You can have another domain of showing off and
that was the one pointed out that if he were some rancher in the 1880s were soaked and you want
to let everyone know how credibly wealthy or what he do you take a piece of your grazing lands and
you don't want animals graze on it. I am so wealthy, I don't even have to have my animals making
use of all my life anyone make sure you're just see that peace alliance of habit near the
house. When you just invented the lawn, along with that one didn't live long enough to do the
worst sort of corporate notion of little plastic. Flamingos on lawns of his thinking about it, but lots of
cases like these were the whole point is to communicate to the world. Your wealth, and for
centuries, one of the ways of doing that was to make sure you were alabaster white hail never if you
have to stand out in the sun and deep hold by the reality of the world the hoi polloi deal
with. However things have changed, the now these days, if you were wealthy were to try to do is
give everyone the impression wearing your blue jeans that you're just a good old boy cowboy says
there's a break in your.com in Silicon Valley. You go out for Rasul forces or whatever suddenly
walked prestigious about your wealthier in this country is to have this year-round hand because your
beach house your ski lessons this whole world of rotisserie signs of privileges and where do you see
the inverse SES relationship here. The wealthier you are in this country, the higher the incidence of
melanoma. The most dangerous form of skin cancer, bell people who are actually doing physical
labor outside don't get whole body task to get rednecks or does we knows is often the case in this
country. They're not getting a whole lot in the way of a tad because of the amount of know when
they haven't her skin by some of the time these inverse social economic gradient relationships what
they reflect is not a higher incidence of the disease. But what would be called a detection bias,
where depending on your SES status that influences the likelihood of you actually enjoy post with
the disease classic case of a disease that shows the inverse relationship chronic fatigue
syndrome. The highly mysterious disease, potentially related to virus potentially related to God
knows what their rate very mysterious at this stage, but one of the things about chronic fatigue
syndrome is a shows the inverse gradient. The wealthier you are the more likely you are to have
chronic fatigue syndrome. But that's not what's really going on, the wealthier you are the more
likely origin diagnosed with chronic fatigue syndrome in one world the symptoms get you this fancy
diagnosis in another world. You just lose your job because you keep showing up late at work. So in
that case, it's not a real difference. It is just a bias in artifact of diagnoses occur, but sometimes you
see this because it's reflecting SES differences in the life history trajectory. One of the things you see
in Western societies is on the average they hired the SES status of the woman. Later, on, the
average does she have her first child delayed childbearing waters that means you spend more of
your life having the natural cycles. You spend more of your life exposed to the high estrogen levels
are frequently a part of that. And what does that have to do a seeming inverse SES disease, the
higher the social status higher the incidence of estrogen sensitive breast cancer and Dimitrios is
again a case where reflect something about differences in lifestyle that another case where there is
seemingly an inverse SES relationship and it turns out not actually be the case at all. But again, it's
got to do with the nature of the disease, and this is that rates score of our past. Thankfully in the
past now, unless you happen to live in parts of the developing world Holyoke Holyoke, what was the
standard picture of polio in the United States back when it is an inverse SES disease is a disease of
the wealthy at the disease of Franklin Roosevelt coming down with holier after being out on his
yacht. One day it's a lease was viewed at disease that shows this matter and it turns out that's not
actually the case. That is not the case that people of lower social economic status kids of lower SES
are less likely to get polio are less likely to get diagnosed with this here's the reason why the holy
Joe, if you get it at age 3, for whatever wreaks havoc produces the whole rate of symptoms that
characterizes also tragic disease. If you could Holyoke when you're approximately under one year of
age. It's pretty much a something on it and what you see is poor kids get a lot more polio because it
was a much higher density. They get a lot more polio, but they did earlier in life again, because
more exposure at a time when it's simply asymptomatic. And it's not appreciate it is soft and
artifactual you have the sense now that this is a disease of the wealthy that some of the time. So
what you see is the real true cases of this going on at this story. I'll be telling here is one having to
do with a disease age fruit doozies of inverse social economic status, one that teaches us a lot about
the nature of health from the body and all of that also teaches us as promised, at times about the
values of society. That has to do with a disease called hospital was. This is the archaic term now the
hospital was losing very relevant term back earlier in the 20th century. What was hospital was, this
was a rolled unrecognizable in some ways from our own. This was a world of orphanages filled with
children orphans abandoned children, and this was a world with mind-boggling bad survival rates in
orphanages studies done in the early 20th century. One study run 1916 or so examine the children
in 10 different orphanages and such high mortality rate that in 9/10 of these orphanages known of
the kids survived the H2. This was a world of terror will survival rates for children, particularly in
settings like that and you read some of these peepers these reports from back when these states
mattered reviewing the statistics on every single child being dead, and it is just heartbreaking to
imagine from across these decades that there was a particular disease related to this that would
come up with kids who are in hospitals. Get your muscles honestly gives the hospital because
they're not well but there was this additional disease that would comment current hospital
was. And this didn't begin to be appreciated to the 1920s or so remarkable transition. Prior to that
you did not go to the hospital to get better. He went to the hospital would be separated from
everybody else's won't be going a hospital decreased her life expectancy was until the 20s and finally
this was a place to go to the actually become healthier. So you've got kids in hospitals, and on the
average of kids were in hospitals for more than two weeks at a time. They would begin to show this
disease of hospital was they would become archaic term around after two weeks on the average
again, this trial would begin to be call list lists. Low energy they would develop a technical term Taxi
up, which is losing body weight faster than PV explained by food intake they would get nonspecific
gastrointestinal tract infections, not specific: there he problems once you have kids passing the two-
week mark and you begin to see this hospital was a tenfold increase in the mortality rate than what
was most striking was from the very start. It was recognized, this was an inverse SES disease that a
child would go to a hospital, the higher the social economic background of the child. The higher the
likelihood of coming down with hospital was on and dying from the what is this about people didn't
have a clue then, but it is no understood and represents the intersection of two critical things
around that. The first one that is was session with hygiene hygiene about everything else, what
medical care is most fundamentally about is making sure people were not exposed the passage. So
his session with hygiene and the older piece of explaining this is the view with the time that kids
don't really need a whole lot of tender loving care that that notion is just a bit of sentimental return
of foolishness. This was a very different time for thinking about how development worked in-house
printing behavior of this was long before Dr. Spock influenced all of our parents and how we raised
this was a very different time. There was a Dr. Spock of that. And Luther Holt and this man was
exactly the opposite of Dr. Spock. This man wrote the definitive textbook at the time for childrearing
if around the year 1900 decade before and after we threw 15 different editions of the care and
feeding of children. Just the title tells you something the care and feeding of plants that care and
feeding of copies the care of feeding children. This tells you a whole lot, which was what parenting
should be about is making sure kids are adequately said kept warm enough in the book he refers to
the vicious practice of holding kids for too long advising motorists not to do that because kids are
meant to be. Not ever to have waited should be seen but not heard a completely different view as
to what constitute optimal parent. And if that's what these experts were devising everybody out
there how to go about optimal parent tag. You can imagine how that's a cold and hospitals the view
there was a kid in the hospital should be kept warm should be fed should be all those things, but the
last thing it needs is going to care pseudo-parental care, social contact physical touching this was a
completely different world world in which parents were not welcome in pediatric wards if they were
allowed again was one hour a week to come and see their child and now leave us alone to do our
medical care at all of this social connection to care an affiliation with if it's got nothing to do with any
of his health business. Now we know far better than the shift began in the 1940s, a physician at
New York University and Harry backward and he was the first person to note that children in long-
term hospital wards children who begin to succumb to the hospital was and they are suffering from
social deprivation of notional depravation will only notice loneliness, this is the heart asked scientists
who introduced the word will only with loneliness into the medical literature. By the 50s and a
scientist of pioneering wanted Harry Harlow and introduced another technical term at the medical
literature love that normal development requires all sorts of things like the avoidance of loneliness
social connectedness love the evidence began to merge at that time, evidence which anyone who
was attuned to parenting or how children develop warning about the scientists finally got on
board. Classic work by Harlow joined the John of monkeys developing monkeys if they had a choice
of being attached to a server and get artificial mother of forming a bond trading. One of David food,
and one that gave comfort a surrogate mother covered with nice warm terrycloth. They defied
everything that moves are Holt would've told you his pediatric advice book terms of what kids need
is adequate calories forget the food they would become attached to the surrogate mother that gave
more effective contact moral development and bondage isn't just about getting adequate
calories. It's about all sorts of things, in addition, down the aftermath of this people began to study
showing things like when baby rats or go by their mother is a victim groomed, which is how long
school about being good rapport and when that happens, the levels of growth for mom would rise in
these baby rats. It would enhance growth, it wouldn't have health in the 70s wonderful research on
by psychologists into the field. Opus on a population of human infants who are radically isolated
from normal socialization will contact and these were kids scream premature kids growing up or
sorting their life and accused the initial intensive care unit and those are just no salutes the hygienic
isolation, which she noted what these kids are never touched. There never handled in what she did
was go and studies and increase the amount of physical contact with roaming the backs of preemies
and the backs of that size is basically your fingers there and showing these kids grew faster they
have fewer health complications will be seen as all sorts of lessons about adequate calories in the
right blanket every now and then is not enough for normal development these kids would come
home from the hospital earlier these differences persist for months afterward, and it turns out, this
is to tell us a lot about hospital was broken. So we take those pieces we think that a session with
hygiene, and we take that notion the facts. The mother's maternal is a level herbalism socialization
contact love the avoidance of loneliness has nothing to do with normal development and what you
would get is this vicious cycle, which is a kid reveal the hospital for some kind of surgery or who
knows what. And they would begin to show signs of hospital was with their infection with airport or
infection and what would be the logical response. This child has been done in by some pathogens,
the environment is not hygienic enough make an even more hygienic one more isolation or being cut
off from everything that makes for normal now in development. You were moments where the
parents were allowed more of this, which would worsen the house was, which would cause even
more hygienic hysteria and this was the cycle with which it went. This was where hospitalist was
coming from this obscure disease that was pandemic at that time, and kids and hospitals. It was
because nobody recognized that all of that social and emotional development stuff was critical for
normal and good health. Just that they're beginning to show the health consequences of loneliness
and depravation isolate them or isolate the more the fact is a lot to explain this hospital is what it
doesn't explain is why didn't show this inverse SES relationship. This business of a higher social
economic status of the child. The more likely they were to begin to show the signs of hospital was a
Monday reportedly the hospital more likely to succumb to what is this about, this is extremely
confusing and you go back and is a fascinating thing to do you read the medical literature from that
time the pediatric journals that were sometimes have proceedings of some conference and it would
have a record after word of the discussion between the person presenting the people in the
audience of scotch and you will read this and there was just this. How noble confusion people
noting that there is a second mortality rate for hospital is a was higher in these wealthy hostile
secrets held the confusion going on there. Nobody understood, but we understand that now all
these years later, but it has a lot to do with that notion of telling you something about society, but
was going on at that time there was a wonderful revolution in medicine that owed its existence, the
whole tree saw Brown 1900 when a scientist in the poultry business were figuring out which had
billed incubators and incubators and this attorney transformed chicken science and incubators and
wasn't long before it occurred to somebody to have infants who were sick, premature babies would
ever and incubators as well add that was wonderful. There was actually a period where state fairs
that during the summer would go cruising around the Midwest and show off the prize so that they
would have a display a baby in an incubator that would be donated by poor parents at the deal was
at the end of the season the child records weekly orphanage. This art piece of history suddenly this
notion of incubators as being good for developing children who were sick. What was going on was
not all hospitals could afford these newfangled incubators. It was the wealthier hospitals, and as a
result it was the children winding up in there who were put in the apogee of isolation from all the
things the developing child needs a brand-new spanking incubator and that's why the rates of
hospitalist were higher in the wealthier hospitals. So what's the moral that comes out of this one
actually there's a bunch of the first is an obvious one that I noticed something along this line of the
earlier lecture and obvious one that hasn't a chance of possibly going anywhere, which is if you get a
choice in the matter to be poor. But okay, maybe there's also the moral that you should do
something to help out those who are poor. But more strikingly, what this teaches you is good health
is not just about germs, and also teaches you the normal child development is not just about
adequate food and adequate warmth and temperature regulation and all you have to do is look in
the kids growing up in the nightmare remain in orphanages decade ago or so and you see that with a
vengeance. What's another moral here, which is even if you're Bill Gates, you need to use
sunscreen. But finally there is a moral that I think is the most subtle most interesting one, which is
be careful what you wish for, because we all know a lot of what happened with medicine if you were
a concerned individual on a wild one of sick of yourself as to what you want to do is get the new
West the best access the connections of somebody's cousin know somebody who's this fancy
doctors willing to give you consultation with the whole world what you want to do is get access to
the best is the medicine out there will be seeing this case is. That's not always a good idea, because
somewhere back when there were the high-priced doctors who had their wealthiest patients who
were willing to let a minimum system out there, this new science of using leeches to cure you of
what ever a leading people to get out the vile humors. Here I've got a free sample of this new drug
called for living life, what we see in these cases is be careful what you ask for, because we know
somewhere back when, early in the last century, anxious parents who happened to be wealthy
research while going into a hospital had their beloved pediatrician telling them you're a good walk
this hospital has the best and newest equipment
Lecture 09: Why We Want the Bodies Back

I know is that there is no year 2000 I got a phone call that I've been waiting for for 27 years, and it
had something to do with an event that occurred back when I was in high school, because early
seven days in the aftermath of the 60s I was at this progressive hippie high school in New York City,
filled with all of us want to be hippies and one of the things that happened during that time was the
reason and norms rock festival in Watkins Glen, New York 600,000 people showed up, there is
apparently the biggest rock concert of its time at Woodstock to shame and 600,000 people went
through it were two of our friends. The body with her peasant blouses in downtown of niche with
his ponytail. These were two friends of ours, Bonnie was working at a summer camp just outside
New York City and the change to ride up there to them from their life they hitched a ride off to
Watkins Glen. And nobody ever saw them again. We knew they could not also we have run
away. People on our crowd didn't do that niche and money in his bank account so to Bonnie they
haven't touched it to have them run away something that happened to them. But we wound up as a
route running around the village in New York and the posters about the missing talking to grizzled
sheriffs of upstate New York hearing about cold sweat kidnapped kids at the end of each day of
searching coming back and having our nightmares about the rape and torture and murder. This was
one of the central events of my adolescence. It eventually became the longest unsolved mystery
about a disappearance of adolescent's and then the phone call can. We have our 25th reunion high
school and there was a ceremony that the boost in memory of body image. There were some media
coverage, remember that case, back when those two kids would now be middle-aged soon the same
as the right stranger happened to see the right article and called up the authorities and suddenly
there was an explanation and suddenly those of us who barely knew each other from 25 years
before strangers rocketing e-mails, phone calls all across the country say. Finally, we have an
explanation for what happened to Bonnie and Mitch is a logical explanation. But despite that was
always this itch that all of us felt in the aftermath if this is what happened whom we believe that if
you could show me the bodies in one of his lectures about. Is this strange need that we haven't so
many different cultures to be shown the body to retrieve the bodies. And of course the question,
what is why do we want to get the bodies back. Why is that so important, and it turns out there's all
sorts of reasons why that occurs. Some of the time it is overly tragically painfully obvious that the
individual is dead, but you still want the body back for some affirmation that event and we all
know. One example of this as this was the nearest thing we have to a holy national right of the long
time in the aftermath of 9/11. The workers they are doing virtually sacred task of trying to find the
bodies of the victims there. Give us back the bodies2000 or Russian submarine Kursk sank and
clearly nobody survived it and deep-sea divers in the aftermath and risk their lives radically
dangerous salvage operations to try to bring back the bodies in Chile after the murderous regime of
her ghost in the shag, way back when, and all the people who disappeared the young protesters the
opposition and now, decades later, the now elderly mothers of those kids still gather in the Plaza
say. Give us back even a single owner of our children so we know what happened. And this is a
theme over and over we have European museums finally repatriating mommies of people from ex-
colonial societies. You can see this in another realm of fighting over the reverence of bodies at a
rate of lawsuits that occurred between Native American groups and physical anthropologists. Over
the propensity of physical anthropologists wanting to study the bones of interesting deceased
individuals and in these cases lots of Native American groups speaking to American paleontologists
say. Those are the bones of our ancestors. Our ancestors owned or not supposed to be winding up
museum showcases they're not supposed to be studied by graduate students were theses that are
supposed to be buried there supposed to be treated as we void in our sacred server. And this is a
fight that has gone on for years and a lot of cases over certain specimens. The scientists on one and
same knowledge depends on the scientific advances. You were going to impair all the progress in
this field. The Native American groups say how flawed, these are our ancestors. These were sacred
relics to us, the physical anthropologists often coming back at that point I will actually these are
probably not your ancestors, because given the age and that this was a migration of people who
eventually wound up in South America. Your ancestors didn't come over the Bering Strait for long
after that. The Native American response being taught flawed nonetheless, these are people who
you folks are willing to put museum cases golden rule you wouldn't do at people who may be your
ancestors to do with ours. This is a theme that comes up over and over again. Example of this in
1597. Japan invaded Korea and some more going on there and defeated the Koreans and has some
bizarre display of them having defeated them. The Japanese forces cut off the noses of the 20,000
dead Korean soldiers and brought them back triumphantly to Japan a few years ago in a ceremony
Japan were turned them back to Korea. If we can't get the bodies back is because the noses back,
what is this about 20,000 doses being shown around lawsuits over bonus. But we see is this bizarre
date of a living being willing to risk their lives to retrieve the debt. So what is this about, obviously,
we revere the debt we revere the dog bodies of the dead and this is so basic and our hominid route
that even the Neanderthals and endlessly moving bits of evidence of Neanderthals burying their
dead flowers put around it. Elephant elephants reviewer in the dead of their species, the elephant
graveyards this is intensely moving stuff. Actually it turns out those last two examples probably
aren't accurate. There's lots of reasons to leave that the supposedly entered for burial sites were
not really fat misinterpretations elephants do not have elephant graveyards. They do year removing
things like carrying bones of elephants for miles, but there is no elephant graveyard as what we also
seek is to not even universal amongst humans to reviewer that to have funerary rituals to bury each
ritualistically cremate amongst the side of East Africa, somebody dies at Utah, somebody out for the
scavengers. The 19th century Europe. Our modern notion of the cemetery didn't really exist yet
people got cemetery plots temporarily the least of them and after a certain number of decades. The
landlord got the body dug up and we stood up to somebody else to turn overrate have all sorts of
Coulter's things were different from westernized funerals where you speak and whispered reverence
for the dead among the group holding the accuser of Malawi, but started a few rules you
ritualistically mocked the person died. So it's not just this will reverence. So why is it that a culture
after culture. We have this need to get the bodies back despite the fact that there are differing
attitudes towards the dead is even differing attitudes is the way people are dead in Haiti and
traditional Haitian society. If you are the Hodel miserable human and you have isolated your soul
from everyone else in your village from the all. You can do when we get together and older funds
and get a shaman bear to do a treatment which is now sparsely well understood and somber fire
somebody this is not just a movie plot. This is a real subject involving a new rope hammock or
derived from Puffer Fischer to whole story by itself, would you have people who are alone is thanks
to having been so out of five are dead to their community. Or you can have dead people were
considered alive and traditional Singaporean Chinese. There's this ritual where, if the older sibling
happens to die unmarried younger to please can't get married and fully older sibling is and you have
to range of ghost wedding for the deaths at length a appropriate styles for that person also
dead. And this is like a robot ongoing social issues having the debt they're so not only do societies
differ in their attitudes towards what do they differ as to what counts as someone who read being
irreparably dead as the also differences in viewing this need to get the body back to some of the
time. The reason why people will go to such extremes to get the body back is to be assured that
there really is a body and that there really wasn't that this is the but I thought you were dead
scenario, which stretches from Ulysses showing up their little dog recognized everywhere else, but
we thought you were dead to what was that movie cast away with Tom Hanks and him as a
volleyball league shows up to his inconveniently now married accident, but I thought you were
dead. This reflecting the fact that historically people even had some trouble telling the somebody
was dead before the stethoscope was invented. It was very tough to be certain of that is supposed
to person B. Tacoma and this was even accommodated in a ritual while the happen when somebody
died you would have their body Didn't state their body there for a number of days with mourners
with family members next to them. Just in case just in case the person will drop. You would have
awake. You have people checking to make sure the person really was dead. This was a period
where this already is this already but reflecting this as well. There were fancy expensive coffins that
came with little bells inside some case they messed up and pronounce somebody did really wasn't in
the wake up inside the coffin there. They had the belt ring actually happened now and then some
given that a decaying corpse can be quite useful and actually showing that they really are dead by
some of the time getting back the body also helps you to overcome the denial that is just a feature
of our westernized waterproofed to death then this is the world of when you were a kid in the bird
died and you were told by her parents was only sleeping or grandpa has gone away is going to come
back the need to be an eyewitness to actually see it as part of his racing dealing with the reality of
the and we all felt a weird version of that. Not that long ago, this is being taped one season or so
after the death of Osama bin Laden killed by US Navy SEALs and this was obviously presented as a
factor. We were told that he was buried at sea for an nonetheless, there was this widespread desire
to show which the body convince us that he really was dead. To some of the time, this gives the
body back is built around having to confirm that a person really is dead. Some of the time, the
reason why there is this obsession is because you want to know how the person God that this could
be a realm of great solace this could also be a great realm of great pain. This is the world of being
able to be assured something like he never knew what was happening. He was dead because he
could before he could possibly know that this is the world of gas. Around six signs saying things like
she was dead before that happened rather than after. This is a world where we get comfort from
knowing that people died one way about another example of this fair race during moving factors
that 9/11 the people on United flight 93 apparently went down fighting, and we take great comfort
from the evidence of that. The Mormon would clean this wonderful collection of stories rubber ones
throughout the one talking about his brother a hell raising brother who was full of life that comes to
getting to his brother who back when they were young man was beaten to death. I have across the
wrong person and what they discovered was when they got his body back was that all the bones in
his hand were broken. In his right hand and physically describes as his father or his elderly father
dealing with this to have to to seek solace in the fact like so many Scottish fathers before him that at
least his son had died fighting back to sometimes want the body to find out about how the death
occurred down a very many cultures. There is a belief that you want the body back for the well-
being of the dead on notion that the proper transition into the afterlife requires the body being back
among the new book people of Sudan for example there is a ritualistic circumcision of men after
they die. You need the body back for that to happen for the ideal afterlife people from that point
lists of Alaska to high over Orthodox Jews and Israel have a need to get the bodies back for
appropriate passage of the individual to the afterlife and that is produced ghastly scenes like in Israel
for example, after some suicide bombings of these alter orthodox out there trying to scrape the bits
of flesh scattered all over the place get the parts of the body back the summer time you want to
body back. Not because of the well-being of the deceased, but you wanted for the well-being of the
living around and shared belief fun entertaining book by F. apologist Nigel Barley. There is a book
that he wrote, which is a review of cross-cultural features of the dead as he makes a point in there
over and over, which is the dead do not own their corpses as soon as you are dead. You are in the
grips of whatever people were trying to do something with your body, what is a funeral about it is
very often a domain of politics where people gather to share their values affirmed and inculcate new
people where to realm forth politics for a while and says for threats for courtship is a setting for
conspicuous displayed conspicuous reef conspicuous consumption of can you throw the fanciest
funeral out there high be displayed. And this certainly is relevant to the mighty and the notable one
example of this unknown one of his weird ones, which is throughout the history of the Soviet
Union. The body of Lenin was mummified was on display under glass and Moscow Kremlin. This
was somebody who was mummified and displayed like some Slavic state, what was this about
Cuba's atheist Soviet society was atheistic, what were they saying it was a very clear point being sent
to the peasants, which was. We have rushed and replace the system will believe that produces the
Slavic saints. We have crushed and replace the church don't screw with us another world is where
you have the symbols of funerals and the symbols of death for the benefit of living insurance people
where maybe not powerful reason notable and this is the strange world of body part relics of the
saintly. This is a theme that has run through the fall of system for centuries. Here's a great example
of 13th century, who was at the fifth earned your who was apparently by everyone's estimation
darling of the sainthood was perfectly obvious and upon her death. A crowd promptly descended on
her corpse and ripped to pieces this dismembered so that everybody can have a piece of the saints
and displayed forever after house and afterward even stranger circumstance of 11 century, a man
who eventually became known as single Romulo Bloomberg and Italy and this was someone who
was show St. Louis and soak everybody in a disguise to be become a saint of summer after he's dead
and he made the mistake of letting up in knowing that he was thinking of moving and moving in with
his kids the next town over all know the town was going to lose the chance to get his holy body part
relics afterward, what happened the town elders got together probably conspired to kill the guy
before he moved the what you see here is the use of a body for the well-being of the living is quite
frequent and this is not just about the powerful and the notable. This is what everyday funerals are
about in the West even for the nonwhite basis say to your firm of our use of the survivors is a setting
where you've eulogized very selectively the memories of that individual were you exaggerate review
loss over work and what's always a funerals are the proclaiming some of the values of our
westernized society, which is a robust work ethic taking care of parents taking care of kids having a
good sense of humor humor God and country being good barbecue ain't what you see in all these
cases is this a setting to bring about a critical flaw in everyone's head sitting there at the funeral
whisper that super ego of social conformity that will voice whispering in your head out of why want
to be remembered. What are the rules of society that I'd better value if I want to be viewed this way
eventually. The sum of the time. It's also a way not just of showing respect and reaffirming values
within your culture, but it's a way of showing respect the values for a different culture example of
this in 2001, a U.S. Navy ship accidentally struck and sunk a small Japanese fishing ship and in the
aftermath of the US taking full blame for sent a deep-sea divers or rescue operation for bringing up
the bodies of these Japanese Richard was killed and put an enormous efforts into bringing them up
in treating the bodies and ritualistically correct way for traditional Japanese society. Got all sorts of
consultants on this trying to show as much respect as possible as to how to handle the bodies
appropriately. The summer time with this is about also is wanting to body back. Not out of some
respect for another culture, but for keeping some of the culture showing their disrespect for your
own and lots of us will remember it from Matt example of that which is back in the US was having a
lease operations in Somalia back with some audio was turning into a stateless country completely
chaotic place and that was that incident with the chopper that came down. Where was over with
the bodies of American soldiers being dragged through the streets. Similarly in Iraq during the
height of the US warfare. There were some consultants, their American whose bodies were being
hung and burned these had a Gallup poll in pressure's on the American consciousness. We do not
want the bodies of our own treated that way, but it's a similar think there's a legend among the
Maori of New Zealand, and it's of a man a warrior and this was very militaristic society. A warrior
who was grievously injured in battle he was obviously going to die and he begged his comrades as
brothers in arms to do the right thing, which was to probably decapitate. Because what he
despaired out was the possibility that his body would wind up in the hands of his enemies who
would decapitate him then and turn his head into a shrunken skull there home to mean income that
could have your enemies to achieve cut my head off and take it back to you to make sure they don't
do that stuff to me. Joseph Mobutu was the collective crowd kleptocratic dictator of Zaire for years
and years finally was toppled and apparently in the last gasps of his dictatorship. When all this time
was running out for him would he do. He went back to his hometown his place of birth went back
and had his code he gave up the remains of Mobutu's family members so that they could be spirited
away and not desecrated. Even a bizarre example of this with the United States when we gave up
the Canal zone to outlaw these were not people. We were at war with were all supposed to get no
just great and as the Americans moved out of canals and returned to the United States when they
do, they packed up their VCRs there microwaves, what else do they pack a day disinterred
Americans in a cemetery there to take them back home just in case some day some hostilities would
increase the chance that may be American corpses would be desecrated their soak all of this is a
whole weird domain where we want the bodies back not just for the good of the dead but also for
the good of the living as well. You wanted to it to be assured that the person is actually dead. To
find out how they died to be assured that your cultural values are affirmed by this, but it also strikes
me there is an additional reason why we want the bodies back. Then, this goes back to the story of
Bonnie and Mitch my friends from high school and would emerge 27 years later, a man in Alan
Smith. After watching the media coverage of this reunion of the server money for remember those
kids way back when disappeared. There still missing, what a mystery what a sort of sustained while
the longest one American history and the sky watching it was the right person to see that she knew
what happened and he called up the authorities. Here is the story that he had tea also gone to this
Watkins Glen rock festival in head hitchhiked up the error was over. He was hitchhiking back a car
ride with some guy with a VW bus and got in there and there were these two kids, this young couple
sitting in the back and he was able to describe their closing their appearance here out their names
are wanted for mentioning she had been working this summer camp was on her way back to his
body and Mitch. Clearly that's what was going on, that was the bookcase appears what they
described their driving back this was during the summer. It was a hot day in withdrawing alongside
the river and was decided they would stop and go off by the river may be cool if they are. The river
seemed to be fast-moving standing there hesitating she goes around and suddenly this analyst with
notes. The girl, Bonnie had fallen into the water was being swept away and Mitch probably jumped
in after Detroit is safer than they were swept away and never seen again discourse the question is,
why does anybody to about one and a would he do anything this Alan Smith was a Navy veteran
quite skilled at swimming, what was going wrong there, and as he told the authorities quote there
was no way I was jump in after them, given how strong the world water was added when
asked. Why didn't you call, why didn't you do something and this I was told by the sheriff who
actually interviewed him what became clear was the key and the guy driving the VW back that were
obviously quite high on drugs, and they sure were not called police to say these two kids were the
river while they decided to do instead was continue on their drive down the road and at the point
work he was getting out and going his own way. What they both promised was they were going to
make phone calls anonymously report to send this far as anybody knows the other guy this
mysterious other guy the driver never made the phone call and this guy made the phone call, but he
waited 27 years before doing them when the sheriff asked him. Why didn't you call why did you
wait so long. Why did you allow this happen, what sure said was this guy just shrugged the house
and no 27 years of mystery. One of the fathers of these kids going to his grave, never knowing what
occurred. This is what okay so what are the lessons of this fear some subtle and kind of painful
having to do with the aging process. Once we were kids, and we flaunted our immortality by hitting
into cars with strangers in check, because nothing could ever happen to us now in our middle age we
flaunted our mortality and say we could never possibly dogged by a cheating on her low-fat
dog's. Once we were young, and we have to learn that there were tragedies that can occur in life
that are beyond control and known her middle-age all we try to do is delay our kids having to learn
them once long ago we lost two friends, all we could do was imagine. I went from Laurent
nightmarish sins of commission, and now in our Dolby middle-age, will we've learned is the
consequence of old mission, the quiet sense of the difference. Sometimes you want the bodies
back, to learn something about those who knew about it all law