Curriculum Development Text Book
Curriculum Development Text Book
CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT
Prof Dr John Arul Phillips
Project Directors: Prof Dato Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek
Open University Malaysia
Introduction xii
How Will You Get The Most From This Course? xii
Course Materials
Course Topics
Course Map
Organisation of Course Content
Final Remarks xx
xii COURSE GUIDE
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to HMEF5073 Curriculum Development which is one of the required
courses for the Master of Education (MEd) programme. The course assumes no
previous knowledge and experience in curriculum development, you are
encouraged to tap into your experiences as a teacher, instructor, lecturer or
trainer and relate them to the concepts and principles discussed. This is a 3 credit
course conducted over a semester of 14 weeks.
COURSE MATERIALS
In this course you are provided with a Learning Package consisting of THREE
kinds of course materials:
1. The Course Guide, which you are currently reading;
2. The Course Content (consisting of 10 topics); and
3. The Course Assignment Guide (which describes the assignments to be
submitted and the examinations you have to sit for).
COURSE TOPICS
To enable you to achieve the SIX objectives of the course, HMEF5073 is divided
into 10 topics (see Course Map and Table). Specific objectives are stated at the
start of each topic indicating what you should be able to do after completing the
topic.
xiv COURSE GUIDE
COURSE MAP
To help you read and understand the individual topics, numerous realistic
examples support all definitions, concepts and theories. Diagrams and text are
combined to make the material visually appealing and easy-to-read. Throughout
the learning package, diagrams, illustrations and tables are used to reinforce
important points and simplify the more complex concepts. The module has
adopted the following features in each topic:
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
COURSE GUIDE xvii
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
Discussion Questions: At the end of each topic a list of articles and topics of
books is provided that is directly related to the contents of the topic. As far as
possible the articles and books suggested for further reading will be available in
OUM's Digital Library which you can access and OUM's Library. Also, relevant
internet resources are made available to enhance your understanding of selected
curriculum concepts and principles as applied in real-world situations.
References: At the end of each topic a list of articles and topics of books is
provided that is directly related to the contents of the topic. As far as possible the
articles and books suggested for further reading will be available in oum's digital
library which you can access and oum's library. Also, relevant internet resources
are made available to enhance your understanding of selected curriculum
concepts and principles as applied in real-world situations.
xviii COURSE GUIDE
SEMINARS
There are 15 hours of seminars provided in support of the course. There will be
FIVE seminars of 3 hours each. You will be notified of the dates, times and
location of these seminars, together with the names and phone number of your
facilitator, as soon as you are allocated a seminar group.
FACILITATOR
Your facilitator will mark your assignments and provide assistance to you during
the course. Do not hesitate to discuss during the seminar sessions or online if:
You do not understand any part of the course content or the assigned
readings.
You have difficulty with the self-tests and activities.
You have a question or problem with the assignments.
LIBRARY RESOURCES
The Digital Library has a large collection of books and journals which you can
access using the student ID.
COURSE GUIDE xix
LEARNER CONNEXXIONS
This is an online bulletin which provides interesting and relevant information to
help you along the programme. There are useful study hints and you can read
about the experiences of other distant learners.
Some topics may require more work than others, although on average, it is
suggested that you spend approximately three days per topic.
1. The most important step is to read the contents of this Course Guide
thoroughly.
2. Organise a study schedule. Note the time you are expected to spend on
each topic, date for submission of the assignments, seminars and
examination date. Details about the assignments are in the Course
Assignment Guide. Put all this information in one place, such as your
diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method you choose to use, you
should decide on and jot down your own dates for working on each
topic. You have some flexibility as there are 10 topics spread over a
period of 14 weeks.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, make every effort to
'stick to it. The main reason students are unable to cope is because they
get behind with their course work.
xx COURSE GUIDE
6. If you are confident, you can proceed to the next topic. Proceed topic by
topic through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep
yourself on schedule.
7. After completing all topics, review the course and prepare yourself for the
final examination. Check that you have achieved all topic learning
outcomes and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).
FINAL REMARKS
Once again; welcome to the course. To maximise your gain from this course you
should try at all times to relate what you are studying with the real-world. Look
at the curriculum materials used in your institution and ask yourself whether
they have been appropriately designed and implemented. What are the strengths
and weaknesses of curriculum efforts in your organisation? Do they need to be
revised or improved?
COURSE GUIDE xxi
Most of the ideas, concepts, principles and theories you learn in this course have
practical applications. It is important to realise that much of what we do in
education and training has to be based on sound theoretical foundations. The
contents of this course provide the principles for curriculum development
whether it is in a school, college, university or training organisation.
We wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it interesting,
useful and relevant towards your development as a professional. We hope you
enjoy your experience with OUM and we would like to end with this saying,
"Education's purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one", by Malcolm
Forbes.
COURSE ASSIGNMENT
GUIDE
Table of Contents
Introduction xxvi
INTRODUCTION
This Guide explains the basis on which you will be assessed in this course during
the semester. It contains details of the facilitator-marked assignment, the mid-
term examination and the final examination and participation required for the
course.
One element in the assessment strategy of the course is that all students should
have the same information as facilitators about the answers to be assessed.
Therefore, this guide also contains the marking criteria that facilitators will use in
assessing your work.
Please read through the whole guide at the beginning of the course.
ACADEMIC WRITING
(a) Plagiarism
(i) What is Plagiarism?
Any written assignment (essays, project, take-home exams, etc)
submitted by a student must not be deceptive regarding the abilities,
knowledge, or amount of work contributed by the student. There are
many ways that this rule can be violated. Among them are:
Direct Simply having a thinking skill is no assurance that children will use it.
In order for such skills to become part of day-to-day behaviour, they
must be cultivated in an environment that value and sustains them.
"Just as children's musical skills will likely lay fallow in an
environment that doesn't encourage music, learner's thinking skills
tend to languish in a culture that doesn't encourage thinking"
(Tishman, Perkins & Jay, 1995, p.5).
Indirect According to Wurman (1988), the new disease of the 21st century will
be information anxiety, which has been defined as the ever-widening
gap between what one understands and what one thinks one should
understand.
(c) Referencing
All sources that you cite in your paper should be listed in the Reference
section at the end of your paper. Here's how you should do your Reference.
xxviii COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE
Printed Holden, S. (1998, May 16). Frank Sinatra dies at 82: Matchless
Newspaper stylist of pop. The New York Times, pp. A22-A23.
INTRODUCTION
NEWSPAPER HEADLINES
You would have probably come across these headlines in newspapers and
magazines. These headlines are an indication of societys concern with what is
going on in schools and in particular the curriculum. It should be remembered
that a curriculum is a contract between society and those in power stating how its
TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 3
next generation of young people will be educated. Hence, the general public has a
right to question how schools are preparing its next generation of citizens.
As society becomes more educated, more of its members are keen in expressing
their views on various issues regarding what schools are doing and what is being
taught in schools. Sometimes it is tempting to ask whether society will ever come
to a consensus on what it wants schools to do.
Some sectors of the population are demanding that schools teach for the mastery
of facts, concepts and principles of a discipline, while others are calling for
reducing content and placing more emphasis on the development of critical and
creative thinking. Still others feel that schools are not paying enough attention
towards developing the character of students. It appears that society is in a state
of confusion not knowing what it wants of its schools. However, what may be
defined as confusion is in reality dynamism because curriculum is a reflection of
our values, choices and perspectives in differing contexts. As society changes so
will the curriculum because it is a reflection of society at a particular point in
time. For example, during colonial times, education in Malaysia was confined to
producing clerks and office assistants for the English administrative system.
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. Discuss any three headlines listed above that you agree with.
Why?
2. Locate and report other concerns about the curriculum that you
have come across.
4 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
Curriculum is:
That which is taught in school;
A set of subjects;
Content;
A programme of studies;
A set of materials;
Sequence of courses;
A set of performance objectives;
A course of study;
Everything that goes on within a school;
Everything that is planned by school personnel;
That which is taught both inside and outside of school directed by the
school;
A series of experiences undergone by learners in school; and
That which an individual learner experiences as a result of schooling.
Source: Peter F. Oliva, Developing the Curriculum. Boston: Little, Brown &
Company. 1982. p. 5
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Are you confused with the different definitions? Well, dont be! It is not
necessarily a bad thing having numerous definitions of curriculum. The variety of
definitions demonstrates the dynamism of the field because it reflects the
philosophical beliefs, conceptions of human learning, pedagogical strategies,
political experiences and cultural background of the society the curriculum is
planned for (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998). Though much time may be spent on
defining curriculum, it may be time well spent because it encourages exploration
of many possibilities. One should be aware that if a curriculum is too narrowly
defined there is the tendency and likelihood to omit, ignore or miss relevant
factors related to teaching and learning because they are not part of the written
plan. On the other hand, if they are too broadly defined, it would be difficult to
implement because it may be open to different interpretations. This will make the
task of evaluating achievement of the goals and objectives of the programme
more difficult. Despite varying definitions of curriculum, there seems to be a
consensus that it is a statement:
Of what students should know (knowledge or content);
Be able to do (skills);
How it is taught (instruction);
How it is measured (assessment); and
How the educational system is organised (context).
As pointed out by Doll (1992), every school has a planned, formal acknowledged
curriculum, but there is also an unplanned informal and hidden one that must be
considered (p.5). The planned, formal curriculum focuses on goals, objectives,
subject matter and organisation of instruction. The unplanned, informal
curriculum deals with socio-psychological interaction among students, teachers
and administrators, especially in relation to their feelings, attitudes and
behaviours
The hidden curriculum involves learning things such as how to respond and cope
with authority, how to get on with others, how to pass the time, how to deal with
boredom, how to establish priorities and how to conform to the expectations of
teachers and their peers.
8 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
SELF-CHECK 1.2
It has been suggested that if one adopts the content approach to curriculum, focus
will be on the syllabus and the body of knowledge to be transmitted or
delivered to students using appropriate teaching methods. When curriculum is
equated with content, there is the likelihood to limit instruction to the acquisition
of facts, concepts and principles of the subject matter transmitted.
TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 9
SELF-CHECK 1.3
According to Bobbitt, education should prepare people for life with detailed
attention to what people need to know in order to work and live their lives. Go
out into the world and see for yourselves what society needs (the abilities,
attitudes, habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that men [women] need,
10 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
In order to measure, things have to be broken down into smaller and smaller
units (numerous, definite and particulariseseries of experiences which
children and youth must have, according to Bobbitt). The result, as many of you
will have experienced, can be long lists of often trivial skills or competencies. This
can lead to a focus on the parts rather than the whole; on the trivial, rather than
the significant. It can lead to an approach to education and assessment which
resembles a shopping list. When all the items are ticked, the person has passed
the course or has learnt something. The role of overall judgment is somehow
sidelined.
SELF-CHECK 1.4
ACTIVITY 1.2
translate into practice in the classroom. Like a recipe it can be varied according to taste.
So can a curriculum.
The process approach to curriculum treats the learners not as objects to be acted
upon. They have a say in what is going on in the teaching-learning sessions. The
focus is on interaction and attention shifts from teaching to learning. On the other
hand, the product model, by having a pre-specified plan or programme, tends to
direct attention to teaching. A process approach to curriculum theory and
practice, as argued by Grundy (1987), tends towards making the process of
learning the central concern of the teacher with emphasis on thinking and
meaning-making.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Many curriculum development models have been proposed. Generally, most models
involve four phases. First is, curriculum planning which involves decisions about the
philosophy of education and the aims of education. Having decided on the
philosophical beliefs, curriculum goals and objectives are derived which are later
translated into the classroom as desired learning outcomes among students taught.
The second phase is curriculum design which refers to the way curriculum is
conceptualised and involves the selection and organisation of content, and the
selection and organisation of learning experiences or activities. Among the issues
that have to be resolved is deciding what knowledge is of most worth and, how
should the content be organised to maximise learning. The third phase is
curriculum implementation in the classroom setting. It involves getting people to
practice the ideas in the curriculum, providing them with the necessary resources,
training and encouragement. The fourth phase is curriculum evaluation which is
determining the extent to which the efforts in implementing the ideas of the
curriculum have been successful. It involves identification of factors that have
hindered implementation as well as success stories; and most important whether
students have benefited from the programme.
The field of curriculum has its set of principles. For example the term
curriculum itself is a concept describing very complex ideas. In curriculum
planning there are principles such as educational philosophy, curriculum goals
and learning objectives which are applied in developing programmes for school,
universities and training centres. In curriculum design, the principles of scope,
sequence and balance are used in the organisation of content to be taught. The
field of curriculum has its own body of knowledge and skills, though much of it
has been borrowed from a number of pure disciplines. For example, in the
selection of content (What to teach?), curriculum has relied on the principles,
knowledge and skills from psychology, philosophy and sociology. In the
organisation of content, curriculum has drawn from the fields of management
and organisational theory. In the implementation of curriculum, various ideas
from systems theory, organisational behaviour and communication theory have
been used to enhance effectiveness. For example, research in organisational
behaviour has been used to bring about change among teachers, educational
administrators and the community. Has the field of curriculum its own body of
knowledge and skills? Applying the ideas drawn from the different disciplines
and through experimentation it has generated its own body of knowledge and
skills, or at least, new interpretations of principles as applied in the educational
setting.
The field of curriculum has its list of theoreticians and practitioners and they
include curriculum planners, professors of curriculum, curriculum developers
and so forth, who are termed as curriculum specialists. These specialists are well-
versed in areas relating to curriculum, such as the history and origin of a
curriculum (to know of earlier successes or failures), curriculum planning and
how a particular curriculum is to be implemented in schools successfully. The
specialist is well-informed about how students learn, how teachers react to
change and obstacles to improvement. The curriculum specialist generates new
knowledge by recombining existing programmes, adapting approaches and
constructing new curriculum. [Perhaps, after completing this course you might be
more convinced that curriculum meets the requirement of a discipline or maybe
not!]
TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 17
SELF-CHECK 1.5
Oliva (1982) described curriculum and instruction as two entities. You could have
a situation in which the two entities are apart, called the dualistic model (see
Figure 1.2a). What takes place in the classroom under the direction of the teacher
has little relationship to what is stated in the curriculum plan. Planners ignore
what teachers are doing and vice-versa. The curriculum or the instructional
process may change without affecting one another. This separation will do
serious harm to each other. On other occasions, curriculum and instruction are
mutually interdependent as shown in the concentric model (see Figure 1.2b). In
this model curriculum assumes the superordinate position while instruction is
subordinate; that is, instruction is a subsystem of curriculum which is itself a
subsystem of the whole system of education. This model implies a system that is
hierarchical, with curriculum dominating instruction. Instruction is not a separate
entity but a very dependent portion of the curriculum entity. In other situations,
curriculum and instruction may be separate entities with a continuing circular
relationship, called the cyclical model (see Figure 1.2c). Curriculum makes a
continuous impact on instruction and similarly instruction impacts on
curriculum. This model assumes that instructional decisions are made after
curriculum decisions are made. But, these curriculum decisions are later modified
when they have been implemented and evaluated in the classroom. This process
is continuous, repeated and never-ending.
18 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
Of all the models, the cyclical model seems to the best alternative as it emphasises
the need for a close working relationship between implementers and planners.
Though curriculum and instruction may be different entities they are
interdependent and cannot function in isolation. It is impossible to plan
everything that happens in the classroom in the curriculum document. It should
be accepted that what is planned on paper may not work exactly because the
numerous factors operating in the classroom are impossible to predetermine. The
constant feedback from the classroom as to what works and what does not work
has to be recycled to curriculum developers so necessary adjustments and
modifications can be made to the curriculum plan. This may explain the need for
pilot-testing a curriculum before it is widely implemented.
TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 19
INTRODUCTION
ACTIVITY 2.1
For centuries, philosophers have been interested with such concepts as morality,
goodness, knowledge, truth, beauty and our very existence. Among the questions
philosophers ask are:
What is truth? Why do we say a statement is correct or false?
How do we know what we know?
What is reality? What things can be described as real?
What is the nature of thought and thinking?
What is special about being a human being?
Is there anything special about being alive at all?
What is ethics?
What does it mean when something is right or wrong; good or bad?
What is beauty?
How do beautiful things differ from others?
Philosophers use certain methods of inquiry. They often frame their questions as
problems or puzzles about subjects they find interesting and confusing.
Popularly, the word philosophy may also refer to someone's perspective on life
(philosophy of life) or the underlying principles or method of achieving
something.
Most of the prominent philosophers in the last 2000 years were not philosophers of
education but have at some point considered and written on the philosophy of
education. Among them are Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Dewey, Adler, Confucius, Al
Farabi, Tagore and many others [we will discuss their contributions to education
later in the topic]. These philosophers have been key voices in the philosophy of
education and have contributed to our basic understanding of what education is and
can be. They have also provided powerful critical perspectives revealing the
problems in education.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
In modern times there are opposing views about the practice of education.
There is no general agreement about what the young should learn either in
relation to virtue or in relation to the best life; nor is it clear whether their
education ought to be directed more towards the intellect than towards the
character of the soul. And it is not certain whether training should be
directed at things useful in life, or at those conducive to virtue, or at non-
essentials. And there is no agreement as to what in fact does tend towards
virtue. Men do not all prize most highly the same virtue. So naturally they
differ also about the proper training for it.
Would you believe that the above statement was written more that 2000 years
ago by the Greek philosopher Aristotle and we are still debating the same issues
today? Sometimes one wonders whether we know what we want! We lament
about the poor level of basic skills of students and call for a return to the basics.
At the same time we want students to develop critical thinking skills and call for
lesser emphasis on rote learning. Through the centuries, many philosophies of
education have emerged, each with their own beliefs about education. In this
topic, we will discuss four philosophies; namely perennialism, essentialism,
progressivism and reconstructionism proposed by Western philosophers. Also,
we will look at the viewpoints of three Eastern philosophers; namely al-Farabi,
Tagore and Confucius. Each of these educational philosophies is examined to see
what curriculum is proposed and how teaching and learning should be
conducted.
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 27
2.4 PERENNIALISM
Perennialism is based on the belief that some ideas have lasted over centuries
and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived. These ideas should
be studied in school. A list of the Great Books covering topics in Literature,
Art, Psychology, Philosophy, Mathematics, Science, Economics, Politics and so
forth, was proposed. Examples of such books are: Robinson Crusoe written by
Daniel Defoe, War and Peace written by Leo Tolstoy, Moby Dick written by
Herman Melville, Euclids book Elements on geometry, Newtons book on
Optics, The Sexual Enlightenment of Children written by Sigmund Freud, An
inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith
and many others. The book selected had to have contemporary significance, that
is, it should be relevant to the problems and issues of present times. The book
should espouse ideas and issues that have occupied the minds of thinking
individuals in the last 2000 years. The book should attract people to read it again
and again and benefit from it. The perennialists believed that these are history's
finest thinkers and writers. Their ideas are profound and meaningful even today
as when they were written. When students are immersed in the study of these
profound and enduring ideas, they will appreciate learning for its own sake as
well as develop their intellectual powers and moral qualities.
they reflect real disagreements between persons. Students must think about
the disagreements and reach a reasoned, defensible conclusion.
Schools should teach religious values or ethics. The difference between right
and wrong should be emphasised so that students will have definite rules
that they must follow.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
ACTIVITY 2.2
The Great Books covered topics including fiction, history, poetry, natural
science, mathematics, philosophy, drama, politics, religion, economics
and ethics. Examples of the books are:
Homer's The Iliad and The Odyssey;
Works of Aristotle and Plato;
Archimedes Measurement of a Circle, On Spirals, Treating
Mechanical Problems;
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales;
Shakespeares complete works;
Descartes The Geometry;
Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy;
Karl Marx's Das Kapital;
Leo Tolstoys War and Peace; and
William James' The Principle of Psychology.
The Great Books was criticised as being elitist and giving importance to
dead white males, while ignoring the contributions of females and
minorities (such as Afro-Americans). Another harmful criticism was that
the books were more to create the illusion of being cultured without any
real substance behind it.
[Source: Great Books of the Western World. Available at
http://www.answers.com]
2.5 ESSENTIALISM
Essentialist programs are academically rigorous, for both slow and fast
learners. Common subjects for all students regardless of abilities and
interests. But, how much is to be learned is adjusted according to student
ability.
It advocates a longer school day, a longer academic year and more
challenging textbooks. Essentialists maintain that classrooms should be
oriented around the teacher, who serves as the intellectual and moral role
model for students.
Teaching is teacher-centred and teachers decide what is most important for
students to learn with little emphasis on student interests because it will
divert time and attention from learning the academic subjects. Essentialist
teachers focus heavily on achievement test scores as a means of evaluating
progress.
In an essentialist classroom, students are taught to be "culturally literate," that
is, to possess a working knowledge about the people, events, ideas and
institutions that have shaped society. Essentialists hope that when students
leave school, they will possess not only basic skills and extensive knowledge,
but also disciplined and practical minds, capable of applying their knowledge
in real world settings.
Discipline is necessary for systematic learning in a school situation. Students
learn to respect authority in both school and society.
Teachers need to be mature and well educated, who know their subjects well
and can transmit their knowledge to students.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
2.6 PROGRESSIVISM
SELF-CHECK 2.4
2.7 RECONSTRUCTIONISM
There are many injustices in society and inequalities in terms of race, gender,
and socioeconomic status. Schools are obliged to educate children towards
resolution of these injustices and students should not be afraid to examine
controversial issues. Students should learn to come to a consensus on issues
and so group work was encouraged.
The curriculum should be constantly changing to meet the changes in society.
Students are aware of global issues and the interdependence between
nations. Enhancing mutual understanding and global cooperation should be
the focus of the curriculum.
Teachers are considered the prime agents of social change, cultural renewal
and internationalism. They are encouraged to challenge outdated structures
and entrusted with the task of bringing about a new social order which may
be utopian in nature.
In general, the curriculum emphasised the social sciences (such as History,
Political Science, Economics, Sociology, Religion, Ethics, Poetry and
Philosophy), rather than the Sciences.
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 37
ACTIVITY 2.3
Check your answers for your score. Since the statements are subjective, it is
possible that you may disagree with the classification. Support your
argument.
11. Students are too immature to decide what they need to learn and
so the school should decide for them.
12. Teaching should emphasise relating what is learned to the real-
world through field trips and internships.
13. Education is not primarily concerned with producing future
workers but should emphasise learning for its own sake and
students should enjoy reading, learning and discussing
interesting ideas.
14. Education should enable students to recognise injustices in
society, and schools should promote projects to redress social
inequalities.
15. Students should be active participants in the learning process,
involved in democratic class decision making and reflective
thinking.
16. Students should be taught to be more sensitive to race, gender,
ethnicity, and differences in general.
SELF-CHECK 2.5
attributes. He emphasised the need for unity of society and the State to be
achieved by unity of thought, wisdom and religion.
Al-Farabi drew attention to the purpose of educational games and the role of
play in human activity. He recommended games that stimulate creativity.
Play should be used appropriately to develop the learner's capabilities to take
on more challenging tasks.
SELF-CHECK 2.6
2.9 CONFUCIUS
Confucius (551-479 BC), born in Quyi in the principality of Lu, is one of Chinas
most famous philosophers. He spent a lifetime learning as well as teaching. He
stated that education plays a fundamental role in the development of society and
of individuals alike. Education should seek to produce virtuous individuals
which will change human society. By raising the moral standard of individuals,
society will become more virtuous, the country well-governed, and its citizens
law-abiding. He rejected feudalism in which the status of an individual was
passed from one generation to the next based on birth which was prevalent
during his time. His recommendations are in the Analects (Lun Yu) which is a
record of his speeches and those of his disciples, as well as the discussions they
had. It literally means "discussions over words". Confucian thought was not
confined to China. It spread to Japan, Vietnam, North and South Korea, and parts
of Southeast Asia.
42 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
SELF-CHECK 2.7
SELF-CHECK 2.8
Philosophers are people who seek after wisdom and are curious about the
world; they seek to understand the nature of things.
Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision and it becomes
the criteria for determining the aims, selection, organisation and
implementation of the curriculum in the classroom.
The perennialists believe that the aim of education is to develop the rational
person and to uncover universal truths by training the intellect.
The essentialists argue that schools should transmit the traditional moral
values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model
citizens.
The progressivists believe that education must be based on the fact that
humans are by nature social and learn best in real-life activities with other
people.
The reconstructivists favour reform and students must be taught how to
bring about change.
According to Al-Farabi, the whole activity of education is the acquisition of
values, knowledge and practical skills leading to perfection and the
attainment of happiness.
According to Confucius, education is to produce capable individuals whom
he called gentlemen or men of quality who combined competence with
virtue.
According to Tagore, education should aim for the all-round development of
the individual personality through interaction and one-ness with the
environment.
INTRODUCTION
In Topic 2, we discussed how different philosophical orientations and beliefs
influence curriculum. We examined both Western and Eastern philosophers and
their beliefs on how schools should educate the young. In this topic we will focus
on how different psychological perspectives impact curriculum. Psychology
deals with how humans learn and behave. After all, the main goal of any
curriculum is to bring about learning. Hence, curriculum developers need to
know how humans learn so that they can incorporate psychological principles
when they design, develop and implement curriculum. Just as there are varying
philosophical orientations, there are also varying conceptions of human learning
and how the curriculum should be conceived especially with regards to learning
in the classroom.
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 49
ACTIVITY 3.1
Psychology is derived from the Greek word psyche which means soul. It is a
discipline devoted to the study of behaviour, mind and thought. Specifically, it
deals with the study of mental processes that determines a person's behaviour
and thinking. When applied to teaching and learning, it provides the basis for
understanding how students learn and understand a body of knowledge. The
curriculum developer has to know how students' learn and to take into
consideration individual differences when designing a curriculum. It is only
when students learn and gain from the curriculum will the curriculum be
considered to be successful.
explanations of human learning. We have not been able to say with certainty how
people learn. Generally, there are four psychological perspectives or schools of
thought that have had an impact on curriculum; classified as behaviourism,
cognitivism, humanism and constructivism (see Figure 3.1).
3.2 BEHAVIOURISM
In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory in Germany dedicated to
the scientific study of human thought processes which is often regarded as the
beginning of modern psychology. His approach to using experiments in studying
the human mind moved psychology from the domain of philosophy to the
laboratory. Through introspection, Wundt and his colleagues tried to get their
subjects to reflect on their thought processes. By the turn of the century, the
behaviourist school emerged as a reaction to the method of introspection used by
Wundt. Proponents of behaviourism argued that the introspection method was
too subjective and felt that scientific study of psychology must be restricted to the
study of behaviours that can be observed and the stimulus that brings about the
behaviour. The behaviourist approach in studying learning can be traced to the
philosophic traditions of Aristotle, Descartes and Locke. They argued that
behaviour can be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, by
manipulating and giving a certain stimulus, a certain response can be produced.
Motivation to learn was assumed to be driven by drives such as hunger, rewards
and punishment.
52 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
given (see Figure 3.4). A mother will pick up her child who is crying because she
cannot bear to hear him cry. Similarly, when you enter a car, you put on the
safety belt to avoid the irritating sound of the buzzer. In other words, the
behaviour of picking up the baby and putting on the safety belt is performed
to avoid unpleasantness. On the other hand, punishment is administered when
you want to reduce the occurrence of a particular behaviour. For example, a boy
who does not help his mother is not allowed to go out to play football. In other
words, the mother is depriving the boy the pleasure of playing football. Based on
a schedule of rewards and punishment, the behaviour of an organism can be
modified.
According to Bandura, learning would be a slow process if people had to rely solely
on their own efforts to do anything. Fortunately, a substantial amount of human
behaviour is learned by observing others. For the student to learn, he or she must
watch and pay attention to the model and the behaviour being modelled. The
information observed must be retained in some form in memory. Next, the student
must have the necessary motor and cognitive skills to reproduce the modelled
behaviour. The motivation to observe and reproduce the modelled behaviour
depends on whether the student will derive satisfaction from reproducing the
behaviour observed.
Among the most common and pervasive examples of social learning situations
are television advertisements. Advertisements suggest that drinking a certain
beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the
admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes
involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behaviour shown
in the advert and buy the product being advertised. Individuals are more likely
to model behaviours that result in something that is valued or if the model is
similar to the observer and has admired status.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
When learning factual material, provide immediate and frequent feedback for
complex and difficult concepts.
Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts.
Break down complex tasks into smaller and manageable sub-skills.
Sequence material to enhance understanding; e.g. teach simple concepts first
before proceeding to more difficult and abstract concepts.
Model the behaviour which students are to imitate and repeat
demonstrations when necessary.
Reinforce when students demonstrate the modelled behaviour.
State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and
students.
Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what rewards
will be given.
ACTIVITY 3.2
3.3 COGNITIVISM
In the 1950s, there was a realisation that behaviourism did not fully explain
human learning. Although behaviourism emphasised learning that was
observable and measurable, there was something missing, namely mental events.
In other words, what is going on in the minds of the learner when he or she is
learning or thinking (see Figure 3.5)? Cognitivists felt that it was necessary to
investigate how learners make sense of what they learn, even though such
mental events are difficult to observe and measure objectively. For example,
when students are asked What is the capital of China?, one student responds
Beijing while another responds Shanghai. Why did one student answer
correctly while the other got it wrong? By observing the responses individuals
make to different stimuli, cognitivists make inferences of the mental processes
that produce those responses.
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 57
The sensory memory receives information from various sources (visual, auditory,
smell, touch and taste) and the brain will only focus on information that has been
attended to. For example, we normally are not aware of the sensory properties of
stimuli, or what we are exposed to unless we are asked to specifically identify such
information. People are more likely to pay attention to information that is interesting
or important to them. Sensory memory is very short and lasts for about second.
Information that is attended to is encoded into short term memory (STM). Encoding
is transforming information received into a form that can be deposited or stored in
memory. A striking feature of short term memory is its very limited capacity. On the
average it is limited to seven chunks, give or take two i.e. 7 plus or minus 2 (Miller,
1956). A chunk is a unit that could be a number of words, digits, sentences or even
paragraphs. To keep information active in STM you must do something to it. For
instance, when you look up a phone number you repeat it over and over in your
mind in order to retain it until you have dialled the number. We keep information
active by rehearing it, either by repeating it (maintenance rehearsal) or give it
meaning by relating it to something we already know (elaborative rehearsal) to
prevent it from fading from STM.
When you are unable to recall from long term memory, it is the result from a loss
of access to the information rather than from a loss of the information itself. It is
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 59
there but cannot be found. That is, poor memory may reflect a retrieval failure
rather than a storage failure. Failure to find your car keys does not necessarily
mean it is not there; you may be looking in the wrong place or it may simply be
misfiled in your brain, and therefore inaccessible. Research has identified that
successful retrieval from long term memory is enhanced when the information is
properly organised and the context in which you retrieve the information is
similar to the context in which you encoded it. For example, at a meeting you met
various professionals doctors, teachers, journalists and accountants. When you
later try to recall their names, you would do better if you organised your recall
by profession: Who were the doctors I met? Who were the teachers? And so
forth. A list of names or words is far easier to recall when you sort the words into
categories and then recall the words on a category-by-category basis.
Organisation improves retrieval, presumably by making memory search more
efficient.
Schools cannot stop learners from creating meaning, but can influence the
direction. Although much of what students are to learn is predetermined by the
curriculum, the ideal process is to present information in a way that allows the
learner to extract patterns, rather than try to impose the patterns. The learning
environment needs to be stable and familiar. At the same time, provisions must
be made to satisfy the learner's need for curiosity and hunger for discovery and
challenge. Lessons need to be exciting, meaningful and offer students abundant
choices. All students need to be provided with a rich environment with complex
and meaningful challenges.
David Ausubel (1960), a medical practitioner, argued that learning occurs when
one's current organisation of knowledge is changed, either because a subsuming
concept has been elaborated with the new information or because existing
concepts are now connected by a new subsuming concept. This indicates that
learners change their knowledge in a meaningful and coherent way based on
prior knowledge.
Students come to school with quite sophisticated theories about the world and an
intuitive understanding of language, numbers, and science based on their
previous experiences. They are capable of complex thinking which they apply to
problems in their daily lives, even without mastering some of the basic skills.
However, also included in this prior knowledge are preconceived ideas and
misconceptions such as stereotypes (e.g. of race, gender, etc) and simplistic
notions about the workings of the real world. When you ignore such prior
knowledge, you miss a tremendous opportunity to place new knowledge in
context and to challenge pre-existing mistaken ideas. If efforts are not made to
figure out what students believe and then confront their flawed or incomplete
notions about the world, they will continue to hold on to many misconceptions,
some of which will make it impossible for them to ever truly understand more
complex concepts.
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 61
Piaget's view on how children think and develop has had a significant impact on
educational practice and curriculum development. His ideas have been the basis
for designing kindergarten and primary school curriculum. For example,
learning materials and activities are designed to meet the appropriate level of
cognitive development and to avoid asking students to perform tasks that are
beyond their cognitive capabilities.
3.3.4 Metacognition
For many people, learning feels like a random activity; it just happens (or it
doesn't). However, this has shown to be not true because learners who order
their thoughts and focus to make sense of the information such as relating it to
prior knowledge are engaging in metacognitive thought (Flavell, 1977).
Knowledge: Unless you know how to order your thoughts, attention goes to
whatever is in the surroundings.
"Knowing that you know and knowing that you do not know".
Experts in any field carry with them very well-developed patterns of knowledge
in their field. They draw on these known patterns whenever they encounter new
information and recognise patterns and features that are not noticed by novices.
But how do they acquire the patterns in the first place? They start with prior
learning, organise it into accessible categories or patterns, and routinely question
what they know when confronted with new patterns and new contexts. They
learn for understanding by paying attention to their learning, monitoring what
they are learning and using the feedback from this self-monitoring to make
adjustments, adaptations and even major changes to what they hold as
understanding (Brown, 1978). Students can enhance their metacognitive skills to
control their own learning. When they have skills like planning, organisation,
monitoring, revising and refocusing they enhance their metacognitive ability.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
ACTIVITY 3.3
3.4 CONSTRUCTIVISM
A baby is born and soon takes her first step. In that short period the amount of
learning and understanding of her immediate environment is enormous. The
early years are significant because it provides the basis for language, physical
dexterity, social understanding and emotional development for the rest of the
childs life. Just imagine the vast amount of knowledge that would have been
acquired by the time the child enters school. Increasingly there is evidence to
suggest that not everything the child learns is taught by adults. The child teaches
herself by absorbing information and experiencing the world around her. Such
learning is the basis of constructivism, an idea that has generated much
excitement and interest among educators.
If this be the case then knowledge is seldom transferred intact from the mind of
the teacher to the mind of the student. "Knowledge is the result of an individual
subjects constructive activity, not a commodity that somehow resides outside the
knower and can be conveyed or instilled by diligent perception or linguistics
communication" (von Glaserfeld, 1990, p.37). Knowledge is something which is
constructed personally by individuals in an active way, as they try to give
meaning to that knowledge. Learners construct their own knowledge by looking
for meaning and order; they interpret what they hear, read and see based on their
previous learning, habits and experiences. Students who do not have appropriate
background knowledge will be unable to accurately "hear" or "see" what is before
them.
66 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
What does this mean for classroom learning? Students should not be treated as
passive learners but rather as active learners exploring and going beyond the
information given. They should be provided with authentic and challenging
projects that encourage students and teachers working together. Authentic
settings provide learners with opportunities to see a problem from different
perspectives as well as negotiate and generate solutions through sharing and
exchanging ideas. In an authentic environment, learners assume responsibility
for their own learning. The goal is to create learning communities that is more
closely related to collaborative practice in the real world.
If learning is social and students are social, it seems logical that social
engagement is a powerful vehicle for enhancing learning. Cooperative,
collaborative and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas,
beliefs, conceptions, inconsistencies and misconceptions with their peers and
teachers. Learning is enhanced when students learn how to learn together,
engage in serious discussion examine important topics, and have shared
responsibility for applying what they know to new situations. Organising for this
kind of learning is a much more complex kind of teaching compared to lecturing
or demonstrations.
Every child's learning develops in the context of a culture and through culture
students acquire much of the content of their thinking as well as the tools of
intellectual adaptation. Culture teaches children both what to think and how to
think and through problem solving share experiences with others such as the
teacher, parent, sibling or significant others. A difference exists between what a
student can do on his own and what the student can do with help or the zone of
proximal development (Vygotsky, 1962). What learners can do on their own is on
the level of actual ability and what they can do with help is their level of
potential ability. So, with appropriate adult help, students can often perform
tasks that they are incapable of completing on their own. Schools need to create
the conditions within which students can come to recognise their own beliefs and
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 67
SELF-CHECK 3.3
Students are engaged in dialogue with the teacher and with each other:
Students present what they know and build their personal knowledge.
Free to express their ideas to allow for meaningful learning.
The class uses raw data, primary sources, manipulatives, physical and
interactive materials.
Involve students in real-world situations.
Curriculum:
Curriculum emphasises big concepts, beginning with the whole and
expanding to include the parts.
Knowledge is seen as dynamic and ever changing with experience.
Source: Adapted from Brooks, J. G., and Brooks, M. G. (1993). In search of understanding:
The case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
ACTIVITY 3.4
3.5 HUMANISM
The humanistic approach to learning refers to a wide variety of ideas and
techniques. While there may be many interpretations, they all advocate
humanising teaching and learning. The learner is a person who has feelings,
attitudes and emotions. Emotions such as self-efficacy, self-assurance, intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation determine how a student approaches learning.
However, not all emotions facilitate learning. Stress and constant fear have a
profound effect on learners' ability to think and learn effectively. Past experience
such as grades and failures have a major impact on a student's current ability to
learn. Three noteworthy personalities who have had an impact on the emergence
of humanistic psychology are Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Arthur
Coombs.
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 69
SELF-CHECK 3.4
ACTIVITY 3.5
ACTIVITY 3.6
The following are 7 principles of teaching and learning that form the basis
of the learning environment in Western Australian Schools. These
principles are based on contemporary research and knowledge about how
learning can be supported. The focus is on the provision of a school and
classroom environment which is intellectually, socially and physically
supportive of learning.
Opportunity to learn: Learning experiences should enable students to
observe and practice the actual processes, products, skills and values
which are expected of them.
Connection and challenge: Learning experiences should connect
with students' existing knowledge, skills and values while
extending and challenging their current ways of thinking and
acting.
Action and reflection: Learning experiences should be
meaningful and encourage both action and reflection on the part
of the learner.
Motivation and purpose: Learning experiences should be
motivating and their purpose clear to the student.
Inclusivity and difference: Learning experiences should respect
and accommodate differences between learners.
Independence and collaboration: Learning experiences should
encourage students to learn both independently and from and
with others.
Supportive environment: The school and classroom setting
should be safe and conducive to effective learning.
Questions:
1. Based upon what has been discussed in this topic, can you identify
which psychological perspectives are emphasised?
2. What is meant by the term learning experiences?
3. To what extent are these principles of learning emphasised in your
school curriculum?
Psychology Constructivism
Behaviourism Construction of knowledge
Classical conditioning Learning as social activity
Operant conditioning Humanism
Social learning Hierarchy of needs
Cognitivism Teacher as facilitator
Information processing
approach
Meaningful learning
Cognitive development
4 Historical
Foundations
of Curriculum
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain how the changing economy has influenced curriculum;
2. Suggest how curriculum has to cater for cultural diversity;
3. Discuss how the changing family institution influences curriculum;
4. Identify the demands of some special interest groups regarding
curriculum;
5. List the criteria for what can be considered knowledge of worth;
6. Identify the underlying beliefs determining school curriculum in
early America and Japan; and
7. Give reasons for the changing curriculum emphasis in these two
countries.
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 77
INTRODUCTION
Schools are part and parcel of a society and exist for the society. Society
influences schools through the curriculum. Schools, through their teaching of the
curriculum, can shape and mould society and society in turn can impact the
curriculum. There is rarely a curriculum that is developed without reflecting the
society. People today are more vocal in expressing their views and are eager to
see their opinions influence what is going on in schools. With advancements in
information and communication technology, people are talking and sharing
views across the globe. They are seeing things happening in other school systems
and would like to see some of these practices in their own schools.
78 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
ACTIVITY 4.1
Once upon a time the animals in the forest decided to start a school. They agreed that
the curriculum should include the following subjects: swimming, hopping, climbing,
running, flying, digging and slithering. All animals were required to take all subjects.
Everything went on well until the third day when the principal, Wise Old Owl
noticed some disturbing trends. For example, the rabbits were excelling in hopping
but performed poorly in flying tests. The cheetahs were scoring As in running but
were getting D's in digging. The ducks were getting straight As in swimming but
were failing in the slithering course. The snakes easily got As in slithering but had
difficulty flying.
An emergency staff meeting was held among the teachers to find out whether is was
due to poor teaching or was it a curriculum problem. It was agreed that the teachers
were good and dedicated, practicing research-based instructional strategies. Professor
Lion from Forest State University was called in as a consultant. He discovered that
the problem was not due to poor teaching but rather the low level of curriculum
utility. He pointed out that ducks really do not need to know how to slither and
cheetahs should not be forced to learn digging skills. Neither should the snakes be
asked to take flying classes.
Prof. Lion concluded that the animals were forced to learn skills that were not
relevant to their situations. However, there are certain skills that every animal needs
to know such as finding food and water. He proposed that the curriculum be revised
to include instruction in generic skills such as food-acquisition principles and social
skills. But, animals were allowed to specialise in subjects most applicable to their
species (eg. swimming, running). The animals all rejoiced when the recommendations
were implemented and shouted "Now this is a useful curriculum".
Source: Adaptation of Buscaglia, L. F. (1972). Love. Thorofare, NJ: C.B. Slack, cited in
R. Burks (1998). A theory of secondary curriculum utility. Available at
http://www.randallburks.com/curriculum.htm
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 81
By the beginning of the 20th century, the industrial revolution brought about
drastic changes in the economy of many countries. More people moved to live in
cities and worked in factories. As a consequence, new skills were needed in an
industrial society. It was then that a great change took place in education: the
model of schools as a factory emerged. Students were taught the facts and skills
they needed for industrial jobs, which they were likely to hold their entire lives.
One-room schools were eventually replaced by large buildings. Students were
sorted by grades and sat in straight rows, with a teacher at the front of the
classroom in control of learning. The curriculum was compartmentalised and
taught in separated bits and pieces similar to the way that work is completed
on an assembly line. Schools became efficient social institutions with the goal of
turning out identical products.
The appearance in the early 70s of the microprocessor and the explosive growth
of networking and information technologies in the 80s and 90s witnessed the
growth of the knowledge economy. Multimedia innovations and the growth of
the internet have transformed our ability to access information. Despite all these
changes, we are still educating students in factory-model schools. Many of the
skills being taught currently are intended for jobs that either no longer exist or
will be radically different by the time a student graduates. While being aware of
the trend, educators are still unsure as to what the curriculum of the post-
industrial-style classroom should be.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
The shift to the industrial economy brought about changes to the family
institution. The extended family where parents lived with their adult children
and their children rapidly declined, especially in urban areas. The family
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 83
As more and more families moved to live in urban areas, a different set of values
was acquired. For example, in the early days, family, religion and school
complemented each other as social institutions. A shift in values has resulted in
changes in the relationship between family, education and religion. Social norms
that guided the behaviour of earlier generations have relaxed and these social
institutions (family, education and religion) are increasingly losing their ability to
guide the behaviours desired of today's generation (Sowell, 2000). Children could
now support their own families with their own earnings and as a result no longer
needed the blessings of their elders. Since advancement on the job depended on
the individuals ability and not kinship ties, obedience was no longer a necessity
(Roberts, 1990).
Families have also been disrupted with stress, violence, crime and having to live in
poor neighbourhoods. This led to the depletion of parents' personal resources
leaving them with very little energy to handle their children appropriately. Parents
are distancing themselves from schools and are passing on the task of educating
their children to the school. Schools are finding it difficult to cope with the job of
educating the next generation without the active involvement of parents in the
education of their children.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
ACTIVITY 4.2
At the secondary level there were two types of schools; Latin grammar schools
and the Academy. The sons of the upper class attended Latin Grammar School
for preparation toward entering university. The curriculum consisted of studying
Latin, Greek, arithmetic, classical literature, ancient history and religious
education. These schools followed closely the model of European schools and
their role was to support the religious and social institutions of that era
(Morrison, 1990). The Academy was established to offer a practical curriculum
for those not going to university. Its curriculum consisted of English grammar,
classics, composition, rhetoric and public speaking. Latin was not considered a
crucial subject. Students could choose a foreign language based on their
vocational needs. For example, those who wanted to go into business could do
German, French or Spanish. Mathematics and history were given importance,
together with the teaching of specific skills such as carpentry, engraving,
printing, farming, and book keeping.
With regards to university education, most students from Latin grammar schools
went to Harvard or Yale. The curriculum consisted of courses in Latin, grammar,
logic, rhetoric, astronomy, ethics, metaphysics, ancient history, Greek, Hebrew
and natural sciences.
The education system described above was to a large extent confined to the New
England States. What was happening to the rest of the United States? In the
Southern colonies (such as South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland and
Georgia), education was left to the family or home education. Wealthy
landowners employed private tutors to educate their children and some sent
their children to England to finish their education. For most poor whites who
worked on their farms, formal education was nonexistent. Unable to read and
write, many grew up to be subsistence farmers like their parents before them.
Children of black slaves in the plantations were forbidden to learn to read and
write and were cast aside as the underclass of society. Children were taught from
an early age that mankind was divided naturally by race; each race having
certain physical and mental characteristics which had remained fundamentally
unchanged throughout history. Southerners justified slavery on the basis that
blacks were incapable of improvement, all the while denying them access to any
type of formalised education.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
The monitorial system taken from Europe was introduced in American schools
by Joseph Lancaster (1778-1838), in which academically superior students or
monitors were taught by the teachers and they in turn taught their classmates.
The system enabled a small number of adult masters to educate large numbers of
students at low cost in basic and often advanced skills. Instruction was highly
structured and based on rote learning and drilling of reading, writing and
arithmetic. The system was practiced both in primary and secondary schools.
Later this system gave way to schools that were graded and students of the same
age groups were grouped together.
The common school, today's public school, evolved as a result of the belief that a
well-educated citizen was essential to the survival of a new-found democracy.
Through a common programme of civic education, it set out to inculcate an
American identity and loyalty. Its major purpose was to integrate children of
various social, economic and ethnic backgrounds into the broad American
community. The aim of the common school was to develop the basic literacy
skills of students that could be used in everyday life as well as skills and attitudes
that made one into a competent shopkeeper, merchant, artisan and worker. The
education provided was to facilitate upward mobility and occupational choice
(Ornstein & Levine, 1985). Schools were financed by the state and the local
community who governed them. The coming of the common school laid the
foundation of the American public school system. By 1900, the majority of
children aged 6 to 13 were enrolled in primary schools. Table 4.1 traces the
curriculum of the American primary school from 1800 until 1900.
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 91
Source: From Cubberley, E. P. (1920). The history of education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
p.756, cited in Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principles
and issues. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, p.74
Later in the 19th century, the public high school was fashioned to complete the
educational ladder that led to the state college and university. As the common
school movement expanded, the ideal was to provide as much education as
possible for all children and youth. The slogan was "more education for more
people" and high schools were established and it gradually replaced the
Academy. By 1890 there were 2526 high schools in the United States with an
enrolment of more than 200,000 students. In 1900 about 10% of the youth aged 14
to 17 were in school, which then rose to 50% in 1930. The provision of public
secondary schools became an obligation of the states, rather than a volunteer
matter for parents and the local district to decide.
92 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
Between 1800 and 1825, the curriculum of American secondary schools consisted
of Latin, Greek, classical literature, writing, arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry,
bookkeeping, grammar, rhetoric, surveying, astronomy, geography, philosophy
and foreign languages (Spanish, German and French). Between 1875 and 1900,
the curriculum included all subjects listed earlier plus the following subjects:
meteorology, chemistry, physiology, health education, botany, zoology, biology,
physics, world history and ancient history. The curriculum was expanded to
allow students to explore their interests and capabilities.
ACTIVITY 4.3
The shogunal schools were for the children aged between 8 and 15 years from the
samurai or warrior class. Emphasis was on the teaching of Confucianism (it was
forbidden to teach other doctrines), gunnery, technology and cartography.
Confucian classics were memorised, and reading and reciting them were common
methods of study. With this form of education the role of the samurai gradually
changed from warrior to administrator. By the end of the Tokugawa era there were
27 shogunal schools.
The daimyo schools were set up in all the feudal domains of Japan and provided
education for the samurai but later extended to commoners. The curriculum was
based on Confucian ideas but included history of Japan and China, calligraphy,
composition and etiquette. Some of the domain schools also taught Chinese and
Western medicine, Dutch studies, military science, geography and astronomy.
There were nearly 300 domain schools and about half opened their doors to
commoners. Many of the schools emphasised different curriculum for the
different ranks of the samurai. For example, for the higher ranked samurai
children, character education was most important with focus on proper manners,
proper language to superiors and inferiors, frugality, toughness, moderation in
food and drink. The aim was to prepare them to take over the governing class
and to be future leaders. Practical subjects such as arithmetic and Western
subjects which produced technicians was introduced to the lower samurai class
and commoners but not the higher samurai class.
The shijuku (private academies) were private schools which provided education
for the samurai class from primary until higher education. Similar to the domain
schools, many of them opened their doors to commoners. There were about 1,100
shijuku schools by the end of the Tokugawa era. These schools offered a
94 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
The terakoya (children of the temple) was the most important and widespread
school for commoners. These schools were originally run by Buddhist temples
but later became secular for the common people (see Figure 4.2). Though the
majority of terakoya schools were concentrated in the towns and cities, some
were established in the rural areas to improve the literacy levels of farmers and
artisans. The majority of terakoya schools focused on reading, writing and
arithmetic. Some schools also taught vocational subjects, etiquette, morals and
accounting while others taught geography, history, science, military arts and
even English. Students were not divided into grades. Although education was
the norm, there were far fewer girls than boys, and the two groups were rigidly
separated in seating arrangements. Attendance requirements were casual and
easily adjusted to the work routines of shop or farm. During the busy agricultural
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 95
season, village terakoya schools were closed and students were given time to
keep up with their household chores.
By the end of the Tokugawa era there were 14,000 terakoya schools and over
17,000 teachers. Teachers were not trained or licensed. Most were volunteers
consisting of retired officials, public-spirited samurai and educated commoners.
Students did not pay fees and teachers were not paid. Schools were maintained
by donations. Teachers were highly respected and had great authority.
According to a well-known textbook, "the pupil should be careful not to step on
the teacher's shadow or to come within seven paces of him" (Passin, 1982, p.33).
Teaching methods were not standardised and the basic subjects were taught
using simple primers (elementary textbooks) prepared by teachers which were
closely linked to the daily life and occupational expectations of students. The
following are some examples of these primers:
Farmer's Reader;
Increased Profits for Farmers;
Bumper Crops;
Merchant Reader;
Navigation and Shipping Reader; and
Wholesaler's Reader.
SELF-CHECK 4.4
Initially the Japanese hurriedly translated western text books and used them in
their classrooms. However, they soon learned that schooling can be used as a
boost to national pride; by replacing American or European stories of triumph
with those of Japanese war heroes. The education system was used to establish a
strong sense of Japanese patriotism. Also, the new system of education was
geared toward creating a distinctively Japanese culture; no longer would the
Japanese use traditional Chinese symbols in formal writing, instead they
developed a system of casual writing that would be understood broadly. The
education system was developed in a manner that would prepare the youth for
more technical positions all the while creating a strong sense of nationalism and
love for the Emperor.
Even with the progress in the field of education, more had to be done to remove
the feudal traditions of the past. In order to prepare the population for a centrally
administered government, the traditional feudal districts were gradually
consolidated into larger blocks. The larger districts allowed for a more efficient
system of administration and gave the government more power to control the
people.
In educating their society, the Japanese not only sent thousands of students
abroad to study at foreign universities, they also selected individuals who would
visit other countries and study specific niches of culture, industry, or military.
From their experiences the Japanese then consciously decided which methods to
adopt. They looked to the United States for educational reforms. As an indication
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 97
By the 1890s, after the earlier intensive preoccupation with Western ideas, a
conservative and traditional orientation evolved: the education system became
more reflective of Japanese values. The emperor when visiting a local school,
found out that some Japanese students speaking in English were unable to
translate back into Japanese the English that they spoke. In 1879, he issued the
Great Principles of Education and argued that the decline of Japanese culture was
due to Western education. Confucian precepts were stressed, especially those
concerning the hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the new state,
the pursuit of learning, and morality. In the early twentieth century, education at
the primary level was egalitarian and virtually universal, but at higher levels it
was highly selective, and elitist. College education was largely limited to the few
national universities. Three of the imperial universities admitted women, and
there were a number of women's colleges, some quite prestigious, but women
had relatively few opportunities to enter higher education.
98 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
ACTIVITY 4.4
INTRODUCTION
Source: http://www.iconandclipart.com
ACTIVITY 5.1
1. What is the cartoons message?
2. How far is this reflected in your countrys education system?
After identifying the objectives (which are the desired learning outcomes), the
curriculum developer has to pass them through two screens: the philosophy
screen and the psychology screen. Resulting from this are specific instructional
objectives which state the kind of outcomes that are observable are measurable.
The next step is the selection of educational experiences which enable the
attainment of the stipulated objectives. The learning experiences have to take into
account the previous experiences learners bring to a situation. The learning
experiences will have to be selected based on what is known about human
learning and human development.
Next, Tyler talked about the organisation and sequencing of these learning
experiences. He emphasised that the experiences should be properly organised
so as to enhance learning and suggested that ideas, concepts, values and skills be
used as organising elements woven into the curriculum. These elements would
serve as organisers linking content within a particular subject (e.g. History,
Economics, Science) and also determine the method of instruction or delivery of
content. [We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6].
There is no denying that Tyler's thinking has greatly influenced the field of
curriculum, especially curriculum development. The four questions that he
raised had and still have great appeal because it is very reasonable and workable.
Despite much criticism of the model as being too linear, that is, cause and effect,
there is no denying that his thinking continues to be popular (Ornstein &
Hunkins, 1998).
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Taba felt that a curriculum should be designed by the users of the programme.
Teachers should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning units for
their students. She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 107
curriculum development. This meant starting with the specifics and building
toward a general design. This was just the opposite of the more traditional
deductive approach which starts with the general design and then working
toward the specifics.
Taba proposed the following seven major steps for her grass-roots model in
which teachers would have major input throughout the curriculum development
process:
1. Diagnosis of need: The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts
the process by identifying the needs of students for whom the curriculum is
planned. For example, the majority of students are unable to think critically.
2. Formulation of objectives: After the teacher has identified the needs that
require attention, he or she specifies objectives to be accomplished.
3. Selection of content: The objectives selected or created suggest the subject
matter or content of the curriculum. Not only should objectives and content
108 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
match, but also the validity and significance of the content chosen need to
be determined; i.e. the relevancy and significance of the content.
4. Organisation of content: A teacher cannot just select content, but must
organise it in some type of sequence, taking into consideration the maturity
of learners, their academic achievement, and their interests. [We will
discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6].
5. Selection of learning experiences: Content must be presented to students
and students must be engaged with the content. At this point, the teacher
selects instructional methods that will involve the students with the
content.
6. Organisation of learning activities: Just as content must be sequenced and
organised, so must the learning activities. Often, the sequence of the
learning activities is determined by the content. But the teacher needs to
keep in mind the particular students whom he or she will be teaching.
7. Evaluation and means of evaluation: The curriculum planner must
determine just what objectives have been accomplished. Evaluation
procedures need to be designed to evaluate learning outcomes. [We will
discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Topic 8].
Tabas model has much merit. However, some argue that teacher involvement
throughout the process assumes that they have the expertise and, perhaps more
importantly, the time to engage in such an extensive and intensive curricular
activity. Teachers being involved in the early stages of curriculum development
may not necessarily be an advantage as it will not necessarily guarantee an
effective curriculum since it is a highly specialised process.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
(a) Goals, Objectives and Domains: The model indicates that curriculum
planners begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific
objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a
curriculum domain and they advocate four major goals or domains:
personal development, human relations, continued learning skills and
specialisation. The goals, objectives and domains are selected after careful
consideration of several external variables such as findings from
educational research, accreditation standards, views of community groups
and others.
110 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
(b) Curriculum Designing: Once the goals, objectives and domains have been
established, planners move into the process of designing the curriculum.
Here, decisions are made on the appropriate learning opportunities for each
domain and how and when these opportunities will be provided. Will the
curriculum be designed along the lines of academic disciplines or according
to student needs and interests or along themes? These are some of the
questions that need to be answered at this stage of the development process
[We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6].
(c) Curriculum Implementation: After the designs have been created, the next
step is implementation of the designs by teachers. Based on the design of
the curriculum plan, teachers would specify instructional objectives and
then select relevant teaching methods and strategies to achieve the desired
learning outcomes among students in the classroom [We will discuss
curriculum implementation in more detail in Topic 7].
(d) Evaluation: Finally, the curriculum planner and teachers engage in an
evaluation. The model proposes that evaluation should be comprehensive
using a variety of evaluation techniques. Evaluation should involve the
total educational programme of the school and the curriculum plan, the
effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of students. Through the
evaluation process, the curriculum planner and developers can determine
whether or not the goals of the school and the objectives of instruction have
been met. [We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Topic 8].
SELF-CHECK 5.3
The three models we just discussed reveal both similarities and differences. All
models outline a sequence of steps to be taken in curriculum development.
Interestingly, the Taba model emphasises the role of teachers in curriculum
development while the Tyler model focuses on the two screens which objectives
have to pass through. However, you should keep in mind that models often are
incomplete; they do not and cannot show every detail and aspect of the
complicated curriculum process. To depict every aspect in detail of the
curriculum development process would require an exceedingly complex and
intricate model.
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 111
In looking at the three models we cannot say that any one model is superior to
another model. Some curriculum planners have followed the Tyler model with
considerable success. But this does not mean that the Tyler model represents the
ultimate in models for curriculum development or that all educators are satisfied
with it.
In addition, curriculum planners should not only study current best practices,
customs, and beliefs about education in the local schools but should compare
these to the educational research literature on best practices in teaching, learning,
and curriculum design. Levels of achievements relate to understanding of
concepts at different grades by children to enable them to complete the skills
needed to move on to higher grades. These have to be identified in order to bring
quality to learning and avoid wastage in the learning programmes.
114 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
The curriculum framework is a set of principles and guidelines which provides both a
philosophical base and an organisational structure for curriculum development
initiatives at national, provincial, community or school-based levels. The vision for
South Africa encompasses a prosperous, truly united, democratic and internationally
competitive country with literate, creative and critical citizens leading productive,
self-fulfilled lives in a country free of violence, discrimination and prejudice. The
realisation of this vision requires appropriate, lifelong education, training and
development to empower people to participate effectively in all the processes of a
democratic society and to excel in fields like human and natural resource
development, human and natural sciences, the arts and technology.
The primary task of educational policy makers is the establishment of a just and
equitable education and training system which is relevant, of high quality and is
accessible to all learners, irrespective of race, colour, gender, age, religion, ability or
language. A priority for both national and provincial education departments is,
therefore, the creation of a transformative, democratic, open learning system, fostering
in all its users, a strong commitment to lifelong learning and development.
Source: CURRICULUM (2005). Lifelong learning for the 21st century: A user's guide.
Available at
http://www.polity.org.za/html/govdocs/misc/curr2005.html?rebookmark=1#Principles
ACTIVITY 5.2
ACTIVITY 5.3
In 1990, the President of the United States and state governors issued a list
of six goals for the nation's schools which stated that by the year 2000:
All children in America will start school ready to learn.
The high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90%.
American students will leave grades 4, 8 and 12 having demonstrated
competency in challenging subject matter (English, Mathematics,
Science, History and Geography).
U.S students will be first in the world in Science and Mathematics
achievement.
Every adult American will be literate and will possess the knowledge
and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the
right and responsibilities of citizenship.
Every school in America will be free of drugs and violence and will
offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning.
[Source: National Goals for Education (1990). Washington D.C]
For example:
"Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning as
good citizens in their own school and community."
"Schools should seek to promote the physical and emotional health of
students."
Note how the curriculum objective refines the curriculum goal. Many curriculum
objectives can emanate from a single curriculum goal.
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 117
ACTIVITY 5.4
ACTIVITY 5.5
Proponents of Behavioural Objectives argue that they:
Force the teachers to be precise about what is to be accomplished;
Enable the teacher to tell students what they must achieve;
Make evaluation easier because it is measurable;
Make it easier for the selection of instructional objectives; and
Make accountability easier.
The three taxonomies remain a useful conceptual tool for thinking about what a
body of content requires students to do, and for thinking about how students
should be able to demonstrate their learning through their behaviour. It is
valuable because it draws attention to the need to be clear about the complexity
of intellectual tasks which a subject might be required to perform.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define what is curriculum design;
2. Recognise the criteria for the selection of content;
3. Explain the principles of content organisation;
4. List the criteria for the selection of learning experiences; and
5. Compare subject matter-centred, learner-centred and problem-
centred curriculum design models.
INTRODUCTION
The curriculum development process aims at
producing a plan that stipulates the kinds of
teaching-learning experiences students will engage
in. The first step in the process involves planning
what we want students to achieve. This could be
derived from the nations educational philosophy.
It also includes the objectives that are to be
achieved by teachers or instructors at the classroom
level. In Topic 5, we examined three well-known
models; namely, the Tyler model, the Taba model,
and the Saylor and Alexander model. In this topic,
we will deal with the next phase of the curriculum
development process which is curriculum design.
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 129
ACTIVITY 6.1
In this topic, we will focus on two main aspects of curriculum design, namely;
Selection and organisation of content (or subject matter) for learners; and
Selection and organisation of learning experiences (or activities).
The disciplines such as biology, chemistry, sociology and psychology are concerned
with advancement of understanding and the exploration of the unknown. In
contrast, content as found in school subjects (or even undergraduate courses) do not
provide students with opportunities for advancing understanding or creation of new
knowledge in the strictest sense. The content selected is aimed towards helping
students understand knowledge that may be new to them but is already known by
scholars and practitioners in the field. From this body of knowledge or discipline,
content is selected for educational purposes and organised according to the cognitive
level of learners.
allotted. Eventually, teachers will end up rushing through the material and
some students are left behind not understanding the content.
Feasibility:
Educators who select content have to take into consideration the constraints
of time, expertise of staff, funding and other educational resources that
schools might face when implementing the curriculum. For example, the
number of days allotted for teaching may be insufficient to cover all the
content because schools have to allocate time for extra-curricular activities
and other school events. Content selection has to be considered within the
context of the existing reality of economics and the role of the government.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
6.3.1 Scope
Scope refers to both the breadth and depth of content and includes all topics,
learning experiences and organising threads found in the curriculum plan. Scope
not only refers to cognitive learning but also affective learning, and some would
argue spiritual learning (Goodland & Zhixin Su, 1992). Sometimes the scope of a
curriculum is narrow, consisting of just a simple listing of key topics and
activities.
134 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN
When we talk of scope, we are concerned with questions such as: How much
science should students in primary school know? or What is the level of
mathematics required of students before they graduate from secondary school?
When curriculum developers are engaged in deciding how much content should
be included, they are determining the scope of the curriculum, in which
following guidelines may be useful:
You might want to ask about the utility or usefulness of the content selected.
You might want to ask whether the content caters to diverse student abilities.
You might want to ask if the amount of content selected can be covered in the
specified period of time.
You might want to ask if there is a balance in the content selected between
cognitive, psychomotor and affective or spiritual outcomes.
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. Do you think the scope (breadth and depth) of the subject you are
teaching (or are familiar with) is appropriate?
2. Give examples of subjects which you think the scope is
inappropriate. Explain.
6.3.2 Sequence
Sequence refers to the organisation of content and the extent to which it fosters
cumulative and continuous learning (referred to as vertical relationship among
sections of the curriculum). Do students have the opportunity to make
connections and enrich their understanding of the content? It is important that
the sequencing of content leads to the cumulative development of intellectual
and affective processes.
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 135
The sequence of content and experiences should be based on the logic of the
subject matter and the way in which individuals learn. It should be based on
psychological principles and understanding of human development and learning
[refer to Topic 3: Psychological Foundations of Curriculum]. The following are
some principles identified as guidelines in sequencing the curriculum: (Ornstein
& Hunkins, 1998; Taba, 1962; Bruner, 1960).
(a) Simple to complex Content is organised from simple subordinate
components to complex components depicting interrelationships among
components. Optimal learning occurs when students are presented with
easy, often concrete content and to more difficult and abstract content.
(b) Spiral - In a spiral curriculum, concepts may be introduced on a simple
level in the early grades, and then revisited with more and more complexity
and application later on (Bruner, 1960).
(c) Prerequisites It works on the assumption that bits of information or
learning must be grasped before other bits of information can be
understood.
(d) Whole to part Content is better understood if an overview (whole) is first
presented to show the connections between the parts.
(e) Chronology This is a useful organiser for sequencing content especially in
subjects such as history, political science and world events.
(f) Vertical organisation - This simply means that content and skills are
arranged so that they build on one another; that they align with the general
sequence of cognitive development. They indicate what students have
learned and what they will learn later.
(g) Horizontal organisation - It involves how skills and content that are taught
during one level or one period of time relate to another. For example, in a
social science course, you might consider particular issues from a historical,
sociological, political and economic point of view.
6.3.3 Integration
Integration is the bringing together of the concepts, skills and values of different
subject areas to reinforce each other. Bits of information from different subject
areas are brought together in such a way as to present the learner with a unified
picture of knowledge. Some have argued that however much curriculum
planners try to integrate information; it is the learners who integrate what they
are learning in their minds. It is something that happens within the individual
learner.
136 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN
The idea of integration was popularised in the 60s by Hilda Taba because of
concern that school curriculum was too disjointed, fragmented and detached.
Lately, there has been a surge of interest in curriculum integration due to the
rapid accumulation of information that is doubling in a shorter period of time.
Increasingly, there is a realisation that knowledge has to be viewed in a much
broader sense, particularly in dealing with ideas that cut across disciplines. When
faced with real-world situations, seldom is one area of content sufficient to
explain complex phenomena. The need to examine phenomena drawing from
various disciplines has intensified interest in the integrated curriculum.
Examples of the integrated curriculum include science-technology-society and
reading across the curriculum. In the science-technology-society (STS)
curriculum, science is combined with social sciences when attempting to solve
practical, everyday problems. The integrated approach takes the student outside
the laboratory and away from the textbook into the local community.
6.3.4 Continuity
Continuity ensures that ideas, themes and skills are repeated as the learner
progresses through the grades. Why? This is because students may not grasp
certain concepts and skills in one experience and these have to be presented
again before they become clear. For example, students in the primary grades are
taught the principles of essay writing. The same principles are repeated in the
succeeding years. Continuity ensures the reappearance of certain major ideas at
different grade levels at increased depth and complexity over the length of the
curriculum. For example, doing experiments is a learning experience that is
repeated throughout the teaching of science at increasing levels of complexity
and abstraction.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
1. Name the different ways of sequencing content.
2. What do you understand by integration as one of the principles of
content organisation?
3. Why is there a need to ensure continuity in content organisation
for certain concepts and skills?
4. Give examples of continuity other than those given in the text.
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 137
5. Integrated humanities;
For example, water as a theme can be studied from the following areas: science
(composition of water), geography (distribution of water resources), literature
(poems on water), language (vocabulary related to water), history (disputes
related to water), economics (supply of and demand for water) and so forth.
Education journals and teachers' own anecdotal records report many examples of
educators linking subject areas to provide meaningful learning experiences. It has
been suggested that the integrated curriculum helps students apply skills, leads
to faster retrieval of information, encourages depth and breadth in learning and
promotes positive attitudes (improved team spirit and work habits).
138 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN
ACTIVITY 6.3
Refer to the Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum and answer the
following questions:
1. Why is there a revival of interest in the integrated curriculum?
2. What are some positive effects of curriculum integration?
3. Suggest ways in which the subjects or courses in your
institution may be integrated.
There are many types of teaching methods and some examples of these include; the
inquiry method, the discovery approach, the lecture method, small group
discussion, role-playing, fieldwork and so forth. The term learning activities was
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 139
used by Taba (1962) in her curriculum development model (discussed in Topic 5).
Learning activities are opportunities for students to question, clarify, create and
apply knowledge. Examples of learning activities are answering questions, solving
problems, journal writing, viewing videos, doing experiments, playing games and
so forth. Both teaching methods and learning activities are equally important parts of
the learning experience and should be carefully planned. In many instances, there is
an overlap of teaching methods and learning activities, and some people may find
the distinction problematic.
ACTIVITY 6.4
The most important criterion for the selection of learning experiences is to ensure
that there is alignment between the objectives, content and learning experiences.
Will the learning experiences selected achieve the objectives of the curriculum?
This criterion is termed as validity. Learning experiences should also be selected
in terms of feasibility. In other words, whether the experiences suggested can be
carried out given the time, available facilities and expertise of teachers. It would
be futile to propose learning experiences which may be good on paper but
difficult to implement in the classroom because teachers are not trained and
facilities are inadequate. For example, learning experiences which require using
the internet when the school does not have internet connection.
Learning experiences should also be selected based on whether they will enhance
students' learning of the content as well as motivate them to continue learning.
The learning experiences should also attempt to develop thinking skills of
students and to stimulate greater understanding of their own existence as
individuals and as members of groups. In other words, the learning experiences
selected should encourage group interaction and collaborative learning which
are skills required in the working world. Learning experiences should foster the
cognitive, affective, psychomotor and spiritual development of the learner.
Source: Adapted from Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations,
principles and issues. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p.264.
Why is this model of curriculum design widely adopted? One reason given
is that it is much easily interpreted in textbooks and commercially available
support materials. Since teaching is essentially a verbal activity (whether it
be lecture, recitation, group discussion) teachers find it easier to
communicate the ideas and knowledge of a subject presented in verbal
form in textbooks. Also, people are familiar with this format, having gone
through it themselves when in school.
However, critics argue that this design deemphasises the learner by taking
away their rights to choose the content that is most meaningful to them.
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 143
The focus on the subject matter fails to foster social, psychological and
physical development and to some extent, fosters an elite ruling class based
on knowledge (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). Do you agree?
(b) Discipline Design
A discipline is a specific body of knowledge that has its own methods of
inquiry, has its specialised words and terminology, has a tradition and a
collection of literature, and the persons involved in the field are
theoreticians and practitioners. Proponents of the discipline design model
emphasise the teaching of the disciplines in its pure form. In other words, a
student who studies biology would approach the subject as a biologist
while those who study history will study it as historians. What is the
rationale for teaching the disciplines? According to its proponents, the
school is a mini version of the world of intellect and that the disciplines
reflect that world.
SELF-CHECK 6.3
What are some of the issues in this model? One would be breadth versus
depth. For example, in studying social studies over one year, students are
exposed to a variety of social science concepts compared to only studying
economics concepts for one year. Certainly, treatment of the various social
science concepts would be superficial. For sure, a year of economics will
expose students to more economics concepts and principles than would a year
144 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN
of social studies. However, some may argue whether students need such in-
depth knowledge of a particular subject. If the educational philosophy is to
give students an overview of the social sciences, then Social Studies might be
the logical choice.
(d) Correlation Design
The correlation design model lies in between the academic design model and
the broad fields design. If you do not want your curriculum to consist of five
separate subjects nor five different subject areas to be fused into one, then the
correlation design model might be an alternative. For example, you may want
to just fuse or correlate history with literature at the secondary school level. For
example, in a history lesson the class learns about the Japanese occupation of
Malaysia. During the literature class, students read novels about life during
that time period. However, each subject retains its own distinct identity.
(e) Process Design
In the discipline based design discussed earlier, students learn the methods of
inquiry used by experts in the respective disciplines. For example, in studying
anthropology, students will learn various ethnographic procedures. Advocates
of the process design model stress the learning of general procedures and
processes that are not applicable to any particular discipline. The most popular
example of the process design model is the teaching of thinking skills. Various
educators have suggested that students should be taught to think. Curriculum
has focused on the teaching of decision making, problem solving, critical
thinking and creative thinking. Ennis (1963) identified a list of critical thinking
skills that should be taught, such as identification of fallacies, checking the
credibility of sources and so forth.
In the process design curriculum students are also taught to be aware of their
thinking and to take action when necessary. A good thinker is able to monitor
his or her thinking and take steps to remedy faulty thinking. The general
assumption is that there are general thinking skills, and processes are common
regardless of the subject area. The aim of the curriculum is to enhance these
process skills applicable to all disciplines. Thinking critically is not unique to
geography or physics. Neither is thinking creatively the sole domain of art or
literature.
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 145
SELF-CHECK 6.4
In the child-centred model, the interests and experiences of the learner become
the subject-matter of the curriculum. Children are given the freedom to
discover and do things for themselves rather than told how to do something.
The project method became a popular pedagogical strategy in the child-
centred design in which children solved problematic situations calling on their
knowledge and skills of science, history, art and so forth. In other words, the
traditional subjects are not rejected but rather used to solve problems that are
of interest to learners.
(b) Radical Design
In this design, the focus is the learner which is quite similar to the child-
centred design; the difference being that greater emphasis is placed on the
need for the curriculum to reform society [we dealt with this in Topic 2
Reconstructionism]. Proponents of the radical design operate on the
assumption that society is corrupt and repressive. Children should be
educated towards the goal of social reform. A well-known proponent of the
radical design was Paulo Freire who opposed treating students as empty
vessels to be filled with knowledge by the teacher. He objected to the
teacher-student dichotomy and proposed the relationship between teacher
and student be reciprocal, which is, the teacher who learns and the learner
who teaches.
SELF-CHECK 6.5
studying such social issues when they are related to their world. Also, having
students study social or life situations will encourage them to seek ways to
improve society. The life situations that need to be emphasised in schools will
depend on what students need before they enter the working world and
assume adult responsibilities. However, some needs and interests have already
been met by the family, religious institutions and other community
organisations. So, the school should address those needs not met by these
institutions.
SELF-CHECK 6.6
ACTIVITY 6.5
INTRODUCTION
In Topic 5 we discussed what was involved in
curriculum planning and in Topic 6 we looked at
different techniques of designing the curriculum
focusing on some curriculum design models. The
next stage in the curriculum development process
according to Tyler, Taba and Alexander & Saylor is
the implementation of the curriculum plan. The final
destination of any curriculum (whether it be a school,
college, university or training organisation) is the
classroom involving students, teachers, administrators and the community.
Implementing the curriculum is the most crucial and sometimes the most
difficult phase of the curriculum development process. Those responsible for
implementing a curriculum often hear comments and concerns such as:
Teachers are already overloaded how are they going to implement the new
ideas.
Parents and education officers are only interested in a high pass rate in
examinations how are schools to incorporate suggested changes.
These are real concerns and made worse when persons implementing the
curriculum are not clear what is expected of them. How often have we heard
people say, The plan was good but implementation was poor? On the other
hand, if a curriculum plan is not implemented and remains on the shelf then all
efforts in planning will be a sheer waste. A curriculum must be delivered and
that means it must be implemented in the classroom if it is to make an impact on
student learning. Good plans reaching the classroom are not properly
implemented because of a lack of planning and preparation. In some curriculum
development projects, implementation is not given due consideration; not
realising that innovations need careful planning and monitoring. We hear of
teachers not being properly trained and are required to implement changes in the
classroom within a short period of time.
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 155
ACTIVITY 7.1
Even though large sums of money are spent on implementing new curriculum,
several of these efforts have failed. According to Sarason (1990), the main reason
for failure is the lack of understanding of the culture of the school by both experts
outside the school system and educators in the system. Successful
implementation of curriculum requires understanding the power relationships,
the traditions, and the roles and responsibilities of individuals in the school
system. Implementers (whether they are teachers, principals or district education
officers) should be well-versed with the contents of the curriculum. They must be
clear of the purpose, the nature and the real and potential benefits of the
innovation.
How do you bring about change? In other words, how do you ensure that the
curriculum brings about the desired changes? Before you can bring about
change, you need to know what change is. You may say whats the big deal? We
all know what change is! You know how your job has changed. You know how
government policy changes. But what is change in relation to curriculum?
Basically, change is doing something differently. Change results from new
knowledge. However, the presence of new knowledge is not sufficient for
change. People generally are reluctant to change because they are comfortable
with what they are currently doing. So, to change, they must recognise the need
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 157
for change. People are more likely to recognise the need for change if they
understand change and how it works. Dont you agree?
SELF-CHECK 7.1
(c) Perturbations:
These are changes that are disruptive but teachers adjust to them within a
fairly short time. For example, the assistant principal changes the timetable
or schedule to allow for longer teaching time.
(d) Restructuring:
These are changes that lead to a modification of the whole school system.
For example, the introduction of an integrated curriculum requiring team
teaching or involving the local community in deciding what is to be taught.
(e) Value Orientation:
These are shifts in the fundamental value orientations of school personnel.
For example, if the new teachers who join the school place more emphasis
on personal growth of students than academic performance, then the value
orientations or fundamental philosophies of the school changes.
It should be realised that a particular curriculum change may not exactly fit
according to the five categories given. But, the categories are general
enough to help you plan change and arrange resources to bring about the
change. However, you should be aware that change is not synonymous
with improvement and you might decide that change should not be
undertaken.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
Let us examine in more detail why people resist change. By knowing why people
resist change, it may be possible to plan more effective strategies to overcome
resistance and improve receptivity to change. Persons charged with the task of
curriculum implementation must understand how people react to change and
how to encourage them to be receptive to change. The following are the main
reasons why people resist change (Harvey, 1990; Woldring, 1999; Lippitt, 1966):
(a) People resist because they do not understand They simply do not follow
what is being introduced. They do not understand where they are going.
They are not clear as to what is required of them.
Overcome:
The key is communication. You have to explain to them Why. You
have to answer the Why, What, When, How and Where questions.
Remember, the effectiveness of communication is not the message sent
but of the message received.
(b) People resist because of lack of ownership Individuals will not accept
change if they consider it coming from outside or imposed on them.
Unfortunately, most curriculum reform efforts are initiated from the
outside which may be at the national, state or district level.
Overcome:
You have to convince teachers that even though it comes from the outside,
their view and opinions have been considered at the planning and design
stages of curriculum development. Involve teachers in exploring the
relevance of the new curriculum and give them the freedom to explore the
new skills needed for utilising or implementing the curriculum. This will
get them to feel that they are an important part of the curriculum
implementation process.
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 161
(c) People resist if they do not have the competencies to cope with the changes
It is natural for persons to resist if they do not have the knowledge and
skills to cope with the changes. Nobody wants to be told that they are
incompetent. There is the likelihood that the implementation of the new
curriculum has been rushed or due to budgetary constraints, the training
period has been greatly reduced and teachers are not adequately equipped.
Overcome:
Adequate time and resources have to be set aside for the training of
teachers involved in implementing the new curriculum.
(d) People resist if there is a lack of incentives or benefits If teachers are
unconvinced that the new programme will make things better for students
(in terms of learning) or themselves (such as greater recognition, respect or
reward), they are likely to resist the suggested change.
Overcome:
Make sure that teachers who are actively involved in curriculum change are
rewarded. The reward need not necessarily be financial, but their efforts
need to be given due recognition.
(e) People resist if they do not have the time to engage with the change
Teachers find it difficult having to juggle between bringing about change
while handling their current responsibilities. Focusing their energy on
change activities may run the risk of neglecting their current
responsibilities.
Overcome:
Lighten their workload so they can participate in the change. Re-prioritise
their work. Do not expect people to have the energy to change when this
means failing on the tasks for which they are held responsible.
SELF-CHECK 7.3
The following are some limitations and obstacles found in the LCC
implementation: lack of communication between the provincial and local levels,
the lack of training, teachers' attitudes toward the LCC, lack of resources, and
lack of funding allocation.
First, in the process of curriculum decentralisation some decisions made at
the provincial level tended to not meet each district's needs and conditions.
Second, was the lack of teachers to teach the LCC. In the LCC implemented in
the provinces of Jambi, Lampung, Maluku Island, South Sulawesi and East
Java, most of the local content subjects were taught by teachers who did not
have any specific skills and experience, such as teaching specific traditional
culture and local languages.
Third, teachers' attitudes toward the LCC implementation. Teachers did not
respond to the innovation because they did not have enough background
knowledge or skills for its implementation. In fact, they did not have the
necessary support from the government and provincial levels to develop
their knowledge and skills.
While it is easy for the government to establish policies, conditions at the school
level are completely different. Most teachers tended to concentrate on the
national curriculum. Finally, there was a lack of funds to develop the LCC which
required regular meetings at the school/district level for LCC subject
development. This caused a lack of participation in LCC implementation.
Source: MinHo, Y., Clementina, A., & Erry, U. The reform of secondary education in
Indonesia during the 1990s: Improving relevance and quality through curriculum
decentralisation implementing the curriculum in Indonesia. Available at:
http://www.ginie.org/cstudies/indonesia/cs-asia-pacific.htm
ACTIVITY 7.2
7.6.1 Teachers
Without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation
process is the teacher. With their knowledge, experience and competencies,
teachers are central to any curriculum improvement effort. Regardless of which
philosophical belief the education system is based on, there is no denying that
teachers influence students' learning. Better teachers foster better learning.
Teachers are most knowledgeable about the practice of teaching and are
responsible for introducing the curriculum in the classroom.
Content: Teachers may find the curriculum introduces content with which
they are unfamiliar, which they have not taught for a while, or which is
familiar but presented in an unfamiliar way. For example, using a problem-
solving approach rather than a topical approach.
Factors Description
Adequacy of resources Adequacy of equipment, facilities and general resources
required for implementing a new curriculum.
Time Time available for preparing and delivering the
requirements of the new curriculum; e.g. teachers need
enough time to develop their own understanding of the
subject they are required to teach.
School ethos Overall school beliefs towards the new curriculum. Status
of the curriculum as viewed by staff, administrators and
community; e.g. school administration recognises the
importance of the subject in the overall school curriculum.
Professional support Support for teachers from both within the school and
outside; e.g. opportunities to receive ongoing curriculum
professional support.
Professional adequacy Teachers own ability and competence to teach the
curriculum; i.e. confidence in teaching.
Professional Knowledge and understanding which teachers possess of
knowledge the new curriculum; e.g. different ways of teaching to
foster student learning.
ACTIVITY 7.3
7.6.2 Students
There is a tendency among curriculum implementers to ignore the role of
students as agents of change. Increasingly, there is the realisation that even
primary school children can contribute to meaningful change. Students must be
willing to participate in the programme. If students do not see the relevance of
the programme there is the likelihood that they will not be motivated to
participate or learn. However, it is still not clear how students should be
involved in the curriculum implementation phase even though they are the main
recipients of the programme. Students may be so entrenched in their thinking
and behaviour that changes proposed in the curriculum may not be
enthusiastically received. For example, students may be used to being given
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 167
notes by their teachers and the new programme requires them to make their own
notes. Some students may not know how to make notes and have to be taught
how to go about it. Even getting students to participate in discussions may not be
well received if they have been accustomed to being passive recipients of
information.
strengths of their staff, being willing to take risks, being positive about the
planned change and to use this optimism to motivate others.
7.6.4 Parents
Besides teachers, students and school administrators; parents also play an
important role in the implementation process. For example, when parents see a
subject being taught in a way that is unfamiliar to them, they naturally have
questions about what is going on. When children bring homework from school
that parents feel unable to help with, they feel confused and lost. To be
successful, any new programme needs to be embraced by parents. One way of
reaching out to parents is to organise workshops for them focusing on the new
curriculum. The workshops should be designed to help parents better
understand theist content and philosophy. Parents need an opportunity to share
their concerns and voice their support in an open forum. These workshops
should be conducted by teachers so that they may explain what is really going on
in the classroom.
SELF-CHECK 7.4
For example:
A school with particular strengths in its ICT and language departments offers
Spanish as a second foreign language using ICT facilities for weekly video-
conference sessions with students in a partner school in Spain.
A school with substantial low-achieving students emphasises literacy across
the curriculum. Teachers plan into their schemes of work where and how
they will teach literacy objectives in their subject.
In an area of high-technology industries such as computing and
pharmaceuticals, the school gives priority to Mathematics and Science to help
its students to make the most of local job opportunities. Scientists from local
companies visit the school as part of the science and engineering
ambassadors scheme, and year 9 students undertake project work to achieve
creativity in science and technology (CREST) awards.
Source: Department for Education and Skills. Key stage 3 National Strategy: Designing
the Key Stage 3 curriculum. England: Author.
170 TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
ACTIVITY 7.4
These three approaches may be extreme, but there are many teachers who fall
into one of these categories. These teachers may follow the curriculum or follow
the plan in general terms. All three approaches may not specify the instructional
objectives or learning outcomes students are expected to accomplish. In most
cases, teachers adopt an eclectic approach, i.e. they combine one or more
methods.
Lesson plans are used in planning for instruction. A lesson plan is simply an
outline prepared in advance of teaching, so that time and materials will be used
efficiently (Peter, 1975. p.194). Ideally, different lessons require different lesson
plans and different students require different lesson plans. Figure 7.3 depicts a
generic outline for a lesson plan which consists of:
(a) Objectives;
(b) Pre-requisite knowledge;
(c) Learning experiences (teaching methods and learning activities);
(d) Instructional aids and resources;
(e) Assignments; and
(f) Evaluation tasks or techniques.
The teacher with less experience will have more details included in the lesson
plan. However, it is desirable for both experienced and inexperienced teachers to
prepare complete lesson plans to fully communicate their ideas. It is common
practice for experienced teachers to simplify or shorten lesson plans. As teachers
gain experience, less detail in planning is possible. Once the lesson plan has been
made, the teacher can begin to demonstrate his or her style and skills of teaching.
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 173
Topic: From one topic, two or more lessons plans may be developed.
Objectives:
(a) Cognitive
Mastery and understanding of the content (e.g. able to give three
characteristics, able to give reasons).
(b) Affective
The affective outcomes desired (e.g. express an opinion, take a position,
empathise with the issue discussed).
Pre-Requisite Knowledge:
List all skills and content knowledge needed prior to teaching this lesson.
Learning Experiences:
Set induction: how the lesson will begin (e.g. review previous lesson).
The teaching strategy used (e.g. inductive approach).
Questions posed (to increase understanding and thinking).
What students will be required to do (e.g. listen, manipulate data).
How students interact with the instructional aids.
Closure: ask students questions and summarise lesson.
Assignment:
Learning activity students are required to do after the lesson (e.g. refer to
newspaper article).
Evaluation Techniques:
How will student learning be assessed? (e.g. oral questioning).
What criteria or rubric will be used to evaluate the lesson?
http://www.aare.edu.au/00pap/key00212.htm
Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principles and
issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Chapter 10: Curriculum implementation.
Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and products.
piic Curriculum
Top
8 Evaluation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
INTRODUCTION
In Topic 7, we discussed the implementation of the
curriculum plan. We looked at why people resist
change, the role of teachers, students, administrators
and parents in ensuring the successful implementation
of change. In this topic, we will focus on determining
whether the curriculum plan implemented has
achieved its goals and objectives as planned. In other
words, the curriculum has to be evaluated to
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 179
determine whether all the effort in terms of finance and human resources has
been worthwhile. Various stakeholders want to know the extent to which the
curriculum has been successfully implemented. The information collected from
evaluating a curriculum forms the basis for making judgements about how
successfully the programme has achieved its intended outcomes and the worth
or value of the programme.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Read the newspaper report Dont Make Physical Education (PE) an
Examination Subject at the beginning of the chapter and answer the
following questions.
1. Do you think Physical Education should be made an examination
subject?
2. Do you agree with the writer's opinions on the state of sports in
schools?
Gay (1985) argues that the aim of curriculum evaluation is to identify its
weaknesses and strengths as well as problems encountered in
implementation; to improve the curriculum development process; to
determine the effectiveness of the curriculum and the returns on finance
allocated.
Oliva (1988) defined curriculum evaluation as the process of delineating,
obtaining, and providing useful information for judging decision alternatives.
The primary decision alternatives to consider based upon the evaluation
results are to maintain the curriculum as is; to modify the curriculum; or to
eliminate the curriculum.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
(c) Process Evaluation (Is it being done?) is the provision of periodic feedback
while the curriculum is being implemented.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
Input: Examine what resources are put into technology integration (Identify the
educational strategies most likely to achieve the desired result).
Has the right content for using technology been selected?
Have we used the right combination of media? (Internet, video-clips, etc).
ACTIVITY 8.2
You will notice that these questions place more emphasis on the process of
learning and the quality of experiences by those involved in the implementation
of the curriculum; namely, students, teachers and administrators. According to
the Connoisseurship Model, evaluators provide a description and interpretation
of the curriculum plan implemented:
(a) Description:
The evaluator records the actions, the features of the environment and
experiences of students, teachers and administrators. People who read the
evaluation report will be able to visualise what the place looks like and the
processes taking place. The aim here is to help the reader "see" the school or
classroom and get a feel of what the curriculum evaluator or critic is
attempting to understand and help others understand.
(b) Interpretation:
The evaluator explains the meaning of events reported by putting it in its
context. For example, why academically weak students were motivated to
ask questions; why reading comprehension skills improved; why
enthusiasm for doing science experiments increased and so forth.
One of the great benefits of Elliot W. Eisner's activities has been the way in which
he has both made the case for a concern with connoisseurship and criticism, and
mediated these concerns for educators and researchers. The importance of his
advocacy of these ideas cannot be underestimated - especially at a time when
rather narrow concerns with instrumental outcomes and an orientation to the
technical dominate. Together they offer educators a more helpful and
appropriate means to approach evaluation, for example:
Advocating moving beyond technocratic and behaviouristic modes of
thinking and having a concern for expressive outcomes.
Calling to attend to fundamentals. Eisner has consistently warned against
educational fads and fashion. He has criticised dominant paradigms and
invited educators and others to ask questions such as What is basic in
education?.
Arguing that schools should help children create meaning from experience,
and that this requires an education devoted to the senses, to meaning-making
and the imagination. Eisner argues for a curriculum that fosters multiple
literacies in students (especially by looking to non-verbal modes of learning
and expression) and a deepening of the artistry of teachers.
Over the time that Eisner has been writing, there have been significant shifts in
the context in which schools have to operate. While there have been other voices
calling for changes in the culture of schooling (notably Howard Gardner in this
arena), the impact of globalisation, growing centralisation in many schooling
systems, reaction against more process-oriented forms of pedagogy and a
growing instrumentalism education have served to make Eisner's message both
more pertinent to schools and more difficult to respond to.
190 TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION
8.5.2 Interviews
Interviews are usually one-on-one situations in which an individual asks
questions to which a second individual (which may be a teacher, principal,
student, parent) responds. The person asking the questions is called the
interviewer while the person giving answers to the questions is called the
interviewee. Interviews are used when you want to fully understand someone's
impressions or experiences, or learn more about their answers to questionnaires.
There are two general types of interviews depending on the extent to which the
responses required are unstructured or structured.
In an unstructured interview, the interviewer does not follow a rigid script and
there is a great deal of flexibility in the responses. For example; "Why do you
think the recommended textbook for the course is difficult for low ability
learners? The teacher responding to such a question will give a variety of
reasons. Some of the reasons given may be of a general nature while others may
be specific to certain sections of the textbook. This makes the task of keeping
track of responses more difficult. The open-endedness of the question will
require that the interviewer record all responses and make sense of it later. The
advantage of the unstructured interview is that it allows the evaluator to gather a
variety of information, especially in relation to the interviewee's knowledge,
beliefs or feelings toward a particular situation.
192 TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION
Regardless of which type of interview is used, evaluators should ensure that each
question is relevant for its intended purpose. In the end, the data must be
translated into a form that can be analysed and this has to be done carefully to
preserve accuracy and to maintain the sense of the data. The advantage of
interviews is that it can get a full range and depth of information; it develops a
relationship with teachers and students; and it is more flexible. However,
interviews may take up too much time and cost, and can be hard to analyse and
compare. Furthermore, an interviewer could be biased against a client's
responses.
8.5.3 Observations
Observations are about gathering accurate information about how a programme
is actually operating; in particular, its processes.
8.5.4 Documents
We look at documentation when we want an impression of how a programme is
operating without interrupting the programme itself.
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 193
The following table shows the advantages of each method as well as the
challenges involved:
influenced
can be expensive
Focus groups To explore a topic quickly and reliably responses can
in depth through get common be hard to
group discussion, impressions analyse
e.g., about reactions can be efficient way need good
to an experience or to get much range facilitator for
suggestion, and depth of safety and
understanding information in a closure
common short time
complaints, etc.; difficult to
useful in evaluation can convey key schedule 6-8
and marketing information about people together
programmes
Case studies To fully understand fully depicts usually quite
or depict client's client's experience time
experiences in a in programme consuming to
programme, and input, process and collect,
conduct a results organise and
comprehensive a powerful means to describe
examination portray programme represents depth
through cross to outsiders of information,
comparison of cases rather than
breadth
Method: Based on project workers' observations and written field notes made
during the implementation of the MALATI curriculum, the following findings
were obtained:
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 195
Findings:
(a) A number of teachers had not yet received the most basic communications
issued to schools regarding Curriculum 2005.
(b) Teachers had difficulty interpreting certain aspects of the official
curriculum document. Lack of clarity led to confusion.
(c) The curriculum document had content errors.
(d) Content knowledge of teachers was not adequate to handle some of the
topics in the curriculum such as statistics.
(e) Learners did not have the prior experience assumed in the curriculum; e.g.
in grade 9, the teaching of probability assumes that learner had done some
statistics in the earlier grades.
(f) Teachers are continuing to teach the topics they are used to and are
reluctant to use the MALATI materials.
(g) The curriculum suggested that group work be used in teaching probability
and data handling. Learners were not accustomed to group discussion and
listening to one another.
(h) The teaching of the topic took a longer time as teachers struggled to deal
with learners' everyday experiences in the teaching of probability.
Recommendations:
(a) Teachers need workshops on selected aspects of the content.
(b) Selected parts of the curriculum documents need to be rewritten to reduce
confusion.
(c) To convince teachers not to treat the teaching of probability and statistics as
"new content" but teach it for its mathematical value.
Source: Brodie, K., & Pournara, C. (2003). Towards a framework for developing and
researching groupwork in mathematics classrooms.
Available at http//www.hsrcpress.ac.za
ACTIVITY 8.3
The task of developing a strong pool "As they have little life experiences,
of technopreneurs in the country is they have to learn by experience and
important to ensure the sustainability doing, and also through mentoring by
of the information and more experienced entrepreneurs who
communication technology (ICT) serve as their business coaches and
sector and to create wealth for the models", said Tay.
local sector in the future.
Other skills and knowledge that can
According to Dr. Wilson Tay, Vice- be picked up include how to develop
President in-charge of Technopreneur a business plan and understanding of
Development, Industry Development, the commercial viability of the
Division of Multimedia Development business venture and how to grow
Corporation (MDC), "there is always the venture.
the question posed as to whether
technopreneurs are created by nature These, according to Tay, can be
or nurtured". taught through action learning and
experimental programmes, and also
The drive of entrepreneurship, through business coaching and
which is needed to create mentoring.
technopreneurs for the country, can
be taught at schools and universities Apart from developing a culture for
through engaging students with a learning entrepreneurship, a
passion for business, said Tay. conducive environment is also
important to create and nurture
Here various methods can be technopreneurs for the local ICT
introduced such as entrepreneurial or sector.
business projects for students to gain
experience and learn to create, start-
up, commercialise and manage their
enterprises.
INTRODUCTION
In Topics 2, 3 and 4, we discussed the
factors influencing curriculum. In
Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8, we examined the
curriculum development process. In this
topic we will focus on certain issues that
concern curriculum and future trends in
curriculum. There are different opinions
on the direction education should take,
and library shelves are filled with
documents and books describing
current and anticipated changes in
society and how education, and more
specifically curriculum should respond
accordingly. Despite differing opinions,
there is consensus on the broad trends
that are likely to have a major impact on curriculum.
ACTIVITY 9.1
ACTIVITY 9.2
1. How do you think the changing workplace will impact school
curriculum development and design?
2. List the kinds of knowledge and skills that will be required of
students to effectively participate in the democratic process and
counter the forces of the mass media?
Compensatory education was initiated in the 1960s and 1970s to provide extra
help to chronic underachievers and equalise educational resources and
opportunities across schools. Compensatory education was introduced based on
the assumption that many students, because of poverty and low academic
achievement, are disadvantaged and should be provided with extra help and
programmes to "compensate" for the disadvantages. Two common strategies
adopted were:
Of late, there has been a shift in thinking about compensatory education and its
strategies. Among the emerging strategies suggested and adopted to solve the
problem of academic under-achievement in schools are:
(a) Compensatory education programmes that have focused only on
improving basic skills should emphasise higher order thinking and
problem-solving skills.
(b) Less emphasis should be on compensating what poor children lack, and
greater emphasis on teaching-learning techniques that make use of
students strengths and experiences as stepping stones for further learning.
(c) Mainstreaming should be encouraged. Mainstreaming or inclusion is an
educational method that includes many different kinds of learners
(including students with learning disabilities) in the same classroom,
instead of separating them according to their learning abilities. In the
mainstreamed classroom, all students, regardless of ability levels learn
together in the same classroom. The purpose of mainstreaming is to give
every student a typical classroom experience. Teachers need to be trained to
use teaching methods that provide different things for different students,
making sure there is something for everyone. Students may be divided into
groups and provided with different learning situations. Mainstreamed
classrooms have specialised equipment and learning materials at hand. For
example, there might be a variety of books for different reading levels.
(d) Early Prevention targeted at young children is advocated to reduce the
inequalities of academic performance through the grades. Preschool and
kindergartens have to be been made more accessible to children from poor
socioeconomic backgrounds. Preschool and kindergartens should aim to
develop language skills and social competencies of disadvantaged children
to help them enter school at the same level as their more advantaged peers.
For example, in the United States the Head Start Project started in 1965
made available preschool and kindergarten opportunities to millions of
young children to prepare them to enter the main school system.
TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS 207
SELF-CHECK 9.1
However, Kohn (1997) notes that character education in schools have tended to
be an exercise in indoctrinating students in the ways of right behaviour. The
curriculum tends to emphasise drilling students on desired behaviours rather
than engaging them in deep, critical reflection on what it means to be a moral
individual or to act morally.
Problem solving, decision making and conflict resolution are important parts of
developing moral character. Through role playing and discussions, students can
see that their decisions affect other people and other things. It is only through
such teaching-learning activities that students will understand and internalise
the desired values and habits that they will require for living and maintaining
their well-being.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
may indicate that they know that a story has an introduction, body and
conclusion. However, we cannot be sure that students can write a story with
these criteria. Performance assessment is vital to give the link between school and
the real-world and to give students the confidence to bridge the gap. From the
students point of view, there is no guessing in performance assessment. Teacher
and students work together and state what needs to be improved. The role of the
teacher is more of a coach.
While there are many benefits of performance assessment, some teachers are
hesitant to implement it in the classrooms. One reason being, that teachers are
not confident enough to adopt this assessment approach. The second reason is
that earlier failures with the approach have prompted some teachers to reject the
approach.
SELF-CHECK 9.3
1. What is performance assessment?
2. What is the rationale for encouraging the widespread use of
performance assessment in the classroom?
3. Briefly describe how performance assessment can be
implemented in the classroom.
TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS 211
ACTIVITY 9.3
The science curriculum has remained largely unchanged for decades. Often, the
natural curiosity of children, eager to understand their surroundings is often
diminished by instruction that discourages inquiry and discovery. Science
instruction has become increasingly textbook-centred. Even though laboratory
experiences are included, students are rarely encouraged to use scientific
methods to solve problems relevant to their perception of the world.
A new vision of science learning is needed; one that calls for instructional
strategies far different from most traditional approaches. The new paradigm for
science learning should emphasise engagement and meaning in ways that are
not consistent with past practices. The constructivist teaching and learning
models calls for learning that is:
Hands-on: students are actually allowed to perform science experiments as
they construct meaning and acquire understanding.
Minds-on: activities focus on core concepts, allowing students to develop
thinking processes and encouraging them to question and seek answers
that enhance their knowledge.
Authentic: students are presented with problem-solving activities that
incorporate authentic, real-life issues in a format that encourages
collaborative effort, dialogue with informed expert sources, and
generalizations to broader ideas and application.
This approach to teaching and learning will enable students to participate fully
in a learning community where the teacher is not the only source of knowledge
and Information Technology (Internet) becomes a tool, supporting the learning
process as students seek new knowledge and understanding. Accordingly,
teachers will use a variety of alternative assessment (eg. performance
assessment, portfolio assessment) tools to allow students to demonstrate their
understanding of science by solving authentic, real-life problems.
1. What are the critical issues with regards to the science curriculum?
2. Are these issues similar to the science curriculum in your school
system?
212 TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS
These are mental models that influence almost everything that is done in schools
today. For instance, knowledge is divided into discreet topics ranging from the
Melaka Sultanate to Newton's laws of motion. Each topic is taught at appropriate
time slots to learners sitting in rows listening passively, monitored and
motivated by grades. While this approach is not necessarily wrong, research in
cognitive science reveals that this approach is not compatible with how humans
learn best. Retooling schools to meet the challenges of the knowledge economy
does not mean replacing existing mental models with new ones but rather to
recognise the power of mental models in limiting an educator from thinking
differently about his or her educational practice. More important is for educators
to suspend their mental models long enough to seek new knowledge and to
reconsider some of their beliefs about learning, thinking and the role of
technology.
TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS 213
Source: Bransford, J. D. Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (1999). How people learn:
Brain, mind, experience and school. Washington. DC: National Academy Press
In other words, learning is dynamic and the role of educators is to facilitate the
making of dynamic knowledge. Learners need to be introduced to a world that is
beset with uncertainty, multiple answers and infinite possibilities involving
elements of trial and error because that is reality. Emanating from these revised
beliefs about learning, thinking and the role of technology, it is argued that
retooling schools be based on four guiding principles, namely; schools for all,
personalised schools with thinking and understanding being the main goal, and
students immersed in a technology-based learning environment (see Figure 9.3).
Figure 9.3: Retooling Malaysian schools based on revised mental models about learning,
thinking and technology
High scorers are given extensive media coverage but there is no mention as to the
number of adolescents deficient in language, quantitative and scientific literacy
skills. There is less concern with "why Ahmad can't read" and a decade later
"why Ahmad still can't read". One can only imagine how Ahmad feels being in a
class of low achievers throughout his schooling life and told repeatedly he is not
good enough. Theoretically Ahmad should be taught by the best teachers in the
system but unfortunately the Matthew effect prevails which loosely interpreted,
states that "those who need it don't get it and those who don't need it get it". It is
common knowledge that learners do not do as well in environments where
adults are continually critical, constantly accentuating the negative, and not
accepting them for who they are. On the contrary, students learn and thrive in a
nurturing environment and schools are obliged to foster a warm and caring
environment in which children will bloom. It is from this realisation that the
impetus comes to create schools that work for all children.
Malaysian society is rapidly changing and so too, must the educational beliefs
that underlie the goals of schooling. For example, it is time that tribute is given to
schools that record the lowest number of students who are unable to read and
write. Schools can ill-afford to educate just some of its students and ignore the
rest because of examination priorities. No child left behind (Education Act,
2001) should be the slogan for all schools in Malaysia to ensure that schools really
work for all students, not just for some. "When it comes to the education of our
children, failure is not an option" (Bush, 2001). Schools should set high
expectations for all students as students have a natural inclination to rise to the
level of expectation held of them (Edmonds, 1986). Expectations communicated
TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS 215
These beliefs have to be revised and educators need to believe in the incredible
potential to learn that is present in all children and that it can be realised in all
children in any school and in any classroom, if the conditions are right. From the
onset students from disadvantaged backgrounds who are at-risk should be
identified and given all the cognitive coaching to succeed and not left behind.
Cognitive strategy instruction (CSI) should be given to all students, especially
academically weak students, where 'learning how to learn' is embedded in all
instructional practices (Phillips, 1993). In addition, schools for all must also be
grounded in a value system of cooperation and relationships, in contrast to the
ethic of competition and individualism. Reaching goals is important, but how
they are reached and with who is just as important. The value system of
cooperation and relationship does not discard competition, but puts it in the
context of cooperation and how people get along.
In our increasingly diverse world, creating schools for all children is the right
thing to do while acknowledging it is not easy. It means a major rethinking of the
very core values upon which schools are built. It means focusing on both equity
and excellence in the same classroom in the same school for all children.
ACTIVITY 9.4
1. Do you agree with the Schools for all concept? Why?
2. To what extent is the Matthew effect common in your school?
3. When it comes to the education of our children, failure is not an
option. Explain.
216 TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS
Tishman, Perkins and Jay (1995) identified these four ways of bringing the
culture of thinking to the classroom:
First is to have models or people who demonstrate good thinking
practices and exhibit behaviours of good thinking, such as checking the
credibility of sources or suspending judgement until all information is
available or tolerating ambiguity.
Second is to develop thinking through explanation, whereby teachers
explicitly explain why a particular thinking skill needs to be used, when
it is to be used and how the skill is to be used.
Third is through interaction with other students where opportunities
are provided to work in groups when solving a problem,
brainstorming, or exchanging and accepting ideas.
218 TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS
SELF-CHECK 9.4
1. What is thinking?
2. Why has thinking not been emphasised in schools?
3. How does one create a culture of thinking?
4. What is the role of teachers in developing thinking among
students?
decline of the extended family and both parents having to work full time,
students turn to teachers for advice and as role models, which may be more
readily available in personalised schools.
Technology integration into teaching and learning has not been widespread
because of insufficient equipment and slow internet connection, inadequate
training of teachers and more importantly, a lack of understanding on how to use
the new technologies. As more schools are wired with the relevant hardware and
software, the technology-based learning environment provides a convenient
framework with a theoretical basis for the realisation of technology-based
schools.
SELF-CHECK 9.5
Four main challenges face the education system: the information age, the
changing workplace, the mass media and participation in the democratic
process.
The differentiated curriculum aims to provide appropriate learning
opportunities for gifted and talented students. It is a philosophy of teaching
in which teachers modify lessons to meet the needs, interest and abilities of
gifted and talented students.
222 TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS
2. Explain how the Razak Report and Rahman Talib Report laid the
foundation for Malaysia's education system;
3. List the features of Malaysias philosophy of education; and
INTRODUCTION
Malaysia with a population of over 26 million people, has about 5 million
students in primary and secondary schools. The Ministry of Education (MOE) is
responsible for the development of primary and secondary education in the
country. Of late, the administration and development of tertiary education has
been taken over by the Ministry of Higher Education. Primary education is for a
period of six years; aimed at providing a foundation in reading, writing and
arithmetic (3R's). At the end of the six years, students sit for the Primary School
Assessment Test (UPSR). All students continue on to secondary education which
is divided into three main levels: lower secondary level, upper secondary level
and pre-university level.
Students will then proceed for two more years (or less) of Form 6, Matriculation
or Foundation Studies before gaining entry into public tertiary institutions.
Others might continue with pre-university studies or foundation courses before
entering private tertiary institutions. There are also those who prefer to pursue
diploma or certificate courses or undergo advance skills training in selected
training centres or join teacher training colleges. Some will join the work force or
may be trained on the job.
In 1896 in Perak, the 88 Malay schools succeeded in producing 118 clerks and
orderlies, 2070 padi farmers, 2177 small traders and labourers, and 1000
other types of workers.
Education Report for 1896 in Perak Annual Report
The Indians were also given six years of elementary education, and expected to
provide labour for the rubber plantations and railways. This was a deliberate
policy to deny them both economic and geographical mobility. The Chinese, on
the other hand, were allowed to establish their own schools and use curricula,
teachers and textbooks from China, as the British colonial government did not
consider it their obligation to provide education to a transient or temporary
population.
schools in the main towns of Perak. Most of the students in these schools were
Chinese and Indians with only about 15% Malays. Thus, the education system
divided the population of Malaysia for a hundred years or so.
impression that most Chinese were prepared to accept Malay and English as
media of instruction, and at the same time could continue learning their mother
tongue to keep their cultural identity. This system would make Chinese medium
students trilingual while others would be bilingual. The Fenn-Wu Report seemed
to make the same claim for the Indians. Mother tongues of the Indian
communities (Tamil, Telugu and Punjabi) were to be retained in Indian schools.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
The policy to establish Malay medium secondary schools was to bring together
children of all ethnic groups under one national education system, in which
Malay was to be the medium of instruction. That would orientate all schools to
have a common Malaysian outlook (Razak Report, 1956). However, the report
also mentioned that progress towards this goal cannot be rushed (Razak
Report, 1956: para 12).
The Rahman Talib Report of 1960 reiterated the need for Malay and English to be
compulsory subjects in the curriculum of all schools. The guiding feature was
national unity through making the Malay language the National Language.
Realising that conversion to a Malay medium of instruction would be extremely
difficult without appropriate textbooks, the report also recommended that the
Ministry of Education appoint qualified teachers to translate books into Malay.
We recommend that education at secondary level paid for from public funds
shall be conducted mainly in the medium of one of the two official languages
(Malay and English) with the intention of ultimately using the national
language as the main medium of instruction, except that other languages and
literatures may be taught and learnt in their own media.... It is not possible,
within the framework of a policy which is truly national, to satisfy
completely all the individual demands of each cultural and language group
in the country. We believe that the present system of providing at public
expense primary education in each of the four main languages goes as far as
is reasonably possible for a national Malayan system to go in satisfying the
needs of our various peoples.
(Rahman Talib Report, 1960, pp. 3-4)
SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. What are the recommendations of the Razak Report?
2. What are the recommendations of the Rahman Talib Report?
230 TOPIC 10 CURRICULUM IN MALAYSIA
SELF-CHECK 10.3
Teachers and teacher trainers are brought in to discuss the design of the
curriculum and the most effective delivery of the curriculum. Discussion focuses
on selection of content, the breaking up of content for each year of schooling and
suggested learning activities and teaching methods. This job is done by the CDC
together with its committee of subject matter specialists, educationists, teachers
and teacher trainers. The curriculum specifications agreed upon form the basis
234 TOPIC 10 CURRICULUM IN MALAYSIA
for textbooks and other supporting materials. Also produced are general teacher
guides and guides for specific topics.
The curriculum is than piloted in selected schools. At this stage, the education
departments of the states involved are brought in. Based on the findings of the
piloted schools or limited implementation, the decision is made to proceed to
full implementation.
At the state level the State Curriculum Committee headed by the State Director of
Education monitors, assesses and facilitates implementation of the curriculum by
principals and headmasters (see Figure 10.2). The state committee organises
meetings with, and workshops for principals, headmasters, district education
officers and teachers. It also assists in the coordination of resources while acting
as an intermediary between Division/District Curriculum Committees and the
MOE.
At the district level, the planning and implementation activities are carried out
by the District Curriculum Committee. It provides guidance and assistance in
implementing the curriculum at the school and classroom level.
SELF-CHECK 10.4
Describe the curriculum development and implementation process in
Malaysia.
British colonial education was aimed at keeping the people divided with a
low level of education.
The Razak Report and the Rahman Talib Report laid the foundation for the
Malaysian education system.
A major curriculum reform was the introduction of the integrated primary
and secondary school curriculum.
Curriculum development is under the purview of the Ministry of Education
and its agencies; in particular the Curriculum Development Centre.
Appendix
WHAT IS A THINKING CURRICULUM?
T.F. Fennimore and M.B. Tinzmann
NCREL, Oak Brook, 1990
Processes may be realised differently in different content areas. They answer the
question, "What sort of thinking do historians (or mathematicians, scientists, etc.)
engage in as they practice their craft?" For example, scientists hypothesize about
the nature of the natural world in such a way that they can test their hypotheses.
Historians may also hypothesize, but cannot test their hypotheses as do
scientists; rather, they depend on primary and secondary source materials to
"test" their ideas. Content is inherent in these examples--the processes that
scientists and historians use clearly depend on the content with which they are
dealing. Students, then, learn content and construct meaning as they employ
generic and content-specific strategies. They acquire content as they plan,
evaluate, solve problems, make decisions, construct or critique arguments,
compose essays, and so on. In short, students acquire knowledge in carrying out
tasks requiring higher-order thinking-- they practice a craft, so to speak, as they
acquire knowledge.
238 APPENDIX
Rather than focusing on simple and discrete skills, students should engage in
complex and holistic thinking. This type of thinking reflects what individuals
performing tasks outside of school do. As Lauren Resnick has observed, out-of-
school thinking about complex~ tasks is: (1) situated in meaningful processes of
making decisions, solving problems, evaluating situations, and so on, (2) shared
among individuals also involved in carrying out the task, (3) aided by the use of
APPENDIX 239
tools, such as reference books, calculators, and other technology, and (4)
connected to real-world objects, events, and situations. In addition, out-of-school
thinking is often interdisciplinary, cutting across many "school subjects.
Thus, a thinking curriculum is not chopped up into isolated skills and facts;
rather, it involves the holistic performance of meaningful, complex tasks in
increasingly challenging environments. A thinking curriculum promotes a sense
of efficacy and confidence in students. Materials and content are structured so
that students gradually regulate their own learning and so that learning is always
meaningful and makes sense. These goals---self-regulation and meaningful
learning---are promoted in a variety of ways in thinking curricula For example, a
thinking curriculum encourages students to clarify their purposes in performing
a task, to assess what they already know, and to predict what is to be learned. It
helps them highlight what is most important and thereby fosters feelings of
control over subject matter. It explores students' attitudes about themselves as
learners and about learning in the content areas. It provides opportunities for
students to assess difficulties they have in learning and consider strategies they
could use to overcome learning difficulties. It stresses continuing to work in the
face of ambiguity, solving problems despite unexpected difficulties, and looking
at problems as challenges to learn more and better. By being engaged in
curriculum in this manner, students come to see themselves as successful,
capable learners.
learning. The content and processes learned then build on students' family,
community, and cultural experiences. The knowledge students acquire is
meaningful and applied. In addition, students are motivated to learn when
curriculum considers their experiences and the issues and problems with which
they are concerned as well as their patterns of processing knowledge. The
content in a thinking curriculum is relevant to important issues and tasks in the
lives of students.
When students can relate school learning to important real-life issues, they are
more likely to seek and value the perspectives of others---peers, teachers, parents,
community members, and experts. In so doing, they develop interpersonal
competencies for creating and participating in dialogue with individuals who
have different perspectives and backgrounds. Thus, they not only connect
content to their own backgrounds, but they also learn how different people
interpret and organize content based on their different perspectives. As a result, a
thinking curriculum builds multicultural understanding while encouraging the
philosophical understanding of different kinds of knowledge and the limitations
inherent in attending to only one perspective on a subject. Students will thus be
better prepared to participate in an increasingly global society. Understanding
and valuing multicultural perspectives emerges from dialogue in a classroom
that is a community of open and sustained inquiry.
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