SUSTAINABLE

MANUFACTURING
1. Introduction

Sustainable manufacturing was well defined by the National Council for

Advanced Manufacturing (NACFAM) as the creation of manufactured products
that use processes that are non-polluting, conserve energy and natural
resources, and are economically sound and safe for employees, communities,
and consumers (1). In fact, to sustain means to keep in existence and main-
tain, and three main components of sustainability can be addressed: environ-
ment, economy, and society. The goal of sustainable manufacturing is to
produce goods preserving the environment and human health. In these contexts,
new technologies are required to transform materials and products with reduced
emission of greenhouse gases, reduced nonrenewable or toxic materials, and
reduced generation of waste, minimizing energy use.
Sustainable manufacturing is only one aspect of industrial ecology and sus-
tainable development (2). The classic definition of sustainable development was
provided in 1987 by the World Commission on Environment and Development:
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
This concept involves cultural, ethical, and religious evolution; industrial
ecology; and institutional evolution (2). Industrial ecology in itself is almost cer-
tainly inadequate to support the achievement of a sustainable global system; in
other words, science and technology taken alone are not sufficient. Cultural, ethi-
cal, and religious evolution is also necessary, but difficult, and the institutional
evolution is equally important. Finally, sustainable development can be surely
pursued more easily when population size is harmonized with the productive
capacity of the ecosystem.
In industrial ecology, an industrial system is not in isolation from its sur-
rounding systems, but it is in concert with them. In such complex systems, the
total material cycle from virgin material to finished material, to component, to
product, to obsolete product, and to ultimate disposal should be optimized.
Factors to be optimized include resources, energy, and capital. Research is neces-
sary for the right energy supply and use, new materials, new technologies and
technological systems, basic sciences, economics, law, management, and social
sciences.
Therefore, balancing economic and social development with environmental
protection is a key challenge in securing long-term sustainability, according to
the Brundtland Report and the 1992 Rio Earth Summit (3).
In an effort to address these concerns, government, particularly in Europe
and Japan, as well as in the United States (although to a lesser extent),
have developed environmental law and regulations and policies that put pres-
sure (legal, market, and financial) on manufacturers to develop sustainable
products (4). Nevertheless, to design and manufacture sustainable products is
not so easily done because complex approaches and solutions are often required.
These difficulties, however, are offset by many incentives.

Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Copyright John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
2 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING

1.1. Principles of Industrial Ecology and Eco-Innovation. In Refer-

ence 2, Allenby proposes some principles of industrial ecology, which are
summarized as follows:

Products, processes, services, and operations cannot produce waste but

residuals.

Every process, product, facility, infrastructure, and technological system
should be planned to adopt environmentally preferable innovations.

Every molecule that enters a specific manufacturing process should leave
that process as part of a saleable product, as a primary product, or as a
residual stream that can be reused or sold.

Every erg of energy used in manufacture should produce a required mate-
rial transformation.

Industries should make minimum use of energy and materials in processes,
products, services, and operations.

Used materials should be the least toxic for the purpose.

Industries should get most of the needed materials through recycling
streams, rather than through raw materials extraction, even in the case
of the most commons materials.

Each process and product should be designed to preserve the embedded uti-
lity of the material used. To design modular equipment and to remanufac-
ture can be an efficient way to accomplish this goal.

Every product should be designed so that it can be used to create other use-
ful products at the end of its current life.

Every industrial landholding, facility, or infrastructure system or compo-
nent should be developed, built, or modified carefully to maintain or im-
prove local habitats and species diversity, and to minimize impacts on
local or regional resources.

Close interactions should be developed with materials suppliers, custo-
mers, and representative of other industries, with the aim of developing co-
operative ways of minimizing packaging and of recycling and reusing
materials.

The industrial ecology attempts to understand and protect the natural and
human system, identifying and minimizing impacts on more vulnerable systems
(5). Aspects of industrial ecology are now receiving wide attention, and the con-
cept of innovation is becoming central also in corporate environmental practices
and performance. The European Unions Environmental Technology Action Plan
(ETAP) promotes the acceleration of the development of environmental technol-
ogies and eco-industries, while the Japanese government mainly promotes the
concept of eco-innovation as a new field of techno-social innovations that focuses
on the environment and people (6).
The Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD)
defines innovation as the implementation of a new or significantly improved
product (good or service), or process, a new marketing method, or a new organi-
zational method in business practices, workplace organization or external
 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING 3

relations. Eco-innovation is generally the same as the other kinds of innovation

but with two important distinctions:

Eco-innovation represents innovation resulting in a reduction of environ-

mental impact, no matter whether that affect is intended.

The scope of eco-innovation may go beyond the conventional boundaries of
the innovating organization because it may involve broader social arrange-
ments. It triggers change in existing sociocultural norms and institutional
structures.

Three main aspects of eco-innovation can be distinguished: targets,

mechanisms, and impacts.
Targets are products, processes, marketing methods, organization, and
institutions. Eco-innovation in processes and products tends to depend on tech-
nological development. Eco-innovation in marketing organizations and institu-
tions relies more on nontechnological changes.
Mechanisms, which are how changes in target area are made, can involve
modification of practices, redesign of practices, alternatives to existing practices,
or the creation of new practices. Impacts are how the eco-innovation affects
environmental conditions.
More radical changes in methods, such as alternatives and creation, usually
result in higher environmental benefits.

2. Methodologies for the Development of Sustainable Products

Sustainability in the development and manufacture of new products is a strategy

widely accepted in principle but not yet widely applied. A new way of thinking
and decision tools are necessary to integrate the environmental requirements
throughout the entire lifetime of a product. Different examples of methodologies
and decision tools are discussed in Reference 7.
The life cycle of a product from design through manufacture and usage
to disposal can be schematized as in Figures 1 and 2. Two approaches can
be distinguished, the traditional and the new one, according to the sustainable
development concept.
By extending the definition of sustainability, how can it be defined as a sus-
tainable product?
A sustainable product can be defined as a product that provides environ-
mental, societal, and economic benefits while protecting social health and
welfare and maintaining the environment over its full life cycle from raw mate-
rial extraction, and use, to eventual disposal and reuse (4). Ideally, sustainable
products are fully compatible with the natural ecosystem throughout their
cycles.
In the case of development of sustainable products, four examples of
methodologies have recently been developed:

Introduction of environmental awareness to customer requirements (CR)

Assessment of environmental performance as a design target
4 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING

Fig. 1. Product life cycle: traditional methodology.

 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING 5

Fig. 2. Product life cycle taking into account sustainable manufacturing.

Performance of life cycle assessment (LCA) during the design process

Evaluation of the products potential for reuse and recycling

The application of these methodologies permits a new sustainable approach

to product development and usage, including environmental requirements in
four main stages of the product life cycle:

Environmentally conscious quality function deployment (ECQFD)

Sustainable trade-off model for design (STMD)

Life cycle assessment (LCA)

End-of-life options (EOL)

The ECQFD integrates customer requirements (CR) with environmental

ones. The transfer of CR into technical and design requirements is commonly
6 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING

done by the process of quality function deployment (QFD) (8). The traditional
process QFD uses the Akao matrix, which is a two-dimensional matrix. Such a
matrix lists CR and technical requirements (TR). In a new approach, a third
dimension is added to the QFD matrix, introducing the environmental aspects
in the form of an environmental metric (EM). The metric is a useful tool to
evaluate the customer requirements (EM-CR) and the technical requirements
(EM-TR) on their environmental metrics.
Each CR can be evaluated against each environmental metric by using a
scale. The total environmental score is then used to rank the CR according to
its environmental impact. The same process can be applied to the TR to evaluate
the product specification, which is functional, cost effective, and environmentally
friendly.
The STMD is the second stage of the product life cycle. Traditionally three
key targets have been used for decision making in a design process: product per-
formance, product cost, and development cost. The question is as follows: How
much money can I spend to develop a low cost and high performance product?
Recently, two new objectives were added. The first is the objective of Develop-
ment Speed, which is caused by the need for shortening the time-to market.
The second is the Environmental Performance, which generates a trade-off
model for sustainable development. It can be used for balancing the five key
design targets against each other. This approach is very interesting because
the environmental requirements are fully integrated in the process and they
have the same importance as all the traditional objectives. The technique for
evaluating and balancing such objectives are well known.
The application of LCA is the methodology for evaluating Environmental
Performance, being used for assessing the environmental impact of processes
and products. Life cycle analysis consists of five stages (9). They include the
extraction of the raw materials, the product manufacturing, its marketing and
distribution, its use, and finally, the disposal of a product. These are the same
as the five stages used in streamlined life cycle analysis (SLCA). The stressors
used in the SLCA matrix are materials choice, energy use, solid residues, liquid
residues, and gaseous residues. LCA is not a one-time effort; it is a repetitive
procedure.
A limitation of LCA is that the full assessment is very time consuming, and
it needs very specific data, which is generally not available in the early stages of
product development. For this reason, a number of simplified LCA methodologies
have been proposed for the early estimation of the environmental impact of a new
product.
One of them is based on the principles of Group Technology, which is
applied to a wide variety of industrial products. The products can be grouped
according to their environmental behavior in the four phases of a product life
cycle, the material phase, the manufacturing phase, the usage phase, and the
disposal phase.
The last stage is EOL. At the end of product life, a decision has to be taken
on reuse, recycling, or disposal of the whole product or of the individual compo-
nents of the product. Such a decision can be based on two criteria, the technical
status and economic viability of the option, which have to be integrated in an
EOL costing model.
 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING 7

In the case of reuse and recycling, it is important to evaluate the main cost
factors. In economic models, costs are generally calculated by manufacturers
only for product development, production, and distribution while the customer
pays for usage and disposal once the product is on the market. Instead, the envir-
onmental costs should be included in the cost model, and some attempts have
been made (6). In this context, it is not only important to evaluate costs, but
also it is fundamental to understand whether a technology exists to recycle pro-
ducts and in particular materials, and whether such a technology is the best.
Innovative technologies are developing, for instance, in the field of thermo-
setting materials, and one example is shown in the following discussion. In any
case, industry must be restructured and existing and breakthrough technologies
must be more innovatively applied to realize green growth. To achieve this, an
important role can be played by governments. They can stimulate investments
in technologies and infrastructures that help innovation and enable changes in
the way goods and services are produced and consumed in the future (6).

3. Remanufacturing, Repair, and Reconditioning in the Product Life

Cycle

In the development of sustainable manufacturing, the remanufacturing process

is very interesting. It is the process of bringing used products to a like-new
functional state with warranty to match. It can be both profitable and less harm-
ful to the environment than traditional manufacturing. In fact it reduces landfill
and the level of virgin material, energy, and specialized labor used in production.
Moreover, it is better than recycling because it adds value to waste products by
returning them to working order, whereas recycling mainly reduces the used
product to its raw material value. It is not very simple to remanufacture because
of the scarcity of remanufacturing tools and techniques, and the poor remanufac-
turability of many current products.
Remanufacturing, repair, and reconditioning are terms often used synony-
mously in the remanufacturing domain. In Reference 3, some definitions are
proposed, as follows:

Remanufacturing: The process of returning a used product to at least OEM

(Original Equipment Manufacturing) original performance specification
from the customers perspective and giving the resultant product a war-
ranty that is at least equal to that of a newly manufactured equivalent.
Reconditioning: The process of returning a used product to a satisfactory
working condition that may be inferior to the original specification. Gener-
ally, the resultant product has a warranty that is less than that of a newly
manufactured equivalent. The warranty applies to all major wearing
parts.
Repair: Repairing is simply the correction of specified faults in a product.
When repaired products have warranties, they are less than those of newly
manufactured equivalents. Also, the warranty may not cover the whole
product but only the component that has been replaced.
8 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING

Remanufacturing typically involves a greater degree of work content than

repair and reconditioning; therefore, its products generally have superior qual-
ity. The cycle of remanufacturing is the following: arrival of a used product at the
remanufacturer, disassembly, cleaning, part remanufacture and replacing of
unremanufacturable parts, reassembly, and testing. The order of operation
may differ for different products.

4. A System Approach for Environmentally Sustainable Manufacturing

A system approach has been developed to support industrial efforts in improving

the overall sustainability of manufacturing from a pollution prevention perspec-
tive (10). The system approach is based on three components: technology, energy,
and material of a manufacturing system. It provides a framework for implemen-
tation of pollution prevention strategies to reduce the environmental impact and
to improve the sustainability performance of a manufacturing system.
The three components are cross-linked with each other in an environmen-
tally sustainable manufacturing system. The first dimension of the system
approach is technology employed in manufacturing. Technology is critical in
determining the sustainability performance of manufacturing because both
materials and energy consumptions are determined by the requirements of man-
ufacturing processes. Improvement in technological processes can improve the
sustainability performance of manufacturing by reducing material and energy
consumption. The use of clean energy and lower impact materials are strategic
for improved energy and material efficiency. Process-based analytical models can
play a strategic role in quantifying materials, energy, etc (input) and products,
emissions, waste, etc (output) of manufacturing. Among them, material flow ana-
lysis and energy flow analysis are two very useful tools used to quantify and
track the energy/material flow within manufacturing. If M is the total amount
of the material loaded into the manufacturing system, Mi (i 1,2, . . . n) is the
amount of material input in process i for product-making, and Wi is the amount
of material wasted in process i, then the efficiency in material utilization can be
written as:

P
n
M Wi
i1
h 1
M

In equation 1, the assumption that the waste material is not reentering the
material flow was made.
The higher the efficiency h is, the better the sustainability performance is.
Energy flow can be similarly modeled, considering that the total energy con-
sumed in a manufacturing process equals the sum of energy consumed by each
manufacturing facility.

X
N
Q Pj  dj  tj 2
J1
 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING 9

where Q is the total energy consumption, Pj is the power demand of facility j, dj is

the operation efficiency of facility j, tj is the operation time of facility j, and N is
the total number of facilities in the manufacturing processes.
Knowing the internal flow of materials/energy in manufacturing, the pro-
cess parameters of manufacturing technologies can be identified, the processes
can be optimized, and the sustainability performance can be enhanced improving
both material and energy efficiency.
A mathematical objective function can facilitate the technological improve-
ment of this aspect. It can be expressed as:

Minimize FM; Q f x; y; z; . . . t 3

where x; y; z . . . are manufacturing process parameters that dictate material use

and/or energy consumption, while t is the manufacturing process time.
The second dimension of the approach is energy. Energy is required to con-
vert raw material into products during manufacturing processes. Statistical data
(11) show that, for example, the U.S. manufacturing industry annually consumes
21.1 quadrillion Btu energy (about 21% of total U. S. energy consumption) gen-
erating more than 1.4 billion metric tons of CO2 emissions (about 26% of total
U.S. CO2 emission). Therefore, the second dimension aims to improve the man-
ufacturing sustainability from an energy point of view. The total amount of
energy used in a manufacturing process, and expressed by equation 2, can be
minimized to reduce the energy consumption and reduce the associated environ-
mental impact. Moreover, a clean energy supply such as solar photovoltaic, wind,
fuel cell, etc, can also be used to replace in part the energy consumption of man-
ufacturing. In the case of a clean energy supply, an important indicator for their
application is the costbenefit. A costbenefit model of using a clean energy sup-
ply for greenhouse gas (GHG) emission mitigation from a conventional grid
power supply can be expressed as (12):

Eloc  Ek  Ak  Tk
G 4
CNK CVK  TK CFK AK

where G is the amount of GHG reduction, ton/$1000; Eloc is the emission factor of
GHGs from the local grid power supply, kg/kWh; Ek is the life cycle GHG emis-
sion of clean energy k, kg/kWh; Ak is the total installed capacity of clean energy,
k; Tk is the operational lifetime of a clean power system, k, in hours; CNK is the
overnight cost of a clean power system, k, $/kW; Cvk is the variable operations
and maintenance (O&M) cost of a clean power system, k, $/kWh; and Cfk is the
fixed O&M cost of a clean power system, k, $/kW.
The third dimension of the system approach is material. Materials used in
manufacturing are major sources of the environmental impact, taking into
account not only the material themselves but also the embedded energy and
resources used to produce these materials. For example, the embedded energy
used to produce 1 kg of aluminum is about seven times that used to produce
1 kg of steel. The right management of materials can improve environmental
10 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING

impact minimizing material use, using lower impact materials. For example, the
toxic chemicals used in manufacturing are one of the major impact sources. Such
materials impact human health within a life cycle impact framework. In princi-
ple, the human health impact of a toxic chemical can be simply characterized
through:

Ic f Rc ; Tc 5

where Ic is the human health impact of chemical c; Rc is the daily risk of health
damage from exposure to chemical c; and Tc is the persistence of chemical c in the
environment.
The proposed approach is generic and can be adapted to various manufac-
turing systems and technologies. The methods and tools used in this system
approach are mainly for quantifying and reducing the sources of environmental
impact from manufacturing. Environmental impact assessment of manufactur-
ing emission and wastes are not included in the proposed system approach,
but they could be simply implemented.
Other models are available in literature (13,14). In Reference 13, the
problem associated with the implementation of new technologies and practices
has been faced, and a modeling of manufacturing evolution has been discussed.
The proposed approach also explores how market conditions, internal organiza-
tional structures and practices, and government policy may influence the
adoption of sustainable technology. In Reference 14, an overview of recent trends
and new concepts in the development of sustainable products processes and sys-
tems are reported. In particular, scoring methods for products and processes, and
predictive models and optimization techniques for sustainable manufacturing
processes, focusing on dry, near-dry, and cryogenic machining, are some
examples.

5. What is Industry Doing Now in the Field of Sustainable

Manufacturing?

Nowadays, industry has increasingly adopted cleaner production by reducing the

amount of energy and material used in the production process. Many industries
are considering the environmental impact and integrating environmental strate-
gies and practices into their own management systems.
In the past, industries have addressed pollution concerns at the point
of discharge, but this approach is often costly and ineffective. A study of eco-
innovation from three different industry sectors (automotive and transport indus-
try, iron and steel industry, and electronics industry) shows that the primary
focus of current eco-innovation tends to rest on technological development and
advancements (6). Only some industry leaders have begun to explore systemic
innovations that are changing the way their business fulfill consumer demands.
The automotive and transport industry has reduced CO2 emission and other
environmental impacts, mainly those associated with fossil-fuel combustion.
Many eco-innovation initiatives have increased energy efficiency in regard to
transport and the improving of safety. Products and processes have been
 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING 11

modified and redesigned, such as more efficient fuel-injection technologies, better

power management systems, energy-saving tires, and optimization of painting
processes. Other innovations are alternative business models and model trans-
portation, such as a bicycle-sharing scheme in the cities, as new ways of dealing
with pollutants and traffic caused by vehicles. In an environmentally conscious
manufacturing approach, primary manufacturers begin to give closer attention
to energy expenditure per unit delivery in selecting the mode of transportation
from among highway, rail, air, water, and pipeline. Costs and delivery-time con-
siderations must be balanced against expenditure in choosing the transportation
mode (9).
The iron and still industry has made significant progress in increasing its
environmental performance because of increasing prices and scarcity of raw
materials. In particular, it has made a number of energy-saving modifications
and redesign of various production processes. Moreover, technological advances
in products and processes have permitted the development of advanced high
strength steel to manufacture lighter and more energy-efficient vehicles.
Also, the electronic industries have focused their innovation on technologi-
cal advancements in the form of product or process modifications and redesign, in
particular, on energy consumption of its products. Alternative business models,
such as providing product-service solutions rather than physical products, have
also emerged.

6. Illustrative Case Study: Direct Molding of Rubber Particles

from Tire Recycling

6.1. Background. As a part of an ongoing European project on recy-

cling, direct molding of rubber from exhausted tires demonstrates the application
of sustainable manufacturing in the case of tire recycling (1).
The disposal of spent tires is already an increasing problem for the world.
For instance, the European Union estimates that about 250 million car and truck
tires are scrapped each year, representing about 2.6 million tons of tires. More-
over, spent tires represent the main part of the total amount of the spent rubber
material, which is produced every year in the world. In the industrialized coun-
tries, tires are generally dumped in landfills or left in open air, strongly dama-
ging the environment. New regulations have been imposed to manage tire
disposal, and for this reason, manufacturers are looking for new environmentally
conscious solutions.
At present, the main solution is the energy reclaim from combustion of the
rubber as there are some industries (eg, cement kilns) that need high amounts of
energy for their processes. Nowadays, cement kilns are able to burn almost all
the rubber coming from the spent tires, but it is questionable that this solution
is sustainable or environmentally conscious. It is difficult and not always techni-
cally feasible to remanufacture tire from rubber coming from spent tires, mainly
because of the vulcanization process, but it is possible to use it in any other man-
ufacturing systems for the production of other components. In the authors
opinion, to reclaim energy from the rubber by combustion should be the final
technological solution when another solution is not practicable.
12 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING

A technological innovation for recycling has been discussed in References

1, 15, and 16. The idea is very simple, pulverizing materials to give new reactiv-
ity to the resulting thermosetting powder. In fact, the broken links on the exter-
nal surface of the particle may act as polymerizing sites in further processing
steps. If a residual reactivity of the bulk material is also present, that is very use-
ful to increase the powder reactivity that can be, for example, molded without
any addition of linking agents or virgin materials. As result, a product can be
obtained with good mechanical and functional properties. This method can be
also applied for other thermosetting material as glass fiber reinforced plastics,
rigid or flexible polyurethanes, etc (14).
6.2. Process Description and Experimental Results. In the direct
molding process of exhausted tires, mechanical grinding is used to comminute
tires producing rubber powders with different size distributions (see Fig. 3).
Three main size distributions can be recognized, named fine, medium-sized,
and coarse particles. The weight (%) against of the size is shown. The reported
size depends on the sieve mesh dimension; in the examined case, the highest
value of 2.5 mm refers to the powder residual in the last sieve. A very large dif-
ference can be observed between the finest and the coarsest particles. Rubber
parts were produced by compression molding of rubber powder without the addi-
tion of virgin rubber or linking agent (ie, direct molding). Thick plates with dif-
ferent thicknesses can be molded in aluminum molds. Figure 4 shows the used
mold and samples obtained. The aluminum choice for the mold allowed the
reduction of the process time in comparison with a steel mold having the same
size because of the higher thermal conductivity and lower density of the alumi-
num alloy.
The samples in Reference 1 were molded by means of a hydro-pneumatic
press (by ATS FAAR) with a maximum load of 264 kN and a plate size of
300  300 mm2. The pressure was 2.6 MPa, and the temperature was fixed at
250 C. During the process, the material was left under the combined action
of temperature and pressure until the mold temperature reached the value of

Fig. 3. Size distribution of particles from tire grinding. [Ref. 1, p. 222. This material is
reproduced with permission from John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]
 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING 13

Fig. 4. Aluminum mold and molded samples. [Ref. 1, p. 225. This material is reproduced
with permission from John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]

200 C. Subsequently, the plate heating was turned off and the mold was left to
cool under pressure for 20 minutes. The choice of process parameters is strictly
related to the material and used setup. For instance, by increasing the molding
time and pressure, the rubber density increases. A good adhesion among the par-
ticles is obtained if a high contact pressure is applied for a long time. The tem-
perature is fundamental because it defines the intrinsic mobility of the molecular
segments of rubber molecules. The temperature can be set to the maximum value
that avoids degradation, reducing the process time. The action of heat and
pressure permits the shaping in thick plates of comminuted rubber. Figure 5
shows some samples molded using medium-size powder at different values of

Fig. 5. Effect of the molding pressure on molded rubber density. [Ref. 1, p. 226. This
material is reproduced with permission from John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]
14 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING

Fig. 6. Typical tensile curves of rubber products. [Ref. 1, p. 228. This material is repro-
duced with permission from John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]

molding pressure (1.3, 1.95, 2.6, and 3.25 MPa). Very good results are obtained in
terms of moldability, even if the aesthetics part varied as a function of molding
pressure. Plate density depends on molding pressure as shown in Figure 5. The
maximum density value is 1.1 g/cm3 at 3.25 MPa. To evaluate mechanical prop-
erties, mechanical tests have been performed and some results are shown in
Figure 6. Figure 6 shows a typical tensile curve of a molded sample (100% fine
particles) and the curve of a sample extracted from a product made of rubber
granulates with the addition of linking agent (3 wt%, by Sicorex Ricerche Italia
s.p.a.). The behavior of a direct molded sample is very good, considering the
absence of any linking agents. The density is quite a bit higher. The elastic
modulus was also extracted, and it seems to be constant in the molding range
between 1.95 and 3.25 MPa. It has a value of about 4 MPa in the case of fine
particles.
The tensile test is the hardest loading condition for the rubber samples
because of their granular structure, and much higher ultimate properties are
expected in compression. Figure 7 shows an example of a compressive stress

Fig. 7. An example of a compressive stress curve for a thick disk of 100% fine particles.
 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING 15

Fig. 8. Molded samples with different powder size distributions. [Ref. 1, p. 230. This
material is reproduced with permission from John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]

curve for a thick disk of 100% fine particles, and an image of the specimen during
the test.
Molding tests have also been carried out by using different powder size dis-
tributions. Several mixtures were made: rubber pads molded with 100% of fine,
medium-sized, or coarse particles, as well as with binary mixtures. The moldabil-
ity is good for all, while the part aesthetics and properties strongly depend on the
power size distribution as shown in Figure 8. A good agglomeration is always
observed, but the shape of coarse particles is clearly visible. Other properties
are influenced by the powder size distributions. Generally, strength and elonga-
tion at break are achieved with finer size distributions. The best solution can be
obtained by mixing the supplied powders as shown in Reference 16. Finally,
large and thick pads also with complex geometry are molded by using fine rubber
powder as shown in Figure 9.
Compression molding of rubber from tire recycling is such an innovative,
easy, cheap, and environmentally friendly process. It can be used to make
large pads and tiles also with complex shapes. As mentioned, it can be used
for other thermosetting materials. This way thermosets after their use are not
wasted, but they can be considered a resource for other manufacturing processes.

7. Illustrative Study: Dry Machining and Minimum Quantity Lubrication

(MQL) in Machining

7.1. Background. In metal cutting processes, the use of cutting fluid is

the most common method to improve tool life, surface finishing, and shape
accuracy. It also makes breaking and transport of chip easier, but there is
16 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING

Fig. 9. Complex and thick molded rubber pads.

often production of airborne, mist, smoke, and other particulates in the work-
place air, which are dangerous to human health. They can cause skin and
breathing problems. Moreover, emulsion-based cooling fluids with solvents and
fluorinated materials pose serious problems in disposal because they cause
water and soil pollution. The benefits of minimal cutting fluid usage, over care
of human health, include reduced acquisition, maintenance, recycling, and dispo-
sal costs.
For these reasons, in the last decade, applications of dry machining and
MQL have been studied as a promising alternative to the use of conventional
fluids (1,9,1722). Nevertheless, the drastic reduction or even the complete elim-
ination of cutting fluids leads to a higher temperature, causing a reduced cutting
tool life, loss of dimensional and shape precision, variations in the machine
thermal behavior, and reduction of the ability to eject chips. New technological
solutions have been developed to compensate for the lubricating and cooling
functions of cutting fluid by using high performance materials and new
machining systems.
7.2. Dry Machining. Dry machining or machining with no fluid is pre-
ferred in the field of environmentally friendly manufacturing, but the absence
of fluid can have a negative impact on machining. In fact, the absence of cooling
and lubrication leads to a temperature increase due to friction. This can produce
accelerated tool wear, residual stresses within the component being machined,
dimensional error, poor surface finishing, and metal chip build-up on both the
 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING 17

tool and the workpiece. Moreover, the absence of active chip removal from the
cutting area can also lead to high temperatures and tool failure. Several research
studies have been developed to compensate for the cooling functions of cutting
fluid during dry machining. Examples are internal tool cooling, cryogenic sys-
tems, thermoelectric systems, and air cooling systems (9). They have been tested
for their ability to maintain a low process temperature and reduce tool wear. In
some applications, the geometry of the process has been altered to promote heat
removal by chips ejected from the process. In other cases, the tool geometry has
been changed to reduce the contact between chip and tool having the same
effect in the reduction of temperature, and special tooling has been developed.
Carbide, cubic boron nitride, silicon nitride, and diamond-coated tools have
application in dry machining mainly for their high temperature hardness and
wear resistance. Special tools have advanced geometries to perform chip control
and chip-breaking functions, promoting chip removal from the cutting zone,
which is often obtained by means of vacuum and air-jet systems. Dry machining
is a useful process for operation conditions and materials that tends to produce
short chips, low cutting forces, and low temperature. Milling and turning
operations in dry conditions are currently possible for cast iron, nonferrous
alloy, construction steel, heat-treated steel, and cast aluminum alloy. Boring
and tapping are possible for cast iron and nonferrous alloy, reaming is possible
for nonferrous alloy, and deep drilling is currently under development (9).
7.3. MQL. The MQL in machining, known also as near-dry lubrication,
can be an alternative to dry machining. It is an application that can be described
as minimal metal working fluid (MWF) application strategies. Instead of flooding
the tool and workpiece with fluids at between 5 and 40 gallons per minute, this
new strategy attempts to apply metal working fluid directly to the cutting zone in
an amount no greater than actually required by the process. The MQL refers to
the use of systems whose action is based on the application of 10100 mL/hour of
lubricant on a compressed air jet, under pressure usually ranging from 4.0 to 6.5
kgf/cm2 (1). In this process, the function of lubrication is ensured by the oil,
whereas that of cooling is mainly ensured by the air. MQL systems primarily
use non-water-soluble cutting fluids, especially mineral oils. High technology
compositions in the field of basic and additive oils can be used, even if they
have a high cost, because of the reduced amount of coolant used. The use of fluids
that are designed for conventional systems is not recommended because there is
the occurrence of atomization and vaporization, which are dangerous to human
health.
The MQL process consists of atomizing a very small quantity of lubricant in
an airflow directed toward the cutting zone. The aerosol, also named mist, can be
sprayed by either an external supply system through one or more nozzles or an
internal system through appropriate channels, which are built inside the cutting
tool. The nozzles are useful in the application of different processes such as
turning, milling, sawing, drilling, reaming, and tapping with low values of the
length-to-diameter ratio (<3). The internal system is adapted for higher
length-to-diameter ratio values and essential in deep-hole drilling operations.
There are mainly three different types of MQL systems (1). The first is the
low pressure pulverization, in which the coolant is suctioned by an air current
and taken to the active surface as moisture. The flow rate is approximately
18 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING

0.5 to 10 L/hour. This system is used mainly with emulsions. The second system
uses dosed pumps with pulsatile feeding of a defined amount of lubricant, with-
out air. The flow rates are adjusted in a range of 0.1 to 1 mL per cycle, for as
much as 260 cycles per minute. Such a system is mainly applied for intermittent
processes. The third is the pressurized system in which the coolant is pumped to
the nozzle through a distinct supply pipe. In the nozzle, the mixing occurs with
compressed air, which is also supplied separately. This way it is possible to
adjust the amount of air and lubricant independently. This system combines
the functionality of cooling with extremely low consumption, ranging from 10
to 100 mL/hour, and at the same time, the coaxial moisture greatly prevents neb-
ulosity. For these reasons, it is particularly interesting and widely used. The
MQL systems do not require a big space to be installed on machine tools. It is
easily integrated with the machine, making possible the addition of valves for
better control. The jet stability, which means the convergence of the moisture
of air and fluid, is very important for the application in manufacturing systems
because it determines the distance from the nozzle to the active surface and
therefore the danger of collisions between refrigeration systems and tools,
equipment, or the workpiece.
An interesting technique is MQL with water droplets (oil film on water
droplet), which has a good cooling ability because water droplets play the role
of an oil carrier and easily evaporate from the cutting tool and work surface
because of their size. These also chill the surfaces by their sensible and latent
heat. This cooling ability is important for both the dimensional accuracy and
the tribological phenomenon, such as adhesion between the cutting tool and
the work surface. Moreover, the water droplets ensure that the lubricant coating
deposits and spreads over the tool and work surfaces because of the droplets
inertia.
The MQL often uses straight oils rather than vegetable oils; the most com-
mon minimum quantity lubricants are polyglycols, ester oil, and fatty alcohols.
The polyglycols and ester oil assure good lubrication and low evaporation ten-
dency, whereas fatty alcohols show an improved cooling capability due to their
high evaporation tendency. In addition, the use of biodegradable oils with no
harmful element and compound such as extreme pressure additives is also
recommended.
In Reference 1, the main advantages of MQL in comparison with conven-
tional cooling are reported:

The quotient concerning the amount of fluid used and the machined part
volume is many times lower than that obtained by conventional cooling.

Low consumption of fluid and elimination of a fluid circulation system
occurs.

Filtering materials and devices along with maintenance recycling can be
avoided.

Low amount of oil remaining along with the machined chips does not justify
its recovery.

Machined parts are removed until almost dry, so in many cases, an
unnecessary washing ensues.
 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING 19

The application of biocides and preservatives can be eliminated because

only the quantity to be used in a work shift should be added to the MQL
system reservoir.

MQL does show some limitations, however. The main issue is its inability
to cool the cutting surface, primarily in the case of the machining of difficult-
to machine materials with intense heat generation. MQL is mainly adapted
for intermittent cutting with thermal shock. MQL also shows poor ability in
the removal of the cutting edge from the cutting area. The suction of floating
oil mist inside the body is dangerous for human health. The oil mist
adheres to the inside of a machine tool or machine shop floor, and it may
cause slipping accidents. Regarding economic aspects, in comparison with con-
ventional cooling, MQL causes additional costs concerning air pressurization
and technological supports. The last are intrinsically required to overcome its
restrictions.
Nevertheless, there is a great interest in adopting this machining from an
environmental point of view, and for this reason, much of current research is
working on defining the conditions that allow the MQL to be applied with real
advantages (1722).

List of Symbols

M total amount of the material loaded into the manufacturing

system
Mi i 1; 2; . . . n amount of material input in process i
h efficiency in material utilization
Q total energy consumption
Wi amount of material wasted in process i
Pj power demand of facility j
dj operation efficiency of facility j
tj operation time of facility j
N total number of facilities in the manufacturing process
GHG greenhouse gas
G amount of GHG reduction [ton/$1000]
Eloc emission factor of GHGs from a local grid power supply
[kg/kWh]
Ek life cycle GHG emission of clean energy, k [kg/kWh]
Ak total installed capacity of clean energy, k
Tk operational lifetime of a clean power system, k [h]
CNK overnight cost of a clean power system, k [$/kW]
Cvk variable operations and maintenance O&M cost of a clean
power system, k [$/kWh]
Cfk fixed O&M cost of a clean power system, k [$/kW]
Ic human health impact of a toxic chemical c
Rc daily risk of health damage from exposure to chemical c
Tc persistence of chemical c in the environment
20 SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING

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LOREDANA SANTO
University of Rome Tor Vergata

J. PAULO DAVIM
University of Aveiro