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Additive Manufacturing Processes
Additive Manufacturing Processes
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Michael F. Zh, Christian Eschey, Imke Nora Kellner, Harald
Kraus,
Toni Adam Krol, Michael Ott, Johannes Schilp, Stefan Teufelhart, and
Sebastian Westhuser
2.1. Introduction
For the construction process, the 3D solids have to be broken down into
individual layers, thus reducing them to two dimensions. These layer
data dene a process-specic computer numerical control (CNC)
program.
Models:
Technical samples, which only dier from the later-series parts in the
manufacturing processes that are employed, are used to verify that the
requirements are met.
Components:
2.2. Denition
In rapid tooling, additive processes are used to create tools and molds (e.g.,
casting molds, injection molds, and deep-drawing dies) for the production of
prototypes, preseries parts, and series parts. For the most part, selective
laser melting is employed here, allowing not only rapid manufacture but also
ecient use of the shaping options provided by rapid technologies. In order
to achieve the necessary precision and/or the required surface
characteristics, conventional processes such as high-speed cutting (HSC)
milling are often implemented to rework the tools and dies created by means
of the additive process. This is called direct rapid tooling. Indirect rapid
tooling is the production of tools by molding master patterns created using
additive processes. Processes in which computer numerical control (CNC)
programming and subsequent HSC milling are used to create tools from solid
stock within a short time are also considered to be rapid technologies, along
with additive manufacturing processes. Because they involve chip removal,
however, they should not be confused with additive processes.
This means that with rapid technologies it is possible to expand and master
the various options for the manufacture of new design elements and to move
on directly to the manufacture of end products for single-part or series
production. Besides shortening the time required for product development
and product emergence through the employment of rapid technologies in the
creation of prototypes and tools and for direct manufacture of the nal parts,
the use of additive manufacturing processes also facilitates the logical
interlinking of order data processing. Not only the manufacturing time can
be described as rapid compared with conventional processesthe direct
CAD/CAM link also simplies and speeds up production planning, for
example, for generating and converting the manufacturing data.
For metals, the rapid technologies with the greatest potential for the future
are beam melting (also known as laser forming ), selective laser melting
(SLM), LaserCusing, electron-beam melting (EBM) or direct metal laser
sintering (DMLS) ( Figure 2.2 ) , and direct metal deposition (DMD). These are
suitable both for prototype production and for repairing or modifying tools
and molds. DMD makes it possible to process spatial surfaces by fusing
powdered metal layer on layer in a laser beam. The amount of heat input into
the workpiece is minimal. The two process variants described earlier both
have the following characteristics:
Figure 2.2. Dodecahedron produced by means of beam melting with
a geometrically complex internal structure made of metal, without
mechanical nishing work.
The generation of models and the process chain follow similar principles for
all process principles in additive manufacturing. This is illustrated in the
process sequence shown in Figure 2.3 . The process for generating additive
components can be subdivided into the following areas.
Figure 2.3. Sequence of data processing and the construction
process from the 3D solid to the completed part.
The STL data set for the part is the input information for the slice process.
This breaks the part down into individual layers. The thickness of the layers
depends on the process being used and the required surface quality. This
means that with slicing, the geometric information for the construction
process is generated for each layer. Where curvatures, sculptured surfaces,
and blunt angles appear, the layer-by-layer construction means that a
"stepped" eect is created. This leads to lower surface quality. The greater
the layer thickness, the greater is the stepped eect. On the other hand,
increasing the layer thickness reduces the construction time and thus also
the cost of the part. It is necessary to nd a compromise for each individual
construction process.
The last step in the preparation for the construction process is to place the
part virtually in the machine space using the system software. At the same
time, the information for the individual layers is transferred to the control
data of the system. The systems integrator then denes system-specic
parameters, such as the travel speed or the temperature of the working
space.
2.3.3. Postprocessing
Even when the stepped eect is not a problem, at present, many additive
processes can provide only relatively low surface qualities. In most cases, the
parts have to be reworked after the construction process. The reason for this
is the stepped eect inherent to the process and the limited dimensional
accuracy of additive manufacturing technologies. For example, xed points
should be provided during design work as reference points for subsequent
rework. This makes it possible to set up an auxiliary coordinate system as a
basis for nishing operations using a CNC machining center. The design
engineer should select these xed points so that that they can be produced
accurately using the additive process. Furthermore, the anisotropic
properties in the material can be reduced or eliminated by means of thermal
posttreatment processes.
As shown in Figure 2.4 , three types of feedstock materials are used today:
Figure 2.4. Classication of currently known additive manufacturing
processes according to the feedstock material.
Powdered granulates
In the case of liquid materials, for the most part, targeted laser beams or
heat (ultraviolet [UV] beams) are used to consolidate (polymerize) synthetic
resins and join them to the underlying existing layers. However, this process
also includes the use of solid feedstock materials (plastics) to build up the
existing model layer on layer by means of melting followed by rapid cooling.
The semiliquid plastic is sprayed on top of itself layer by layer.
When solid feedstock materials with a neutral form are used, this generally
involves layers of lm or paper that are bonded on top of each other layer on
layer and then cut out to the exact contours using a laser or cutting blade.
Both conventional bonding processes and partial polymerization (bonding via
heating) are used here.
All the processes used today function in two dimensions, that is, with
individual layers. Models are built up layer on layer, thus creating a third
dimension. This also applies to processes that generally also would be able to
work in three dimensions directly (e.g., fused deposition manufacturing). The
reason for this is that the 3D software required for this is signicantly more
complex and therefore not available at this time.
2.5. Introduction to the Principal-Layer Manufacturing
Processes
Figure 2.6. Process sequence for direct and indirect beam melting
processes.
The eects that appear when the powdered feedstock material is fused
locally are characterized by complete transformation of the feedstock
material into the molten state, which is what dierentiates this process from
sintering processes. Instead of a two-stage sintering process ( "Laser
Sintering" next ), a single-stage beam melting process now has become the
established practice in industrial applications. Various terms are used to
describe this process. Whereas EOS GmbH uses the term direct metal laser
sintering (DMLS), other companies prefer the terms LaserCusing (Concept
Laser) or selective laser melting (SLM) (MTT Technologies). However, the
process sequence is the same for all manufacturers: The feedstock material is
always a single-component powdered metal that is completely fused during
the construction process. In this way, it is possible to create a nearly pore-
free component whose material properties are similar to those of a
component created from the same material using conventional processes
(e.g., casting). Unlike with the IMLS process ( "Laser Sintering" later in
the chapter ), no additional processing is necessary. At present, the
powdered feedstock materials that are available and usable include various
tool steels, stainless steels, aluminum and nickel alloys, pure titanium,
various titanium alloys, and gold. The range of materials is constantly being
expanded as a result of numerous research and development (R&D) projects.
It should be noted, however, that all the laser-based beam melting processes
just described have a disadvantage in that the traversing speed of the laser
beam is limited. There are two main reasons for this:
The mechanical mirror optics used to redirect the laser beam limit the
power of the beam because of the limited thermal load capacity of the
mirror system.
The mass moments of inertia in the mirror optics limit the traversing speed
of the laser beam because increased deection speeds have an adverse
eect on the accuracy of travel.
These disadvantages can be eliminated by using not a laser beam but rather
an electron beam in an electron-beam melting (EBM) process. In this way, it
is even possible to increase the process speed (Figure 2.7 ).
The higher deection speeds and power density of electron beams allow
higher process speeds. The high deection speed also oers a number of
options for improved process control, such as quasi-parallel illumination and
freely congurable beam shaping to control and optimize heat input to the
part. Thanks to these advantages, the EBM process is currently being
subjected to further investigation and development with the goal of
establishing it as an industrial application on a larger scale.
There are high production costs for each part with long process times.
Rough surfaces are produced in some cases, with the associated need for
rework on functional surfaces.
There is a limited work area and thus limited part sizes (at present 300
350 300 mm maximum).
For metals, this involves a two-step process. Indirect metal laser sintering
(IMLS) is used to fuse a plastic binder contained in the powdered metal
surrounding the metal particles. This initially produces a so-called green
compact with low strength. In order to generate an adequate metal part from
this green compact, a subsequent heat-treatment process is required. Here,
the plastic binder is expelled and so-called sinter necks are formed between
the metal particles. At the same time, bronze is inltrated into the part, thus
creating a stable structure consisting of about 60 percent steel and 40
percent bronze.
Laser sintering (LS) is also known as selective laser sintering (SLS). This
process is based on the powder-bed principle and can be used to produce
prototypes and functional components from plastics in just a few hours
( Figure 2.8 ). The materials used most often in this case are polyamide and
polystyrene. In contrast to beam melting processes, in which the feedstock
material is fused solely by means of the beam, with LS the feedstock material
is rst heated to a temperature just under the melting point via a large-area
heat radiator. The feedstock material then is fused locally using a low-power
laser (up to ~30 W). The laser beam is deected by the scanner optics. After
the iterative production of the individual layers of the part, the support
structure is slowly cooled down to room temperature. The time required for
this cooling process is approximately the same as the time required to build
up the part. If the cooling is too rapid, the temperature gradients will be too
steep, thus resulting in excessive distortion in the part. After the cooling
process come the process steps for unpacking, cleaning, and postprocessing
of the part. The sintered part sits in loose powder, from which it can be
removed. The part then can be cleaned using compressed air to remove
powder residues. Any feedstock material that has not been fused can be
reused. For optimal results, approximately a 1:1 mixture of old and new
powder should be used.
Figure 2.8. Grippers produced via additive manufacturing (Festo).
Porous surface
Economical process
Compact system
2.5.5. Stereolithography
Chain propagation
Chain termination
Practically no thermal stress, thanks to the low laser power (generally <1
W)
Mask sintering (MS) is very similar to SLS. Here too, energy is applied to a
powdered feedstock material in order to fuse it. Unlike with laser sintering,
mask sintering does not involve a single laser beam that is deected by
means of a scanner but rather illumination of a layer over a large area via a
mask. The mask is printed for each layer in such a way that the energy
emitted by a UV source is reected onto the powder in the areas that are to
be consolidated. The mask consists of a mirror that is printed with ceramic
powder for each layer. Illuminating a complete layer over a large area greatly
reduces the construction time per layer.
In laser cladding, a laser beam is used to create a localized weld pool on the
surface of a metallic workpiece. The metallic feedstock material (generally in
the form of a powder or wire) is applied to this weld pool by means of a
feeder unit. By moving the weld pool over the surface of the material, it is
possible to create a bead-shaped line. To protect the fused material against
oxidation, the process generally takes place in an inert atmosphere. Thus 3D
material solids can be built up by superimposing a number of individual
layers. Components built up using this additive process have a comparable
density to that of components created from the same material using
conventional processes. Components created using laser cladding generally
have a relatively rough structure that is very similar to the structure of a
casting. Furthermore, as yet only low surface quality can be obtained using
this process.
2.6. Summary
11. Rapid tooling brings together processes that can be used to create tools
(e.g., for casting) in order to produce components in the genuine material.
Citation
EXPORT
Hans B. Kief; Helmut A. Roschiwal: CNC Handbook. Additive Manufacturing
Processes, Chapter (McGraw-Hill Professional, 2012), AccessEngineering
This product incorporates part of the open source Protg system. Protg is
available at http://protege.stanford.edu//