BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA
The places connected with the four principal events of Buddha’s
life, viz. his birth, enlightenment, first preaching and decease, which
took place respectively at Lumbini, Bodh-Gaya, Sarnath and Kasia,
were looked upon with greatest sanctity. To these were added four
other places also intimately associated with his life, Sravasti,
Sankasya, Rajagriha and Vaisali, which together with the first four
were regarded as the eight holy places (ashtamahasthanas), celebrated
alike in Buddhist lore as well as art. At Sravesti and Sankasya (modern
Sankisa, District Farrukhabed) Buddha is believed to have performed
great feats of miracles. At Rajagriha the Master tamed the mad elephant
which had been let loose on him by his cousin Devadatta. Vaisali
witnessed the memorable event of the offer of honey to the Master
by the monkeys. There were several other places in the present States
of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, such as Nalanda and Kausambi which were
also hallowed by Buddha’s visits during his ministry extending over
nearly-halfa century. It is but natural that those places should be ador-
ned by devout Buddhists with shrines, stupas and monasteries. Further,
according to tradition king Asoka (273-32 B.C.) opened the eight out
of the ten original stupas enshrining the body-relics of the Master and
distributed them into eightyfour thousand stupas, which he is said
to have erected throughout the length and breadth of his vast empire.
‘This explains why sites like Senchi and Taxila (Pakistan) have such fine
Buddhist monuments, even though they were not visited by Buddha.
The earliest Buddhist monuments in India are attributable to Asoka
(273-32 B.C.) who exerted his energies and the resources of his empire
to the propagation of Buddhism. He is credited with the authorship
of three principal types of monuments, viz., (1) pillars, (2) stupas, and
(5) rock-cut caves, of which the first two have Buddhist associations,
Asoka set up at least thirty pillars including ten inscribed with his edicts
on sites which are scattered in Districts Champaran and Muzeffarpur
of north Bihar, in the Nepal Tarai, at Sarnath near Varanasi and Kausambi
near Allahabad, in the Meerut and Ambala Districts and at Sanchi in
central India. Made of Chunar sandstone and bearing a highly lustrous
polish, the pillars are tapering monolithic shafts, between 10 and 15 m.
high, with an ornamental capital, surmounted by powerful animal-
sculpture of symbolical significance. Distinguished by dignity, exquisite
finish and monumental quality, these free-standing columns probably
formed part of larger architectrutal schemes on sites like Sanchi and
Sarnath. , The best-preserved pillar is that at Lauriya-Nandangarh
(District Champaran), which is complete with the Acokan edicts and
a capital crowned by a stately figure of lion.
121. STUPA—ARCHITECTURE
The stupa originated as a piled-up burial-tumulus and constituted
the most characteristic monument of Buddhist religion, although stupas
of other faiths are not unknown. Symbolizing the decease (parinirvana)
of Buddha, the stupa came to be looked upon as an object of Buddhist
cult-worship by the time of Asoka, who, as stated above, is believed to
have erected an enormous number of stupas over Buddha’s relics which
had originally been enshrined in eight or ten monuments. Stupas were
of three types and were built cither to enshrine the body-relics (saririka)
or the personal effects (paribhogika) of Buddha and Buddhist saints or
to commemorate spots and events of religious significance (uddesika)..
The stupa was a solid structural dome (anda), usually raised on one
or more terraces and surmounted by a railed pavilion (harmika) from
which rose the shaft of the crowning umbrella (chhatra). The stupas
had one or more circumambulatory passages (pradakshina-patha) which
were usually enclosed by railing (vedika). The earlier stupas were
hemispherical in shape with a low base, while the later ones assumed an
increasingly cylindrical form with a well-developed drum. In the later
examples, which tended to be more ornate, the base-terraces and the
umbrellas were multiplied.
The only brick stupa of a probable pre-Asokan date is that at
Piprahwa in Basti District of Uttar Pradesh, which yielded mong its
relics a vase, inscribed in characters belived to be pre-Asokan, and a
figure in gold relief, representing the mother-goddess in a frontal pose.
The stupa, built of large bricks, has a diameter of 116 ft. and an extant
height of 21 ft. indicating a low ratio of height to diameter, which is
a sign of antiquity. According to the inscription on she relic-casket,
the relics found in the stupa pertained to Lord Buddha himself.
Lauriya (District Champaran) contains, besides an inscribed
Asokan pillar, fifteen stupa-mpunds, Four of them were excavated
in 1904-07 and as two of them yielded a deposit of burnt bones with
charcoal and a gold leaf with a mother-goddess figure (akin to the one
from Piprahwa), they were regarded by the excavator to be Vedic burial
tumuli. As a result of their re-examination in 1935-37 they were
definitely recognized to be stupas of mud or mud-bricks with baked-
brick revetments (in two cases with actual brick-lining) and were re-
garded as roughly contemporary with the Piprahwas stupa on account of
the analogous find of the mother-goddess figure on the gold leaf.
Nandangarh, about 2 km. from the Asoken pillar, represents a
fortified habitation-site. At one end of the site was excavated a large
brick-supa reared up on multiple polygonal terraces with numerous
13re-entrant angles. This edifice, of the carly centuries A.D., is the
earliest example of a form of terraced stupa which culminated in the
celebrated monuments of Paharpur in Bangladesh and Borobudur in
Java, both dating from circa A.D. 800.
Vaisali (District Muzaffarpur), which was a favourite resort of
Buddha and one of the eight holy places of Buddhism has an uninscribed
Mauryan pillar, besides extensive remains of ancient shrines, stupas and
habitations including a fortified citadel (garl). A stupa was excavated
here by Dr. A.S, Altekar in 1957-58. It was seen to have started as
a mud stupa of unpretentious size (7. sm. in diameter) in the pre-Mauryan
age and was enlarged four times, the first enlargement being executed in
neat brickwork during the Mauryan times. From the find of a retic-
casket within an ancient breach inside the core of the stupa, the excavator
surmised that this was the stupa built by the Lichchhavis over their share
of the body-relics of Lord Buddha, which, according to tradition, were
opened up by Asoka for redistribution of the relic-contents.
Sanchi was a flourishing Buddhist settlement teeming with temples,
monasteries and stupas, dating from the Mauryan to the medieval ages.
The original nucleus of Stupa 1, Plate I
STUPA 1 SANCHI Plate I
14attributed to Asoka, was a low brick structure, of almost half
the diameter of the present stupa, in the core of which it is
now concealed. This structure, built of large bricks, was much
damaged when excavated. Presumably it was hemispherical in
shape with raised terrace at the base, enclosed by a woodei railing,
and a stone umbrella at the summit, of whcih pieces were recovered
from the site. The only other structure which went with this was the
Asokan pillar which stands at its original place near the southern gateway.
About a century later, the original brick stupa was enveloped in a stone
casing and was enlarged to its present dimensions (diam. over 120 ft.,
Ht.s4 ft.) to from an almost hemispherical dome, truncated near the
top. At the same time a lofty terrace, approached by a double flight
of steps on the southern side, was built against its base to serve as a
processional path. The masonry of the dome and terrace was originally
covered with plaster decorated with colour. At the summit of the
stupa was built a diminutive square railing harmika (harmika) with a
pedestal, from which rose the shaft of the triple umbrella that crowned
the superstructure, Another paved processional path was provided
on the ground-level which was enclosed by a plain and massive stone-
balustrade. This balustrade, consisting of tenoned uprights, triple
cross-bars of 2 lenticular section and copings with scarf-joints, was obvi-
ously copied from wooden prototype and formed the gift of
individual donors.
It was in the Jaiter half cf the first century B.C, that the four
lavishly-carved gateways were erected, one in each cardinal direction,
as magnificent entrances to this imposing monument, These were
manifestly conceived in wood and executed in stone, end each of them,
over 10 m, high, wasalike in design and consisted of two square uprighis,
surmounted by capitals, which in their turn supported three curved
architraves with a row of sculptured balusters in between. Each of
them was carved on both faces with the Jataka tales, scenes frem the
life of Buddha and miscellaneous mocifs, the entire composition being
significantly crowned by the symbol of dharmachakra.
Remains of Mauryan brick stupa of a unique type have been reco-
vered at Bairat (Jaipur District). Of the stupa only bits of founda-
tion have survived together with pieces of a stone umbrella and a bowl,
bearing the distinctive Mauryen polish, the former being probably the
crowning member of the stupa. The main interest of the mounment
lies in the enclosing circular shrine (diam. 27 ft.) which was made of
lime-plastered panels of brickwork alternating with twenty six octagonal
pillars of wood, The shrine was entered from the east through a small
portico, supported on two wooden pillars and was surrounded by a
7 ft. wide circular processional path with an opening on the east, the
whole being enclosed at a later date within a rectangular compound
15containing an open space for assembly in front of the entrance. This
stupa-shrine resembles on plan and in design a circular chaitya-cave in
the Tulaja-lena group at Junnar.
Sarnath, where Buddha first preached the Law, was among the
four holiest places of Buddhism and developed as one of the greatest
Buddhist establishments of India. Excavation at the site conducted
between 1904 and 1928 uncovered numerous temples, stupa and monas-
teries, the earliest attributable to the time of Asoka. The nucleus
of the brick-built Dharmarajika Stupa at sarnath, comprising a hemispheri-
cal dome (diam. 60 ft.) with a low terrace at the base, was probably
built by Asoka, A monolithic railing bearing a Mauryan inscription and
polish, found near the stupa, presumably formed its harmika. The
inscribed Asokan pillar with the celebrated Lion-capital, which was
recovered not far from the stupa, appears to have formed part of its
architectural scheme. The original stupa was encased in six successive
ones, each larger than the other, which range in date from the second
to twelfth century A.D.
Ofthe Bharhut stupa in Central India the surviving remains mainly
consist of portions of the enclosing stone railing, dating from c. 125 B.C.,
and the eastern gateway, erected fifty years later. These are of the
same design as the Sanchi railings and gateways and are richly carved
with bas-relief, The stupa, of which all traces have now disappeared,
was constructed of plastered brickwork. It had 2 diameter of 67 feet
and contained recesses for lamps at the base.
Pauni in District Bhandara (Maharashtra) has recently revealed
the remains of two stupas built during the pre-Christian period. One
of the stupas, built of bricks with an original diameter of 38.20 m. and
enclosed by wooden railings, was enlarged by 3.20 m. in diameter.
In a subsequent reconstruction which was effected during the 2nd
centry B.C. the wooden posts were replaced by p'l'ars and an outer
railing with cardinally placed gateways in stone. Some of the railing
pillars are inscribed and carved with figures of yakshas, yakshis, nagas
and symbolical and decorative designs in the typical Sunga style. The
other stupa built partly of baked and partly of mud-bricks and subsequently
strengthened by a brick-revetment, measured 41.6 m, in diameter and
wasa plain structure, though it yielded in the centre a painted reliquary
pot containing bone-fragments within a kunda surmounted by a wooden
post. The latter stupa is assignable to circa 1st century B.C.-A.D,
Between the first century B.C. and third century A.D. were
built numerous stupas along the Krishna in South-east India on sites
including Amaravati and Nagarjunkonda in Guntur District and Jaggayya~
peta, Ghantasala, Gudivada and Bhattiprolu in Krishna District. These
16stupas consisted of brick-buile hemispherical domes on a low base and
were characterized by rectangular projections from the base of the dome
at the four cardin*l points, the projections supporting a row of five
ornamentel pillars (ayaka-khambhas). ‘The earlier examples at Bhattiprolu
and Gudivada were of solid brickwork, while those at Amaravati and
Ghantasala had in the interior radiating brick wails with a hub and spokes,
the spaces between the walls being filled with earth-packing, before
the outer brick casing was constructed. The stupas were finished with
plaster and most of the larger ones were embellished at the base with
sculptured marble panels, the example at Amaravati being particularly
noted for them. The superstructure of the stupas is invariably missing,
but it can be visualized by contemporary plastic representations on the
Amaravati marble friezes, As regards dimensions, their diameter
ranges from 31 fect for the smallest exemple at Jaggayyapela to upwards
of 100 feet for those at Bhattiprolv, Gudivada, Ghantasala and Amaravati,
the last having an approximate diameter of 162 feet for the stupa and
192 feet for the enclosing railing with a conjectured height of about
roo feet. ‘The examplesat Nagarjunikonda, definitely datable to second-
third centuries, range in diameter from 27 to 106 feet.
Ter (District Osmanabad),, is yet another site which yielded, during
recent excavations, a stupa with ayakas and an apsidal chaitya-griha,
both of brick and of the second century A.D. The brickwork within the
core of the stupa is in the form of an eight-spoked wheel. ‘The carved
limestone slabs and copings, found at the site, bespeak the influence
of the Amaravati School.
Like plastic art, architecture also had a peculiar regional develop-
ment in ancient Gandhara, or the north-west region of Pekistan, durin,
the first five centuries of the Christian era. This region is studded with
numerous Buddhist sites, like Taxila and Manikyala in Rawalpindi District
Takht-i-bahl, Schri Bahlol and Jamalgarhi near Mardan; and Charsada in
Peshawar District, which have both stupas and monasteries, the fatter built
on the plan of an open rectangular court enclosed by cells and verandahs
on foursides with anannexe comprising assembly-hall, kitchen and refe
ctory. The stupas, which, like the monasteries are executed in stone-
masonty and finished with lime or stucco-plaster, are embelished with
Buddhist images and designs of Indo-Corinthian pillars which are typical
of the Gandhara art, The earlier stupas, represented by the example at
Manikyala and the Dharmarajika-stupa at Taxila, are characterized by a
hemispherical shape. But the remaining Gandhara stupas ate distinctive
tall structures, raised on lofty square terraces, the drum consisting of
seyera) diminishing tiers crowned by multiple receding umbrellas.
The top of the square platforms, approached by flight of steps, was
utilized as a processional path. The stupas are generally surrounded by a
farge number of votive stupas or small chapels which, like the main
17monument, are usually decorated with Buddhist images in niches framed
withing Indo-Corinthian pilas A representative and well-preserved
example of the Gandhara-stupa occurs at Takht-i-bahi, which, though
small, has retained all essential architectural features and is situated
ofa court enclosed by chapels. Anexample of exceptional
plan and dimensions (diam.286 feet) was unearthed at Shehj dheri
near Peshawar wl yielded the celebrated relic-casket of Kanishka,
This monument has a cruciform base with circular tower-like projections
at the four corners, though its superstruciure is cf the normal Gandhara
type.
in the centr
A series of brick stupas were built in Sind (Pakistan) during the
fifth-sixth centuries inthe characteri tic Gandharastyle, the only difference
being of the building-material. These menuments show’ a liberal
use of moulded biscks for mouldings and designs which include the Indo-
Corinthian pillar of Gandhara. The most notable cf these is the stupa
at Mirpurkhas which is embellished with sculptured terracctte panels
in the best Gupta style. While shaving the genezal pln and design
with other monuments of the group, it is unique in having three arched
cells in the basement, cach being treated as a canctum with an image
of Buddha in it.
‘The recent excavation at Devnimori in District Sabar-Kantha of
Gujarat has exposed the remains of large Buddhist establishment, compri-
sing a brick-stupa and monastery. ‘The stupa with a cupola, resting on
two square platforms, is a massive edifice measuring 26 m. square and
is more than 10.4 m. high. The lower platform, which served as a
processional path, was divided into cleven bays by twelve Indo-Corin-
thian pilaster, while the upper plitform was adorned by ten similer
pilesters on each face. ‘The centsal bay on each face contained an ornate
arch, while each alternate bay appears to be adorned with a Buddha
image in terracot a. Thus the fecades of the stupa were claborately
embellished wiih statuary and decorative patterns including pot-and-
foliage, scrolls and dentils, ‘This monument resembles che brick-stupa
at Mirpur-Khas (Pakistan) in design and style and elegance of terracotta
sculpture, The discovery from the heart of the stupa of en insciibed
relic-casket recording that the ‘great stupa’ wes built near the ‘great
monastery’ dw ing the reign of (the Western Ks King Rudracsena
(iil) in the year 127 (A.D. 375) probably dates it to the second half of
the fourth century. There is evidence to show that the stupa under went
reconstructions later on.
In the North Indian plains the stupas were made principally of
bricks and continued to be built till the twelfih century. They occur
on Buddhist sites like Sanath, Saheth-Maheth (Gonda-Bahraich District),
and Kasia (Deoria District). the earlier nuclei of the Dharmarajika at
18Sarnath exhibiting a hemi phe: ica) forin have already been referred to.
Most of the exi-ting stupas date from the Gupta and later times and are
of a definitely cylindric:] shape with a high base, usually consisting of
more terraces than one, The cylindrical type is best represented by
the Dhamekh stupa at Somnath, dating from the Gupta period. It is @
massive towering structure (diam.93 fect; excant ht. 143 fect including
foundation) with a 36 fect high besement made of solid masonry,
while its foundation and lofty cylindrical drum are built of bricks. The
basement has eight projecting faces with niches for statuary. The
monument is further adorned with delicately cerved arabesque and
geometrical patterns, ‘The stupas of the post-Gupta period, while
retaining the cylindrical form, tended to be even more ornaie in design
and with their multiple terraces and umbrelles inspired the stupa-architec-
ture of Greater India including Tibet, Burma, Siam, Cambodia and
the islands of Indonesia.
The development of the stupa in western india generally followed
the lines identical with other parts of the counsry, as evident froma
study of the rock-cut stupos which were but replicas of the structural
forms, We shall see in the following section how the earlier type with
a low drum and few or no ornaments evolved through successive stages
into a lofty dram with an clongated dome, decorated with a wealth of
imagery, and finally culminated in a kind of shri
2, CAVE ARCHITECTURE
The earliest rock-cut caves in India are attributable to Asoka
(273-232 B.C.) and his grandson Dasaratha both of whom excavated a
group of seven caves on the Barabar and Negarjuni hills in Gaya District
of Bihar. All of them bear the distinctive Maw yen polish and, with the
exception of one cave, are engraved with inscriptions of Asoka
and Dacaratha, which testify thet they were excavated for the recluces
of the Ajivika sect, The remarkable excmples of che group are the
Sudama cave, dedicated in the twelfch year of Asoka’s reign, end the
Lomash Rishi cave, the only excavation withe ut a Meuryen inscription.
Both are lithic copies of structures in wocd, their plan consisting of
a rectangular antechamber leading to a circular cell. “The antechember
32} feet x rghalffeet x 12} fect) in the Sudamo cave has a side-
entrance and is vaulted, while its cell (diam. 19 feet; ht. 12} feet
hes a hemispherical domed roof with an overhanging cave representing
thatch and parallel grooves on the walls imiiating wee den planks. The
Lomesh Rishi cave is even more notable and shows an ornamental
entrance-porch, caved to represent the gabled entrance of a wooden
building with sloping uprights, joinecd beams and refiers, an cgee-arch
of laminated planks crowned by a finial and perforated lattice-work-