A Novel Traction Control For Electric Vehicle Without Chassis Velocity
A Novel Traction Control For Electric Vehicle Without Chassis Velocity
1. Introduction
Due to the growing concern about global environmental problems and shrinking non-
renewable energy sources, research on electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles is once
again attracting significant attention. Meanwhile, significant improvements in power
electronics, energy storage and control technology have made electric vehicles fully feasible,
preparing the state of the art for their return to the market (Chau et al., 2008; Affanni et al.,
2005; Nagai, 2007).
Beside the advantages for the environment, manufacture and maintenance, from the
viewpoint of control technology, the most distinct advantages of electric vehicles have not
been well recognized. Since electric vehicles and some specially configured hybrid electric
vehicles are driven by electric motors, the advantages provided to these electric vehicles can
be summarized as follows (Hori, 2004):
1. Quick torque generation
2. Easy torque measurement
3. Possibility of independently equipped motors for each wheel
On the other hand, considering the different regions of the world, the increase of the
mobility shows a clear correlation to the gross domestic product. With further economic
growth, we can predict an even greater increase in mobility and in traffic density
throughout the world. For this reason, vehicle motion control systems have been developed
to provide active safety control, and have made significant technological progress over the
last decade to enhance vehicle stability and handling performance in critical dynamic
situations by introducing computer control technology.
From the development history of vehicle motion control, it can also be found that, effective
operation of any vehicle control system is based on some basic assumptions, for example,
the output torque being able to accurately work on the vehicle. For this purpose, traction
control, as the most primary active safety control for vehicles, is developed to ensure the
effectiveness of the torque output. The key to traction control is antislip control, when the
vehicle is driven or brakes on a slippery road, especially for light vehicles because they are
more inclined to skid on slippery roads. Traction control must not only guarantee the
effectiveness of the torque output to maintain vehicle stability, but also provide some
information about tire-road conditions to other vehicle control systems. Moreover, in electric
vehicles a well-managed traction control system can cover the functions of ABS, because
Source: Motion Control, Book edited by: Federico Casolo,
ISBN 978-953-7619-55-8, pp. 580, January 2010, INTECH, Croatia, downloaded from SCIYO.COM
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122 Motion Control
electric motors can generate deceleration torque as easily as acceleration torque (Mutoh et
al., 2007). Based on the core traction control, more complicated two-degree-of-freedom
motion control for vehicles can be synthesized by introduction of some additional
information on steering angle, yaw rate, lateral acceleration and so on (Saito et al., 2002;
Fujimoto et al., 2004). Moreover, from the viewpoint of the relation between safety and cost,
a more advanced traction control synthesis also means lower energy consumption.
However, actual vehicles present challenges to research on traction control. For example, the
real chassis velocity is not available, and the friction force that it is to drives the vehicle is
immeasurable in real time. Conventional traction control in internal combustion engine
vehicles, according to nonlinear tire models such as the Magic Formula (Pacejka & Bakker,
1992), has to calculate the chassis velocity and the slip ratio to acquire maximum friction
force from the road. For this purpose, due to physical and economic reasons, the non-driven
wheels are usually utilized to provide an approximate vehicle velocity. However, this
method is not applicable when the vehicle is accelerated by 4WD systems or decelerated by
brakes equipped in these wheels. For this reason, the accelerometer measurement is also
used to calculate the velocity value, but it cannot avoid offset and error problems. Other
sensors, e.g., optical sensors (Turner & Austin, 2000), sensors of magnetic markers (Lee &
Tomizuka, 2003; Suryanarayanan & Tomizuka, 2007), etc., can also obtain the chassis
velocity. However, they are too sensitive and reliant on the driving environment or too
expensive to be applied in actual vehicles.
In order to overcome the obstacles of calculating chassis velocity, some controllers in electric
vehicles, for example Model Following Control (MFC), do not need information on chassis
velocity or even acceleration sensors. In these systems, the controllers only make use of
torque and wheel rotation as input variables for calculation. Fewer sensors contribute not
only to lower cost, but also higher reliability and greater independence from driving
conditions, which are the most outstanding merits of this class of control systems.
Accordingly, research on more practical and more sophisticated antislip control based on
MFC continues until now. Sakai et al. proposed a primary MFC system for antislip control
(Sakai & Hori, 2001). Saito et al. modified it and proposed a novel stability analysis to
determine the maximum feedback gain, and furthermore, used the antislip control as a core
subsystem and extended it to two-degree-of-freedom motion control (Saito et al., 2002;
Fujimoto et al., 2004). Akiba et al. improved the control performance by introduction of back
electromotive force, and added a conditional limiter to avoid some of its inherent drawbacks
(Akiba et al., 2007). Nevertheless, these control designs based on compensation have to
consider the worst stability case to decide the compensation gain, which impairs the
performance of antislip control. Furthermore, gain tuning for some specific tire-road
conditions also limits the practicability of this method.
Therefore, this work, making use of the advantages of electric vehicles, focuses on
development of a core traction control system based on Maximum Transmissible Torque
Estimation (MTTE) which requires neither chassis velocity nor information about tire-road
conditions. In this system, use is made of only the torque reference and the wheel rotation to
estimate the maximum transmissible torque to the road surface, then the estimated torque is
applied for antislip control implementation. Moreover, the proposed control method is
expected to provide a general approach for traction control, as well as a basis for more
complicated and advanced motion control in electric vehicles.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows. A novel topology of traction control, based on
the proposed maximum transmissible torque estimation, is presented in Section 2, and an
equivalent model is used to provide the stability analysis of the control system. Section 3
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A Novel Traction Control for Electric Vehicle without Chassis Velocity 123
discusses the experimental electric vehicle and presents the experimental results, as well as
additional simulation results. These comparative results are followed by a detailed
discussion including stability, control performance and robustness in Section 4.
J w$ = T rFd (1)
Vw = r (3)
Fd ( ) = N (4)
V
Fdr
M
Vw T
r
Fd
ROAD
Vw V
r
N
Fd Vw
Curve
Fdr
1 V
Ms
Fig. 2. One-wheel vehicle model with Magic Formula.
The interrelationships between the slip ratio and friction coefficient can be described by
various formulas. Here, as shown in Fig. 2, the widely adopted Magic Formula is applied to
build a vehicle model for the following simulations. The slip ratio in (4) is defined as (5). Fig.
3 describes a typical relationship between slip ratio and friction coefficient.
Vw Vx
= (5)
max(Vw , Vx )
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124 Motion Control
Stable Unstable
Friction Coefficient
Longitudinal
Lateral
0 1
Slip Ratio
Fig. 3. A typical curve
T J w$
Fd = (6)
r
When slip starts to occur, the difference between the velocities of the wheel and the chassis
becomes larger and larger, i.e. the acceleration of the wheel is larger than that of the chassis.
Furthermore, according to the Magic Formula, the difference between the accelerations will
make the slip more severe.
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A Novel Traction Control for Electric Vehicle without Chassis Velocity 125
Symbol Definition
Jw Wheel Inertia
Vw Wheel Velocity (Circumferential Velocity)
Wheel Rotation
T Driving Torque
r Wheel Radius
Fd Friction Force (Driving Force)
M Vehicle Mass
N Vehicle Weight
V Chassis Velocity (Vehicle Velocity)
Fdr Driving Resistance
Slip Ratio
Friction Coefficient
Table 1. Parameter list
Therefore, the condition that the slip does not start or become more severe is that the
acceleration of the wheel is close to that of the chassis. Moreover, considering the -
relation described in the Magic Formula, an appropriate difference between chassis velocity
and wheel velocity is necessary to provide the friction force. Accordingly, (7) defines as a
relaxation factor to describe the approximation between the accelerations of the chassis and
the wheel. In order to satisfy the condition that slip does not occur or become larger,
should be close to one.
(F F ) M
= $ * , i.e. =
V$ *
(Tmax rFd )r J w
d dr
(7)
Vw
With a designed , when the vehicle enters a slippery road, Tmax must be reduced adaptively
following the decrease of Fd to satisfy (7), the no-slip condition.
Since the friction force from the road is available from (6), the maximum transmissible
torque, Tmax can be calculated as (8). This formula indicates that a given Fd allows a certain
maximum torque output from the wheel so as not to increase the slip. Here, it must be
pointed out that driving resistance, Fdr, is assumed to be zero, which will result in an over
evaluation of Tmax and consequently impair the anti-slip performance. However, Fdr is a
variable related with the chassis velocity and the vehicle shape, and can be calculated or
estimated in real time if higher anti-slip performance is required or if the vehicle runs at
high speed (Sakai et al., 1999; Cao et al., 2006). Although the vehicle mass, M can also be
estimated online (Ikeda et al., 1992; Winstead & Kolmanovsky, 2005; Phornsuk et al., 2006),
in this paper it is assumed to be constant. Due to these assumptions, the following sections
will evaluate and analyze the robustness to disturbances in driving resistance and the
perturbation in vehicle mass.
J
Tmax = w 2 + 1 rFd
Mr
(8)
Finally, the proposed controller can use Tmax to constrain the torque reference if necessary.
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126 Motion Control
Tmax T
Tmax
T*
Tmax
T*
2s + 1 1s + 1
1 1
1 + Jws
r r
Fd
Jw
+ 1 r
Mr
2
Tmax
Fig. 4. Primary control system based on MTTE
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A Novel Traction Control for Electric Vehicle without Chassis Velocity 127
T
V$ V$w = (9)
Mr
[0, Mr 2 J w ] (10)
According to (1), (2) and (9), the dynamic longitudinal model of the vehicle can be simplified
as in (11), a Single-Input-Single-Output system which masks the complicated interaction
among tire, chassis and road, which contributes to the stability analysis. That is, the
unwanted wheel acceleration that causes slip can be regarded as the result of a decrease in
system inertia. And, can also be treated as a description of variation in system inertia.
J$ = T (11)
Here, as shown in (12), J is the equivalent inertia of the whole vehicle system from the
viewpoint of the driving wheel, and Jn the nominal inertia where no slip occurs.
J= , J n = J w + Mr 2
Jn
1+
(12)
Consequently, use is made of (12) to take place of the vehicle model shown in Fig. 4 for
stability analysis. When the vehicle rapidly accelerates on a slippery road, the estimated Tmax
will constrain T* and take its place to be treated as the input value to the motor. In this case,
the whole system will automatically transform into a closed feedback system, as shown in
Fig. 5.
P(s ) z w
r + Vw
s + 1
1
Jns
1 + Jws
2s + 1 1s + 1
1 1
r r2
Fd
Jw
+ 1 r
Mr
2
Tmax
Fig. 5. Equivalent closed-loop control system
Here, in order to analyze the stability easily, the delay of the electro-mechanical system is
simplified as a LPF with a time constant of . However, in the following simulation,
according to the behaviour of real vehicle, the system delay is simulated by a pure delay and
a LPF.
The system of Fig. 6, which is the equivalent block diagram of Fig. 5, is used for the analysis
of the closed-loop stability against , the model variation. Tzw, the transfer function from w
to z in Fig. 6, is described in (13).
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128 Motion Control
z w
Tzw
J wK
Tzw =
J n r 1s 2 + J n (( r K ) + r 1 )s + J nr Mr 2 K
(13)
Here,
J
K = w 2 + 1r
Mr
(14)
As a result, the following conditions in (16) must be satisfied to ensure the closed-loop
stability, that is, ensure the real part of the roots of the characteristic equation, (15), to be
negative (Ioannou & Sun, 1995). Here, 2 is assumed equal to 1 to simplify the solution.
1 Tzw = 0 (15)
1 J w Mr 2
>
1+
> J w
(16)
1 Mr 2
It can be found in (16) that if there is no limiter, when the vehicle runs in a normal state,
must be larger than 1 to fulfil the requirement for stability. However, considering (8), when
is larger than one, Tmax will be always restrained to be smaller than the torque that the tire-
road interface can provide, which will impair the acceleration performance. Therefore, in
this work, is designed to be slightly smaller than one to ensure acceleration performance
while improving the antislip performance.
'
Tmax = Tmax + T$ *G (T$ * >0) (17)
The value of G should be decided corresponding to the total delay in the system and the
maximum acceleration rate that the vehicle permits. Generally, larger delay or a higher
acceleration rate requires a larger value for G.
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A Novel Traction Control for Electric Vehicle without Chassis Velocity 129
3.2 Experiments
Based on the algorithm shown in Fig. 4, the controllers were synthesized and discretized,
and then implemented to COMS3 for experiments.
In these experiments, the slippery road was simulated by an acrylic sheet with a length of
1.2 m and lubricated with water. However, in all of the experiments, the friction coefficient
between the tire and road surface was not measured and was unknown.
The initial velocity of the vehicle was set higher than 1 m/s to avoid the immeasurable zone
of the shaft sensors installed in the wheels. However, the results of some additional
experiments which were not included in this dissertation proved that the proposed control
algorithm can also work when the vehicle starts off on a slippery road. In the comparative
experiments, the initial velocities were kept to the same value as much as possible.
Here, it must be pointed out that in order to detect the chassis velocity and avoid mounting
additional sensors for the experiment, only the left rear wheel is driven by the motor, while
the right rear wheel rolls freely to provide a reference value of the chassis velocity for
comparison. Due to the short track and small torque, the yaw moment resulting from the
difference of torque between the left and the right wheels was too small to affect the
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Motion Control
Main Battery
(72V)
Forward/Reverse
Shift Switch Select Switch
ODO/Trip Meter
Select Switch Indicator Control Torque Reference
Computer AD
Turn Signal
OR
System Down Motor
Brake Lamp Switch Vehicle Contro
Control Rotation ECU
ECU
Command
Accelerator Pedal
Torque Reference AD
Front/Brake
Lamp Relay
TTL
RS232C
Rotation/2ms R
Key Switch
LAN Note Computer
130
A Novel Traction Control for Electric Vehicle without Chassis Velocity 131
Vw(MFC)
8
V(MFC)
6 Vw(None)
V(None)
4
2
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
100
Torque (Nm)
50
Reference
MTTE
MFC
0
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Time (s)
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132 Motion Control
Because the vehicle mass varies significantly in a real driving environment, In order to
evaluate the robustness to variation in vehicle mass, some comparative experiments were
performed with different nominal mass in the proposed controller while keeping the real
vehicle mass fixed at 360 kg. Fig. 10 provides these comparative results, in which the
nominal mass varied from 180 kg to 360 kg.
Fig. 11 describes the results of the experiment with driving resistance. In these experiments,
the driving resistance was simulated at 230 N, corresponding to the air resistance of a BMW
8-series running at a speed of 86 km/h.
Mn=360
10 Mn=300
7.5 Mn=240
5 Mn=180
2.5
0
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
80
60 Reference
Mn=360
40
Mn=300
20
Mn=240
0 Mn=180
-20
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
Time (s)
3.2 Simulation
Due to the limitation of experimental equipment and facilities, the existing experimental
results could not provide a comprehensive comparative demonstration to sufficiently reflect
the features and essence of the proposed control topology. Therefore, numerical simulations
were performed to provide more detailed comparisons and analysis, in which parameters
could be set more precisely, providing finer insight into the controller behaviour than is
possible through experiments alone. The following analysis and discussion will based on the
experimental results, as well as on the simulation results.
Simulation systems were synthesized based on the algorithm in Fig. 4 and the vehicle model
in Fig. 2. Here, it is must pointed that, in the vehicle model, a LPF with a time constant of 1
ms is placed after the friction coefficient to simulate the dynamics of the tire. The time
constant is linearly related to the softness of the tire.
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A Novel Traction Control for Electric Vehicle without Chassis Velocity 133
80
60
40
20
Reference
0 Controlled
-20
3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6
Time (s)
4. Discussion
4.1 Stability analysis
When is smaller than one, according to (1) and (8), it can be found that when the vehicle
runs in no-slip conditions, as described as (18), Tmax will be larger than T*, and the unwanted
torque will be eliminated by the limiter, which keeps the system stable and responsive to the
drivers torque reference. In this case, the torque reference from the driver passes through
the controller and enters the motor, which makes the whole system operate like an open-
loop control system.
Jw 1 $ $
Tmax = T + V Vw
r
(18)
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134 Motion Control
Severe Slip
Slip Ratio Slight Slip
Ratio 0.09
0.06
0.03
0
1.95 2 2.05 2.1 2.15
Variation of Equivalent System Inertia
20
Ratio
10
0
1.95 2 2.05 2.1 2.15
Ratio of Chassis Acc. to Wheel Acc.
0.9
Ratio
0.6
0.3
0
1.95 2 2.05 2.1 2.15
Max. Transmissible Torque
Torque (Nm)
100
75
50
25
1.95 2 2.05 2.1 2.15
Friction Force
Force (N)
400
300
200
1.95 2 2.05 2.1 2.15
Time (s)
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A Novel Traction Control for Electric Vehicle without Chassis Velocity 135
In conclusion, the simulations and experiments indicate that, a relaxation factor which is
smaller than 1 makes the system work in a critical state, which results in the best antislip
performance while keeping the system stable.
J = J w + Mr 2 (19)
M
J 1s 2 + 1 J ws
=
M
M
MJ w 1s + ( MJ w JK u 1 ) s +
n
TAd (20)
1 J wK u
2
M n
J w 1s 2 + J ws
TAr =
M
MJ w 1s 2 + ( MJ w JK u 1 ) s +
(21)
1 J wKu
Mn
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136 Motion Control
Fdo
K
Fdr
1 V
r
Ms D AD
+
s
1
r
Jws Vw
+
2s + 1 1s + 1
1 1
Jws
+1
Mn r 2
Jw
Tmax
Fig. 13. Partially linearized control system
Here, Equation (20) is used as an example to examine the relation between the friction force
and the differential of the velocity difference as follows.
= lim TAd (s )
AD (t )
lim
t Fdo (t ) s 0
M
J 1s 2 + 1 J ws
< lim Mn
s 0 MJ s 2 + ( MJ JK ) s
(22)
w 1 w u 1
1
Mn
M
=
MJ w JK u 1
Jw
Equation (22) shows that the differential of the slip is proportional to the friction force,
which agrees with the additional simulation results shown in Fig. 14, in which small time
constants in LPFs and small delay in the electromechanical system were adopted to examine
the relation between the friction force and the velocity difference, was set to 0.5, and the
velocity difference representing the extent of the slip is equal to the difference between the
wheel velocity and chassis velocity.
Equation (22) also indicates that when 1 or Ku is considerably larger, that is, the system
delay causes the controller to be unable to follow the quickly varying friction force, the slip
will become larger. Here, Fdo is assumed to be a unit step reference.
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A Novel Traction Control for Electric Vehicle without Chassis Velocity 137
0 2 4 6 8
Time (s)
Fig. 14. Comparison of simulation results in different roads with small time constants
vehicle mass changes or load transfer among the driving wheels occurs during acceleration,
braking or when the vehicle enters a curve. Therefore, this type of control method can be
thought of as a control for the chassis behavior, which introduces the possibility that this
control will interfere with other chassis control systems.
In contrast to this, the proposed control method is essentially based on control of wheel
behavior rather than control of the whole chassis behavior, which decreases the interference
with chassis controls, and also provides a sound independent basis for them.
Here, this work presents an example to demonstrate the application of the proposed traction
control to planar motion control of electric vehicles. Fig. 15 shows the architecture of a
Direct Yaw Moment Control enhanced by MTTE. Here, the steering-wheel angle, the
estimated vehicle linear velocity and friction coefficient are used to calculate the nominal
yaw rate, then the difference between the measured yaw velocity and the nominal yaw rate
acts as the input to the traction distribution module. Finally, the traction distribution
module generates the nominal torque reference for the MTTE.
5. Conclusion
This work proposed an estimator of maximum transmissible torque and applied it to the
control of the driving motors in electric vehicles for slip prevention. This estimator, which
does not calculate chassis velocity, instead using only the input torque and output rotation
of the wheel, provides a good foundation for antislip control. The effectiveness of the
estimation demonstrated that motors can act not only as actuators but also as a good
platform for state estimation because of their inherently fast and accurate torque response.
The experiments and simulations verified the effectiveness of the estimation in antislip
control. Additionally, this estimator is also expected to provide the maximum transmissible
torque for other vehicle control systems to enhance their control performance when the
vehicle runs in slippery conditions.
The controller designed to co-operate with the estimator can provide higher antislip
performance while maintaining control stability. When excessive torque is commanded, this
controller constrains the control output to follow the actual maximum driving force between
the tire and the road surface to prevent slip. In addition, the acceleration compensation
resolved the problem of deterioration of pedal response due to system delay.
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138 Motion Control
Operator
Tc
Vx
Traction Distribution
Tno
MTTE
Vehicle
$
Fig. 15. A DYC system based on MTTE
Comparative experiments and simulations with variation of control variables and road
conditions demonstrated the advantages of the proposed control design. The proposed
control not only has a better antislip performance and higher adaptability in different tire-
road conditions, but also has greater robustness to perturbations in vehicle mass and
disturbances in driving resistance. These features enhance the applicability and practicality
of this method. Furthermore, the detailed discussion and analysis on the experiments and
simulations agreed with above evaluations and provided theoretical support for the
proposed control topology. These advantages qualify the proposed control method as a
general approach for traction control, as well as a basis for more sophisticated and advanced
motion control in electric vehicles.
6. References
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Management for New-Generation Electric Vehicles, IEEE Transaction on Industrial
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A Novel Traction Control for Electric Vehicle without Chassis Velocity 139
Cao, J. Y.; Cao, B. G. & Liu, Z. (2006). Driving Resistance Estimation Based on Unknown
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under Snowy Conditions Based on Yaw-Moment Observer, Proceeding of IEEE
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140 Motion Control
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Motion Control
Edited by Federico Casolo
ISBN 978-953-7619-55-8
Hard cover, 590 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 01, January, 2010
Published in print edition January, 2010
The book reveals many different aspects of motion control and a wide multiplicity of approaches to the
problem as well. Despite the number of examples, however, this volume is not meant to be exhaustive: it
intends to offer some original insights for all researchers who will hopefully make their experience available for
a forthcoming publication on the subject.
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