Fluvial Design Guide - Chapter 11
Fluvial Design Guide - Chapter 11
11.1 Overview
This chapter considers the design issues that apply for the common types of structure encountered in
the fluvial environment. Although civil, mechanical and electrical engineering aspects need to be fully
integrated in the design process, they are more conveniently dealt with separately here.
The chapter begins by describing the application of the basic concepts that need to be considered in
the civil engineering design. This is followed by a series of information sheets on the principal types
of structure and then a description of the specific considerations that apply to their rehabilitation. The
chapter continues by considering mechanical and electrical design, power supplies, and
instrumentation, control and automation (ICA).
This chapter draws on information presented in almost every other chapter of this guide but has
particularly close links with Chapter 3 (Fluvial geomorphology), Chapter 4 (Fluvial ecology) and
Chapter 7 (Hydraulic analysis and design). Importantly, it relies on Chapter 8 (Works in the river
channel) and Chapter 9 (Floodwalls and flood embankments) as these structures are often combined as
part of river and canal works, and it is the connections between the two that are most often points of
failure.
Considerable research into flood risk management is underway in the UK and Europe. Readers are
encouraged to keep abreast of the latest research and development initiatives by consulting the
following websites:
Joint Environment Agency/Defra Flood and Costal Erosion Risk Management R&D
Programme (FCERM) (http://www.defra.gov.uk/environ/fcd/research);
Flood Risk Management Consortium (http://www.floodrisk.org.uk);
Floodsite (http://www.floodsite.net).
11.2.1 Introduction
Structures are placed in rivers and canals in order to:
control water levels and flows;
facilitate the abstraction of water;
maintain navigation;
control flooding;
measure the discharge.
Rivers and to a lesser extent canals experience fluctuating water levels and flows that depend on
the runoff from its catchment, together with any other sources such as catchment transfers or artificial
releases from storage.
Any structures placed in this environment are required to function in a wide range of hydraulic
conditions. Other important variables include the transport of suspended material (type of material and
the volume carried).
River transitions
River structures are static elements in a dynamic system and, as such, they can disturb the natural
equilibrium of the river channel. This disturbance can be minimised by:
avoiding sudden changes of flow direction (from channel to structure, and structure to channel);
providing transitions between the natural channel and the rigid structure.
These transitions are often formed using flexible revetments (see Section 8.3.5).
Although warning signs may be adequate to alert the public to specific dangers, handrails can serve to
reinforce the designation of some areas as out-of-bounds and potentially dangerous. When handrails
are designed sensitively with the character of the local area acting to guide the choice of materials
and construction methods they present minimal visual impact.
Trash screens have a double function when used on a culvert entrance. As well as keeping trash out of
the culvert, they also keep people out of what could be a potentially dangerous space. Screens that are
designed exclusively to inhibit access are generally referred to as security screens. Both trash screens
and security screens present a risk of blockage by debris and hence risk causing or aggravating local
flooding (see also Section 8.6.3).
gabions;
sandbags;
single-course blockwork walls;
other semi-hard structures.
When specifying such features, consider whether the public will be attracted to the area. If so, avoid
vulnerable features or move the structure elsewhere.
Common targets for theft include:
metals;
items that can be manhandled (such as precast concrete units and stone slabs);
solar panels;
cabling.
Theft and vandalism can be reduced by making materials securely composite with each other and with
other parts of the structure. This has implications for the ease of recycling at decommissioning, so both
aspects need to be considered by the designer (see Figure 11.3).
Figure 11.3 Sliding scale of vulnerability to theft and vandalism versus ease of
recycling
Lift The velocity of the water flowing over the top of a bed of sediment creates lift
forces on the particles. Once the lift force on a particle exceeds the downwards
force of its buoyant weight, it is lifted from the bed into the flow of water.
Momentum Water striking the surface of a sediment particle is deflected around it. Some
Turbulent eddies that move faster than the main flow are a significant factor which increases the
potential for scour. Such eddies are created by river structures of all types, as well as by natural
obstacles.
Transport mechanisms
Once in motion, there are two main mechanisms for the transport of sediment:
bedload rolling and sliding along the river bed;
suspended load in suspension in the water.
Under normal flow conditions, smaller particles are usually suspended while the larger pebbles,
cobbles and boulders are likely to form the bedload. In very fast flows, particles up to the size of large
cobbles can form a part of the suspended load.
Waterborne debris
Debris transport is a natural function of rivers. Debris consists of organic matter (leaves, trees,
decaying plants and the like) and man-made waste (such as litter, grass clippings and shopping
trolleys) that are carried as bedload, as suspended load or floating on the surface.
The volume of debris in the watercourse often fluctuates in response to increased flow rates; runoff
from the land washes debris into the water and stationary riverside stores of debris are mobilised.
Debris can obstruct flows, reducing the discharge capacity of a channel and causing a rise in water
level. This is especially troublesome in locations that are enclosed or hard to access, and at structures
where the flow depth is restricted or surface flows are obstructed such as at weirs and gates. These
problems can sometimes be mitigated by using trash screens and floating booms to collect the debris.
Such units require continued maintenance.
Another issue presented to structures by both debris and sediment transport is abrasion. This leads to
damaged finishes and surfaces, or loss of section. Such damage can be classed as a serviceability
failure of the structure and is likely to require repair.
Afflux
Another factor that needs to be considered at structures is afflux (see Chapter 7), which is defined as
the maximum rise in water surface elevation above that of an unstructured stream due to the presence
of a structure such as a bridge or culvert in the stream (see Figure 11.4). When choosing a site for a
structure, consideration should be given to the effect of afflux on upstream land, buildings and other
assets. Afflux can be estimated using the afflux estimation system (AES) developed under the joint
Defra/Environment Agency flood and coastal erosion risk management programme (Mantz, 2007).
11.3.2 Weirs
Description and Used to control grade and water levels in rivers or canals, for offtakes, and for
purpose flow gauging (see Section 11.2.4 and Box 11.1), amenity and navigation.
A selection of different forms All combinations of plan, elevation and section can be used and
have advantages in particular applications.
Plan (flow from left) Section (flow from left) Elevation (flow towards reader)
Orthogonal Broad crested Straight
Minimum material use Used for simplicity and for
moderate flows
Labyrinth Sharp-crested
As curved in low flows, but Mostly used for temporary
behaves like orthogonal crest in measuring structures
high flows
Specific design Material use suitability for setting and for the hydraulic loads
considerations Effects on ecology some fragmentation of habitats (less than a weir)
Potential for scour of bed and banks affecting the stability of the structure
River users canoeists, anglers
Migratory fish species and numbers
References for Case studies from Manual of river restoration techniques (RRC, 2002):
design guidance 5.2 Drop-weir structures (http://www.therrc.co.uk/pdf/manual/MAN_5_2C.pdf)
5.3 Restoring and stabilising over-deepened river bed levels
(http://www.therrc.co.uk/pdf/manual/MAN_5_3.pdf )
Common faults Not strong enough to resist hydraulic loads in floods and therefore vulnerable
to severe damage, scour of bed or banks undermining the structure
Inappropriate materials and finishes
11.3.4 Bridges
Description Carry transport routes over rivers and canals and come in a very wide range of
and purpose structural forms.
A selection of different forms
Most bridges that cross rivers are formed of the following three main components that interact with a
watercourse.
Piers
Can be formed from many different sections, generally streamlined to some extent to reduce local and
contraction scour. Simple cylindrical and rectangular sections tend to shed vortices, which travel for
large distances causing scour, and should be avoided. Scour protection may be needed.
Abutments
Abutments form the hard ends of the bridge. They
contain flows and should be wide enough apart to
function under design conditions. Additional side
spans can be used for extra capacity in flood
flows. Scour protection may be needed.
Deck
Usually designed to be well above even extreme flood levels. If close to the water level, route and
depth markers can be used to guide vehicles across the bridge safely (where the bridge is so designed)
in the event of the deck being submerged by shallow flood flows
Arch bridges a special case
Due to their geometry, traditional semi-circular arch bridges can
restrict flow increasingly as the flow through them rises. This can
cause increased afflux and hence problems.
Additionally the risk of blockage by debris increases as water-
levels rise (see right). As debris volumes tend to be raised in
high flows, this can lead to blockage and, in extremis, failure of
the structure.
Photograph by kind permission of Mr B Drinkwater
Specific design Potential for scour at abutments, piers and adjacent banks
considerations Afflux flood risk upstream
Pier design large piers in the waterway can increase afflux and scour; need to
consider longer span or streamlined piers
Navigation headroom and beam. Also signage and traffic lights on busy
reaches
Obstruction of the floodplain by approach embankments need for flood arches
References for Scour at bridges and other hydraulic structures (May et al, 2002)
design guidance Conservation of bridges (Tilley, 2002)
For a detailed description of the hydraulics around bridges, see Section 6-13 of
US Army Corps of Engineers manual, River hydraulics, EM 1110-2-1416
(http://140.194.76.129/publications/eng-manuals/)
Common faults Excessive afflux
Blockage by large debris; scour local and contraction
Sediment deposition in the outer spans
Inadequate environmental sensitivity in location
Obstruction to floodplain flow
11.3.5 Culverts
Description and Provide closed passages for flow through transportation embankments and for
purpose rivers passing under urban areas. Most commonly made from precast reinforced
concrete, but plastic and steel are occasionally used. Historically, brick-lined
culverts were common and many are still in active service.
A selection of different forms
Round Box
Precast circular pipes function Standard precast units can
satisfactorily in consistent provide a simple solution.
flows; simple geometry and Can use multiple culverts in
standard fittings. parallel with different invert
Some capability of self removal levels to suit a range of flows.
of sediment build-up. Liable to suffer sedimentation
in low flows.
Elliptical Complex/specialist
Limits build-up of sediment and One-off designs to suit
debris. individual site-specific
A non-standard design and constraints, such as large
requires fabrication by flow variation, underground
specialist. obstacles or high sediment ( and others)
loads.
Specific design Material use refer to Figure 4.6 in CIRIA R168 (see below)
considerations Hydraulic design should generally be for free flow (as illustrated above).
Complex flow conditions can arise, particularly with steep culverts and for
culverts flowing close to full.
Sediment load design so that sedimentation in the culvert is reduced, and
make provision for cleaning out (e.g. manholes, access ramps at inlet and
outlet).
Trash and debris in the flow avoid design features that may trap debris in the
culvert (e.g. bends and changes of cross section).
Inlet and outlet details design against scour and blockage
Effects on ecology fragmentation of habitats, migratory fish impacts
References for Culvert design guide (Ramsbottom et al, 1997)
design guidance US Army Corps of Engineers manual, Conduits, culverts and pipes, EM 1110-2-
2902 (http://140.194.76.129/publications/eng-manuals/)
Case study from Manual of river restoration techniques (RRC,2002)
1.6 Opening up a culverted stream
(http://www.therrc.co.uk/pdf/manual/MAN_1_6.pdf)
Common faults Inadequate size
Blockage by trash
Excessive scour at inlet or outlet
New service obstructions in old culverts
Over-use of screens
11.3.6 Flumes
Description Flow measurement structures that rely on channel contractions (see Section 11.2.4
and purpose and Box 11.1). Used where there is risk of blockage. They cause much less
headloss than most weirs and are less affected by incoming flow velocity. Not
suitable for large flows or on wide, shallow rivers.
Can be used as a means of flow control, for example creating an elevated
backwater which can be diverted into a flood storage area, taking the peak off the
flood hydrograph.
A selection of different forms
Flumes come in three standard types, as described in BS ISO Rectangular throated
4359: 1983 (BSI, 1983), which is expected to be revised in 2010. U-throated
These can all be of level or raised invert to suit conditions. Trapezoidal
Rectangular and U-throated Trapezoidal
Standard design with published discharge coefficients. Designed for use in irrigation applications,
this flume has the advantage of accurate
flow measurement over a greater range of
discharges.
Specific design Material plastic or steel for smaller, temporary structures; or concrete (both
considerations precast and insitu) for larger, permanent ones
Approach channel required to be streamlined and straight to ensure uniform
approach flow for flow measurement structures
Scour of all types can be associated with these kind of structures
Trash load type and frequency of occurrence (may require periodic removal of
larger items)
Standard dimensions allow use of standard discharge coefficients
References for BS ISO 4359: 1983 (being updated)
design guidance
Common faults Foundation failure due to scour
Inadequate environmental sensitivity in terms of location, materials and finishes
11.3.7 Siphons
Description and Used for transferring water above or below an obstacle such as a river or road.
purpose Siphons are strictly devices that involve the generation of sub-atmospheric
pressures, but the term (or inverted siphon) has also become applied to
culverts that run full and in which the invert level is below the bed level of the
upstream and downstream channels.
A selection of different forms
Siphon
A true siphon must include a means of priming (that is, expelling all or some of the air from its barrel).
In fluvial siphons, this is normally achieved by including appropriate features that result in the air being
entrained in the water flow, but it is also possible to prime a siphon by mechanical means of expelling
the air such as a vacuum pump or ejector.
Some siphons have been designed to run either full-bore or not at all. These so-called black-water
siphons are not recommended because they alternately prime and deprime when the discharge arriving
at them is less than their full-bore capacity. They can thus generate erratic conditions in the upstream
and downstream channels.
The recommended type of siphon for use in the Inverted siphon
fluvial environment is a self-priming air-regulated Not really a siphon, this type of structure is useful
siphon. If well-designed, these can operated with for passing under an obstacle such as a river,
a stable water flow that constantly matches the road or building with deep foundations.
flow arriving from upstream.
Specific design Sediment load both bed and suspended, settling velocities, material type
considerations Trash load quantity and quality, consider specification of trashscreen
Inlet and outlet details design against scour and blockage
Sediment trap upstream of entrance can reduce the need for maintenance
Ecology generally impassable to migratory fish, so consider fishpass as
auxiliary structure
Reliable means of priming and depriming (for true siphons)
Risks associated with sudden changes in flow (if a black-water siphon or
mechanical priming is proposed)
References for The detailed design of true siphons is a specialist activity due to the subtleties of
design guidance priming and sealing, the effects of wave action and cavitation risks.
Design and operation of air-regulated siphons for reservoir and head-water
control (Ackers and Thomas, 1975).
Design of small canal structures (Aisenbrey et al, 1978).
Common faults True siphons: Inverted siphons:
blockage by trash; inadequate provisions for
excessive scour at inlet or outlet; sediment removal;
ineffective arrangements for need for security screens at inlet
priming and retaining prime; and outlet which create a
cavitation. maintenance obligation.
11.3.8 Outfalls
Description and The structure at the point of a discharge into a river.
purpose Can be above or below the normal water level.
A selection of different forms
Common Access restriction Flapgate
Most outfalls require scour Larger outfalls require access Fitted to stop flow reversal
protection, but hard protection restrictions these must be at during flood flows a common
(below) often creates more both ends to ensure people are cause of flooding these should
scour problems than it solves. entirely excluded. be accessible in design flows
Scour is often worse at the and not obscured from view by
edges of hard structures. an overhang (see below).
Specific design Flapgate to stop reverse flow condition, although there remains a risk of
considerations operational failure due to blockage or obstruction. Consequences of failure
should be assessed. Access to the flapgate for inspection and maintenance is
vital.
Scour protection will be required if flow from outfall has high velocity, or if the
outfall obstructs flow in the receiving channel
Security screen to stop access into pipe. This must be at both ends of pipe or
culvert or people entering the pipe may become dangerously trapped.
Differences in water quality may require pre-treatment such as reed-beds,
cooling structures, oil traps or sediment traps.
References for Case studies from Manual of river restoration techniques (RRC, 2002):
design guidance 9.1 Surface water outfalls (http://www.therrc.co.uk/pdf/manual/MAN_9_1C.pdf)
9.2 Reedbed at Raglan Stream reedbed treatment of an agricultural outfall
(http://www.therrc.co.uk/pdf/manual/MAN_9_2C.pdf)
Common faults Over-engineered so that the outfall becomes an obstruction in the receiving
channel
Inadequate scour protection
Faulty or damaged flapgate
Poor water quality matching of discharge with river water
Inadequate environmental sensitivity in terms of location, materials and finishes
Design excludes provision for dealing with trash caught on screen or obstructing
flapgate
11.3.9 Screens
Description and Screens are used for two reasons:
purpose A trash screen is designed to prevent debris entering a culvert or inverted
siphon where it could cause a blockage.
A security screen is designed to prevent unauthorised access to a culvert
or inverted siphon, generally for health and safety reasons.
Environment Agency policy is to discourage the use of screens except where
the benefits clearly outweigh the risks.
A selection of different forms
Single stage Multi-stage Self-raking
Suitable for smaller streams and For areas where water level Trash loaded into hopper/skip
rivers variation requires raking bars for disposal
Raking bars maximum length longer than 2m Periodic or head-difference
2m Access platforms on each stage operated
to allow safe cleaning by For systems in continuous
operatives operation
Specific design The need for a screen should always be questioned as they are often
considerations themselves a source of problems (high maintenance requirement and the risk of
blockage resulting in local flooding before the screen can be cleared screens
can block in a matter of hours in flood conditions).
The design must be based on an assessment of likely debris types and
volumes, so that the area of screen and suitable bar spacing can be determined.
There must be safe access for cleaning and space for temporary storage of
debris above flood level.
Implementation should proceed only once responsibility for routine and
emergency cleaning has been established and the screen owner has confirmed
that the required resources for this work will be available in perpetuity.
There may be ecological issues associated with fish and mammal passage.
References for Trash and security screens: a guide for flood risk management (Environment
design guidance Agency, 2009)
Common faults Screen is not required.
Screen area far too small so that debris accumulation is rapid.
Bar spacing too small so that the screen becomes obscured by material that
poses no risk to the culvert. NB For security screens, a standard clear spacing
of 140mm is recommended.
Inadequate provision for safe raking and storage of debris removed.
Flimsy construction making the screen vulnerable to vandalism.
11.3.11 Locks
Description and Locks allow the passage of boats between water bodies or channels with
purpose different water levels.
Can be used in series to traverse large inclines, or in parallel to reduce
waiting times for vessels.
Often used in conjunction with another means of water level control such as a
weir, a flume or a gated control structure.
A selection of different forms
Single lock with side weir Double locks in parallel
11.3.12 Fishpasses
Description and Employed to encourage movement of fish across obstacles such as locks,
purpose weirs and pumping stations that interfere with migratory fish routes. Success
depends on selecting an appropriate type of pass, good positioning and the
provision of an adequate attraction flow.
A selection of different forms
Bypass channel Pool and traverse Larinier
Simulates natural channel Series of linked pools separated Open sloping channel with
Provides extra offline habitat by notched traverses chevron-shaped baffles to floor
Used for moderate to large only
Not usually appropriate for large
drops drops (120m) Suitable for a wide variety of fish
Suitable mainly for salmonid fish species, including non-jumping
Landscape feature
unless underwater orifices types
Requires large area
between pools are included Can be made as wide as
required using replicated units
Suitable for canoe passage
when wooden baffles are used
Specific design Fish species, behaviour, size and numbers, migration seasons
considerations Geometry available space, location of entry and exit, preferred fish routes,
height of obstacle, water level variation and slope suitable for fish ascent
Water levels and flows expected during peak migration season
Previous experiences of passes with the same fish species and local practice
Provision of trapping and/or monitoring arrangements to measure their
effectiveness
References for Information on fishpasses on the Environment Agency website
design guidance (http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/business/sectors/32651.aspx)
Environment Agencys Fish pass manual (Armstrong et al, 2004)
Common faults Design not suited to passing required species or sizes of fish
Inappropriate positioning of downstream entrance (fish dont find it)
Inverts not matched to water levels during fish migration season
Inadequate attraction flow
Injury to fish
Excessive maintenance
Lack of monitoring provision
Dry working
Some operations are entirely possible without closure of the watercourse. Some require works to be
carried out in the dry. This necessitates the construction of temporary works (see Section 8.7) such as:
a cofferdam using techniques such as sheetpiling;
water-filled dams;
portable temporary dam (membrane supported by a steel A-frame and similar units).
Set of small bottom pivoted flapgates for river A large vertical lift gate which is lowered to
regulation. The flaps are raised when river flows prevent high tidal levels from flooding the city of
are low, and lowered in flood conditions. Hull.
Mitre gates are the traditional installation for river and canal locks. Traditionally they are made of
wood and hand operated (see Figure 11.7), but on larger and more frequently used locks, these have
developed into steel construction and powered operation (see Figure 11.8). They are fitted with sluices
within the gate or in the abutments for lock filling and emptying.
Figure 11.7 Traditional wooden lock gates Figure 11.8 Modern steel lock gates
Sector and radial gates are of superficially of similar design, except for the orientation of the axis of
rotation vertical for sector gates (see Figure 11.9) and horizontal for radial gates (also known as
Tainter gates) (see Figure 11.10).
Two pairs of sector gates can be used to form a lock, and sector gates are a more modern solution to
dock gate design. They have advantages including low operating forces and the ability to withstand
bidirectional head, but require more extensive civil works.
The drum gates on the Thames barrier are a variant of radial gates.
Figure 11.9 A pair of vertical axis sector Figure 11.10 Automatic horizontal axis
gates used for a lock entrance radial gate for automatic control of
upstream river level
Other types of gate-like equipment include stoplogs, rymer weirs and inflatable weirs.
Stoplogs were traditionally made of wood as indicated by the name and are lowered into an opening
registering in grooves in the walls to isolate a gate or structure to allow working in the dry. Larger
examples are now made of steel.
Rymer weirs are an historic form of adjustable weir which still exist in some places despite serious
health and safety disadvantages. A number exist on the River Thames, but are being phased out; they
are mentioned here for completeness. An example at Northmoor Lock on the River Thames is
described on http://www.the-river-thames.co.uk/locks.htm.
Inflatable weirs are of relatively modern design and made of a composite rubberised material in the
shape of a long tube, which is inflated and deflated with air or water in order to control the crest
height. They are common in Japan but have yet to be adopted in the UK.
Centrifugal pumps
Centrifugal pumps are generally considered to be any pump with an impeller producing radial or
mixed flow, although axial flow pumps are also often referred to as centrifugal type.
The output flow from any centrifugal pump depends on the head against which the pump is
discharging. The pump therefore has to be selected to suit the particular head and flow requirements.
In most cases a centrifugal pump delivers its maximum head at zero flow. As the flow increases so the
head reduces, and the pump operating efficiency increases until the peak efficiency is achieved; this is
known as the best efficiency point (BEP). If the pump flow continues to increase, then the efficiency
begins to reduce. If the flow is allowed to increase further as a result of falling head, the net positive
suction head (NPSH) required by the pump begins to increase to the point where the NPSH required
exceeds the NPSH available. At this point cavitation occurs, resulting in damage to the pump impeller.
The selection of a centrifugal pump must therefore consider the hydraulic conditions.
If the pump is required to work over a very large range of heads, consideration must be given to
throttling the discharge flow either using a control valve or resorting to a variable speed drive.
Throttling wastes energy and is generally used only in exceptional cases. Where there is a wide
variation in pump head, a variable speed drive is often used. This is achieved by changing the supply
frequency of the driving motor using an electronic inverter. The pump flow varies proportionally to
the change in speed, and the pump head varies as the square of the change in speed.
Figure 11.11 shows a typical pump performance curve.
Pumps can be deployed in either a dry well or a wet well. Wet-well pumps, as their name implies, are
installed directly in a pump chamber. Dry well installations still require a wet inlet chamber, but the
pumps are installed in a dry chamber and have piped inlets from the adjacent inlet chamber.
Figures 11.12 and 11.13 show examples of dry well pumping installations.
Over the last 20 years, submersible pumps where both the pump and the driving motor are
submerged in a wet well have been widely used, particularly for the smaller flow rates.
For larger flow rates (generally in excess of 1 m3/s), vertical wet well type pumps are normally used.
In such installations, the pump impeller and volute are submerged and supported by a pipe which acts
as the discharge pipe through which the pump drive shaft passes (see Figure 11.14).
The pump motor is located at the top of the discharge pipe and bend, normally at ground level.
Although wet well installations usually have a lower capital cost, they are more difficult to maintain.
Dry well installations have the advantage that the pumps are always accessible and, after closing
isolating valves on their suction and discharge mains, they can be dismantled insitu without having to
remove the entire pump.
Centrifugal pumps are not self-priming and require the pump volute to be filled with water before
starting. Having the pump submerged ensures it remains fully primed and avoids having to provide a
separate system for priming the pump. Failure to prime a centrifugal pump properly is one of the most
common problems associated with pumping plant. A centrifugal pump is not capable of operating dry
it must always have water available to pump.
Other potential problems with centrifugal pumps can be as a result of debris in the water. It is essential
to provide adequate protection to prevent the ingress of weed and other material that can get carried
into pump intakes such as wood and plastics. Smaller pumps are more susceptible to debris, as the
water passages through the impeller are smaller, so are more likely to get blocked although any
pump is at risk. Normally, as a minimum, a bar screen with 25mm spacing should be provided, with
the facility to rake it periodically to remove any build-up of debris. Where weed or other debris is a
known problem, then finer screening should be employed possibly with automatic cleaning such as a
rotating band screen, clog-resistant vee-wire screen or similar.
In most instances, pumps are driven directly from electric motors. Where a mains power supply is not
available, one option is to provide a diesel generator to supply electrical power. Alternatively the
pump could be driven directly from a diesel engine, rather than having a diesel generator and an
electrically driven pump. In special situations, other methods of pump drive such as hydraulic motors
can be used, although these are not common on drainage applications.
A screw pump can also operate even when there is little or even no water to pump. For drainage
applications this makes the Archimedean screw pump an ideal choice. The main drawback of this type
of pump is that their discharge head is limited. A head in excess of 10m is unusual due to the span of
the screw required for high-head applications. Where higher heads are required two-stage lifts using
two pumps in series can be used.
The main disadvantage of screw pumps is the size of the installation and the cost, which is usually
significantly higher than the cost of a centrifugal pump of the same head and flow.
Renewable energy sources are ideal for remote instrumentation such as level and condition
monitoring. They can also been used to operate small drives such as small pumps and gate drives,
though the problem is in providing sufficient storage capacity in batteries to ensure reliable operation.
network, for example, from 100m to several kilometres. They can be installed in ring configurations
for redundancy.
Fibre optic networks are suitable for large sites where access is available to lay cables in service
corridors and ducting without interruption.
Radio system
The use of radio systems is declining, as other systems achieve higher reliability and flexibility. Where
the use of telephone systems or similar is difficult, such a system could be considered for linking over
a distance of a few kilometres.
In principle, radio systems are suitable for a central site communicating to one or more outstations.
The limitations are down to radio reception and usually require line of sight between the transmitter
and the receiver for communications to work.
Broadband-based system
These use the traditional wired telephone system at both the site of the equipment being controlled or
monitored and the remote location, connected via a modem or a router. This arrangement can provide
access from anywhere with an internet connection, provided that the correct security privileges are
used. A virtual private network (VPN) can be configured in addition, providing a dedicated connection
between systems if required.
Broadband-based systems are suitable for connecting several different locations that can be large
distances apart, nationwide or even worldwide.
Successful use of this technology relies on a good broadband connection.
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