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Theme 1 History Notes Sujith Hsslive Theme 1 Bricks
Theme 1 History Notes Sujith Hsslive Theme 1 Bricks
Kalibangan,Lothal,Rakhi Garhi,Dholavira,Rupar,Harappa,Ganeriwala,Chanhudaro,Sutakagen
Dor,Mohenjodaro,Amri,Balakot,Kot Diji,Rangpur,Nageshwar,Ganeriwala etc.
There were several archaeological cultures in the region prior to the Mature Harappan.
These cultures were associated with distinctive pottery, evidence of agriculture, pastoralism and
some crafts.
The settlements were small in size and had no large buildings
Subsistence strategies of the people included hunting and gathering, cultivation, pastoralism, and
distribution.
People relied on many plants and animals, fishing and agriculture for their food.
There are evidences of bones of animals which prove that people consumed meat. Terracotta
models of oxen, plough etc.show that people relied on agriculture too.
The Harappans ate wide range of plants and animal products, including fish.
Archaeologists found grain such as wheat, barley, lentils, chickpea and sesame at the Harappan
sites.
In Gujarat, Millets have been found. Rice was found rarely.
Bones of cattle, fish, fowl, sheep, goat, buffalo, pig, boar, deer, and gharial are found at the sites.
Studies indicate that these animals were either domesticated or hunted by the Harappans
The most spectacular part of Harappan structure is the large scale town layout.
The city of Mohenjodaro was divided into two halves i.e.the Citadel and the lower city
One of the striking features of Harappan cities was the well planned drainage system.
Every house was connected to the street drains.
The drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum.
They were covered with big bricks which could be lifted easily to clean the drains.
For sewage from the houses, pits were provided at either side of the street.
Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for cleaning.
In smaller settlements such as Lothal, the houses were built of mud bricks and drains were made
of burnt bricks.
Little heaps of materials mostly sand have frequently been found alongside the drains.
This shows that the drains were cleaned at regular intervals.
On citadel, some special buildings were built like 'The great bath of Mohenjodaro'.
Such buildings were used on some religious occasions or on public gatherings
The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank surrounded by corridors on all four sides.
There were two flights of steps on north and south leading into the tank.
The tank was made watertight by laying bricks on the edge and using mortar and gypsum.
Rooms were made on three sides of the tank, with one room having a large well.
The water from the tank flowed into a huge drain.
Across the lane there was a smaller building with eight bathrooms, four at each side of a corridor,
with drains from each bathroom connecting to a drain that ran along the corridor.
1. Studying Burials
Strategies to analyze social and economic differences amongst people living within a particular
culture include study of burials.
At burials in Harappan sites the dead were generally laid in pits.
Some of the pits were lined by bricks.
Some of the burials contained ornaments, pottery etc, may be a belief that these things can be
used after life.
In some instances the dead were buried with copper mirrors.
Jwelleries were found in both men and women burials which mean that both men and women
used ornaments.
But in general, Harappans never believed in burying precious things with the dead.
2.Studying Artefacts
The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful
red colour) jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell,
faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
Sometimes beads were made of two or more stones by cementing together, while some of stone
with gold caps.
They were made in different shapes such as cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, and segmented.
Some were decorated by painting and some had designs etched on them.
They made bangles, ladles out of shells.
Special tools were used for craft work.
Specialized drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and more recently at Dholavira.
Nageshwar and Balakot were specialized centres for making shell objects.
Chanhudaro was the centre of crafts production. It was specialist in bead-making, shell-cutting,
metal-working, seal-making and weight-making.
Archaeological finds suggest that the Harappans maintained long distance trade.
The main source of long distance contacts includes seals, weights, dice and beads.
Harappans probably had trade contacts with the Oman peninsula.
Chemical analyses have shown that both the Omani copper and Harappan artefacts have traces of
nickel, which suggests a common origin.
There are similarities between certain other types of objects found at this site.
A Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay has been found in Oman.
Mesopotamian texts refer to contact with regions named Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain),
Magan and Meluhaha, possibly the Harappan.
Weights
Exchangers were regulated by a precise system of weights usually made of a stone called chert (a
kind of stone, generally cubical with no markings).
Lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2,4,8,16,32 etc.), while the higher
denominations followed the decimal system
Ancient Authority
Different arguments put forwarded by the archaeologists over the central authority of
Harappa
There are three major views about the existence of a central authority in the Harappan society.
Some archaeologists are of the opinion that there were no rulers in the Harappan society and that
everybody enjoyed equal status.
2. Others are of the opinion that there was no single ruler but several rulers.Monenjodaro had a
separate ruler, Harappa had separate and so on.
3. Some others suggest that there was a single state. This theory was based on the similarity of
artefacts, planned settlements etc.
The last opinion considers being more plausible as it is doubtful that such complex decisions
were made and implemented collectively by entire communities.
The Evidences that reflected the disappearance of Harappan civilization by 1800 BCE
The reasons responsible for the end of the civilization is still unknown. But probable reasons are;
Climatic Change
Deforestation
Excessive floods
Over use of the landscape
The shifting and or drying up of rivers
Invasion most probably by the Aryans
Harappan state might have ended because there are evidences of absence of distinctive art
facts like seals, pottery, etc
Cunningham was the first Director General of ASI (Archaeological Survey of India).
He was known as the father of Indian archaeology.
He began archaeological excavations in the mid 19th century.
His main interest was in the archaeology of early history from 6th century BCE-4th century CE,
and later periods.
He used the accounts left by Chinese pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between the 4th
and 7th centuries CE.
He also collected, documented and translated inscriptions found during his surveys.
Site like Harappa did not fit well in his area of investigation.
Although Harappan artefacts were found during the 19th century and some of these reached
Cunningham.
But he did not realize how old these were as they were not part of the itinerary of Chinese
pilgrims and was not known as an Early Historic city.
An English man gave a Harappan seal to Cunningham.
But he was unable to place it in the time frame with which he was familiar. He thought that
Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley.
So, it is assumed that he missed the significance of Harappa.
Daya Ram Sahni and Rakhal Das Banerji found similar seals at Harappa and Mohenjodaro
respectively.
Based on these finds, in 1924, John Marshall, Director General of the ASI, announced the
discovery of a new civilization in the Indus valley to the world.
Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly throughout the
mound, ignoring stratigraphy of the site.
This meant that all the artefacts recovered from the same unit were grouped together, even if they
were found at different stratigraphic layers.
As a result, valuable information about the context of these finds was irretrievably lost.
Harappan script is not helpful in understanding the Harappan civilization. The script remains
undeciphered till date.
Material remains help the archaeologists to reconstruct Harappan life.
Organic material such as cloth, leather, wood and reeds generally decomposed while stone, burnt
clay, metal etc.survive.Materials such as pottery, tools, ornaments, and house hold objects are
available.
Recovering artefacts is just the beginning of the archaeological enterprise. Archaeologists then
classify their finds.
The second, and most complicated, is in terms of function: archaeologists have to decide
whether, for instance, an artifact is a tool or an ornament, or both, or something meant for ritual
use.
An understanding of the function of an artefact is often shaped by its resemblance with present-
day things-beads, querns, stone blades and pots are obvious examples.
Archaeologists also try to identify the function of an artefact by investigating the context in which
it was found. Whether it was found in a house, in drain, grave or in kiln.
The problems of archaeological interpretation are perhaps most evident in attempts to reconstruct
religious practices.
Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals,
some of which seem to depict ritual scenes. Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate
nature worship.
Many reconstructions of Harappan religion are made on the assumption that later traditions
provide parallels with earlier ones. This is because archaeologists often move from the known to
the unknown, that is, from the present to the past.
The discovery of pots, querns, beads etc in the Harappan sites and their graves provide enormous
information
Traces of cotton and dresses depicted on seals and sculptures, give us an idea about the dressing
style of the Harappan people
The terracotta figurines of women indicate the worship of mother goddess.
Plant motifs seem to suggest the practice of nature worship.
The conical stones indicate linga worship
In Some seals a figure shown seated cross legged in a yogic posture, sometimes surrounded by
animals has been regarded as a depiction of proto-Siva that is an early form of one of the major
deities of Hinduism.
Some animals such as the unicorn depicted on seals seem to be mythical, composite creatures.
The two important structures that have been found by archaeologists are: The fire altars found at
Kalibangan and Lothal and The Great Bath at Monhenjodaro, something meant for ritual use.
Hoards: Hoards are objects kept carefully by people, often inside containers such as pots.
Shamans: Shamans are men and women who claim magical and healing powers, as well as an ability to
communicate with the other world.
Saddle querns: Saddle querns were the only means of grinding cereals and pulses. They were made of
hard, gritty rock or sandstone. The remains of saddle querns show signs of hard usage.
Curry stones: The type of quern in which the second stone was used as pounder, which eventually made
a cavity in the base stone was called curry stones. This type was possibly used only for pounding herbs
and spices for making curries.
Chert: Chert was a type of stone, generally cubical with no markings. It was used in the system of weight
by the people of Harappan people.
As you can see, a careful re-examination of the data can sometimes lead to a reversal of earlier
interpretations.
Model Questions
Answers
1. Harappa
2. Banwali
3. Kalibangan
4. Balakot
5. Rakhi Garhi
6. Dholavira
7. Nageshwar
8. Lothal
9. Mohenjodaro
10. Chanhudaro
11. Kot Diji